CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. John D. Anderson, Jr. joined the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory in 1966 as Chief of the Hypersonic Group. In 1973, he became Chainnan of the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Maryland, and since 1980 has been a professor of Aerospace Engineering at Maryland. Dr. Anderson works with the Air and Space Museum one day each week as their Special Assistant for Aerodynamics. In addition, in 1993 he was made a full faculty member of the Committee for the History and Philosophy of Science, and in 1995 an affiliate faculty member of the Department of History at the University of Maryland. Dr. Anderson has published seven books and over 120 technical papers. Dr. Anderson is a Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. From 1988 to 1992, he served as Vice President of the AIAA for Education, and from 1997 to the present as the AIAA Vice President for Publications. In 1989, he was given the John Leland Atwood Award jointly by the AIAA and the ASEE "for the lasting influence of his recent contributions to aerospace engineering education." In 1995, he was given the AIAA Pendray Award for aerospace literature. Roger E. Biistein teaches courses in the history of technology, recent America, and aerospace history at the University of Houston-Clear Lake, a suburban campus for juniors, seniors, and graduate students. He is the author of several books on aviation and space flight, including The American Aerospace Industry: From Workshop to Global Enterprise (1996). He served as Lindbergh Professor of Aerospace History at the Smithsonian (1992-93) and was a visiting professor at the Air War College, U.S. Air Force (1995-96). David Bloor is the Director of the Science Studies Unit, Edinburgh. His main research interest is in the sociology of scientific knowledge and its associated philosophical and methodological problems. He is the author of Knowledge and Social Imagery (second edition 1991); Wittgenstein: A Social Theory ofKnowledge (1983); and Wittgenstein: Rules and Institutions (1997). With Barry Barnes and John Henry he has recently published a text book, Scientific Knowledge: A Sociological Analysis (1996). Tom D. Crouch is a chainnan of the Aeronautics Division, National Air and Space Museum. A Smithsonian employee since 1974, he has served both the National Air and Space Museum and the National Museum of American History in a variety of curatorial and management posts. Crouch holds a Ph.D. in history from the Ohio

361 362 CONTRIBUTORS

State University (1976). He is the author or editor ofa number of books and many articles for both popular and scholarly journals. Crouch is the recipient of a number of awards, including: The History Manuscript Prize of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (1977) for the manuscript of A Dream of Wings: Americans and the Airplane, 1875-1905 (New York: w.w. Norton, 1981); Best Book of the Year by the Aviation Space Writers Association for The Eagle Aloft: Two Centuries of the Balloon in America (Washington, D.C.: The Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985); and the Christopher Award (1989) "for artistic achievement expressive of the highest values of the human spirit," for The Bishop's Boys: A Life of Wilbur and Orville Wright (New York: w.w. Norton, Inc., 1989). Deborah G. Douglas is the Historian-in-Residence at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Langley Research Center and adjunct assistant professor of history at Old Dominion University. For NASA she is researching and writing a book on the federal contributions to the development of aeronautical engineering. She is also finishing the manuscript for a book on the early history of airports in the United States (through 1940) for the Johns Hopkins University Press. Her publications include u.s. Women in Aviation: 1940-1985 (1990). Robert G. Ferguson is a historian of technology studying the development of American manufacture. He received his doctorate from the Program in the History of Science & Technology at the University of Minnesota, and his BA from U.C. Berkeley. His dissertation examined the cooperative activities of aircraft manufacturers during World War II, notably the Aircraft War Production Council. He is currently researching the transition from batch to mass production from 1935 to 1945 in American aircraft manufacture. He is an assistant professor at the Hong Kong University of Science & Technology. Peter Galison is Mallinckrodt Professor of the History of Science and of Physics at Harvard University. Author of How Experiments End (Chicago, 1987) and Image and Logic: A Material Culture ofMicrophysics (Chicago, 1997), his principal work explores the boundary between physics and technology. He has co-edited Big Science (Stanford, 1992); The Disunity of Science (Stanford, 1996); Picturing Science, Producing Art (Routledge, 1998); and The Architecture of Science (MIT, 1999). Galison holds a commercial pilot's license with instrument rating. He is a MacArthur Fellow (1997-2002). Takehiko Hashimoto is Associate Professor of Science and Technology Studies at the University of Tokyo. After his college and graduate education at the University of Tokyo, he finished his Ph.D. thesis on the early history of aeronautical engineering at Johns Hopkins University in 1991. He has published articles on various aspects of the science-technology relationship, including "Graphical Calculation and Early Aeronautical Engineers," Historia Scientiarum 3(1994), pp. 159-83. Peter L. Jakab is a curator in the Department of Aeronautics, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. He has been with the museum since 1983. CONTRIBUTORS 363

He holds aBA, MA and Ph.D. in American History from Rutgers University, with specialization in the history of technology and American social and cultural history. Prior to NASM, he had stays at the Edison National Historic Site, the New Jersey Historical Commission, and the Thomas A. Edison Papers Project. He has curated numerous exhibitions and lectured frequently on the history of aerospace engineering, the Wright brothers, early aviation, and the history of invention. His publications include Visions of a Flying Machine: the Wright Brothers and The Process ofInvention, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990. David A. Mindell is currently Dibner Assistant Professor of the History of Engineering and Manufacturing in the Program in Science, Technology, and Society at MIT. He has a Ph.D. in the History of Technology from MIT. His research interests include technology policy (historical and current), the history of automation in the military, the history of electronics and computing, cultural studies of technology, and deep-ocean archaeology. He is just completing a book on the USS MONITOR and the history of American technology. He is a visiting investigator in the Deep Submergence Laboratory of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. There he conducts engineering research in distributed control systems for remotely-operated and autonomous underwater vehicles for exploring the deepest parts of the ocean, and has participated in more than a dozen oceanographic cruises. He developed the high-precision sonar navigation system for control of undersea robots in very deep water, called EXACT, which is used to make the world's most accurate three-dimensional maps of the ocean floor. Alex Roland is Professor of History at Duke University, where he teaches military history and the history of technology. From 1973 to 1981 he was a historian with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, where he wrote Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915-1958 (1985). He is a former president of the Society for the History of Technology. Eric Schatzberg is Assistant Professor in the Department of the History of Science at University of Wisconsin-Madison. His book on the shift from wood to metal airplane structures, Wings of Wood, Wings of Metal, was published by Princeton University Press in late 1998. George E. Smith is both a philosopher and an engineer. As a philosopher of science at Tufts University, his focus on evidence in science and applied fields has led him into extensive work on Newton's Principia and its historical impact. As an engineer he has specialized on analytic methods for jet engine design at General Electric (Evendale) in the late 1950's and Pratt and Whitney Aircraft in the early 1960's, and, since joining Northern Research and Engineering corporation in 1965, on vibration• related fatigue problems in turbo machinery. Frederick Suppe is Professor and Chair of History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Maryland. His books include The Structure ofScientific Theories, The Semantic Conception of Theories, and the forthcoming Facts, Theories, and 364 CONTRIBUTORS

Scientific Observation. He is in the latter stages of completing Venus Alive! Modeling Scientific Knowledge, a historico-philosophical study of modeling in Venus planetary science. He was involved in the computerization of flight-test instrumentation and data analysis at General Electric Flight Test, is a commercial pilot, and has been known to indulge in unusual attitudes. Walter G. Vincenti is professor emeritus of aeronautical engineering at Stanford University, past chair of Stanford's Program in Science, Technology, and Society, and a member of the National Academy of Engineering. As a research worker and teacher for fifty-five years, he has contributed usefully to the development of high• speed aerodynamics. INDEX

A-20,268 Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company, 327 A-26,268 Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce, 309 ACA (Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) aeronautical engineering: American Society of (Britain), 224, 225, 227, 294, 360 Aeronautical Engineers, 327; American Academy of Model Aeronautics, 210 university programs established, 212-13, ACAP (Aviation Consumer Action Project), 294,328; Eiffel's contributions to, 250; 41n.27 European textbooks in, 221n.lO; Jones's acceptance testing, 67 streamlining paper as, 252; in accident reports: double picture in, 40; manufacturing, 261,261; at McCook Field, instabilities in, 4, 350-52; interests in, 351; 46, 59-60; MIT course in, 53, 208, 209, 294, localization versus diffusion in, 4, 12,27, 328; mobility of engineers, 339-40; 30,31,34-35,37-38; necessary and University of Michigan course in, 212-13 sufficient causes conflicting in, 13; probable Aeronautical Institute at St. Cyr (France), 226, cause section of, 35-36; protocol versus 229,230,231,293 judgment in, 4, 15,35,39; technological Aeronautical Research Committee (ARC) versus human factors in, 4, 38-39 (Britain), 227, 228, 229-30 accidents, 3-43; constraints on investigation of, Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 243 xiii; flight as more dangerous than most Aeronautic Safety Code, 307 technologies, xi; instability as cause of, afterbuming turbofans, 107 227-28. See also accident reports agency instability, 13 Ackeret, Jacob, 159, 161 , 23 Adel Precision Products Corporation, 275, 276 Airbus, 37, 324 Ader, Clement, 287 Air Commerce Act of 1926,307,317,324, Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (ACA) 320n.31, 328 (Britain), 224, 225, 227, 294, 360 Air Corps Act of 1926, 328 aerial photography, McCook Field research on, Aircraft Engineering (periodical), 284n.37 57,58 Aircraft Manufacturers' Association, 326, 327 Aero Club of America, 290 Aircraft Production (periodical), 284n.37 Aero Digest (periodical), 265, 315 Aircraft Production Board, 48, 49 aerodynamics: Aircraft War Production Council Aircraft War Production Council. See National member research projects, 277; applied Aircraft War Production Council aerodynamics, 243-44, 251; as applied Aircraft War Production Council East Coast, science, 241; in aviation development, 334; 283n.33 computers changing research in, 177-78, AiResearch Manufacturing Company, 275, 276. 255-56; as engineering or science, 241-57; 336-37 as engineering science, 241; science and Air Florida Flight 90, 4-21; Aviation Consumer engineering in nineteenth-century, 242-44; Action Project on, 41 n.27; cause of crash of, steps in evolution of, 241-42; of wings at 9; Cockpit Resources Management analysis supersonic speeds, 157-79 of, 19, 21; cockpit voice recording from, aerodynamic testing: at McCook Field, 53, 54; at 4-7; crash of, 7; faulty de-icing of, 12; National Advisory Committee for flightpath of, 8; survivors of, 7; things versus Aeronautics, 54 persons in responsibility for crash of, 38-39 Aerodynamic Theory: A General Review of airfoils: induced drag, 231, 251; Lilienthal's Progress (Durand), 221 n.l 0 research on, 243, 245; Munk's thin airfoil aeroelastic deformation, 167 theory, 251; NACA 65-series, 121, 122, 123;

365 366 INDEX NACAresearch on, 210; Phillips's research 306, 319n.25; Model Airways program, 304, on, 243; standardized tables for, 208; for 307, 319n.30; National Airport Survey, 317; supersonic flight, 157--61, 158, 160, 164, New York City's LaGuardia Airport, 175; Theodorsen's research on, 211. See also 314-16; in the 1920s, 303; runways, 306, wings 319n.27; site selection, 311; stage manufacturing: Aircraft Manufacturers' construction for, 308; standardization of, Association, 326, 327; the airframe 301,302,304,307-9,320nn.32,33; revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337; automation takeoff-and-Ianding function of, 312-13; defied by, 340; becoming more and less transfer function of, 312 competitive, 340-41; corporate environment Airports (periodical), 309, 310 of, 339; and engineering exchange, 259-85; airspeed: airspeed indicators, 57,91; wind tunnel job shop production methods, 263; mass gauging of, 294 production, 263; mergers in, 329; patents in "Air Terminal Engineering" (Black), 305 development of, 335-41; tooling, 266, 277, air traffic control system, 316-17 329. See also metal airplanes; wooden "Airways and Landing Fields" (U.S. Air airplanes Service), 304 airframe revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337 Aitken, Hugh G. J., 225, 236n.6 airframe testing, 81-96; established power plant Albatross, 195 for, 68--69; flight testing, 90-95; in wind Alexander, Nicholas, 214 tunnels, 81-90 Aloha Airlines 737, 31, 41n.44 Air Law Institute (Northwestern University), 212 , 57,91 Air Law Institute of Konigsberg (Germany), 212 altitude chambers, 71 Airline Pilots Association, 32, 35, 42n.58 aluminum: Canada as second-largest producer of, airliners: Airbus, 37, 324; the airframe 196; duraluminum, 55; Germany becoming revolution, xiv, 328, 334, 337; Albatross, largest producer of, 188, 20In.23; Guerin 195; American emphasis on, 334; Boeing process for forming, 259, 263, 265, 335; 245,328; Boeing 707, 118, 140, 144, 145, McCook Field research on, 55; for metal 334; Boeing 727,146; Boeing 777, 107; aircraft, 185; stamping problems with, 263; Caravelle, 119, 143; changes since World World War II shortages of, 188, 191, 196 War II, 147; Comet, 119; Convair 880, 118, Amended Cross License Agreement, 323 143; Convair 990, 143; DC-2, 328; DC-3, American Aeronautical Society, 327 xiv, 251, 253, 302,328; DC-8, 118, 140, American Airport Design (Lehigh Portland 145,334; Fokker tri-motors, 212; United Cement Company), 321n.50 States dominating market, 324; Vickers American Institute of Aeronautics and VC-I0, 120. See also Boeing 737; Astronautics, 213, 284n.36 McDonnell Douglas DC-l 0-1 0 American Society of Aeronautical Engineers, 327 air mail, 209, 301, 319n.25, 328 Ames Aeronautical Laboratory: engineering Air Mail Act of 1925, 328 culture at, xiii, 177; supersonic wind tunnel, "Airport Design and Construction" (Davison), 161, 163--66; wing aerodynamics research 311 at, 157-79 Airport Ground School, 276 analog data, 69 Airport Rating program, 307-8, 320n.31 Anderson, John D., x, xiv, 358 airports, 301-22; airplanes' relationship to, 302, angle of attack, 166 306-7; Airport Rating program, 307-8, AN-I-21 specification, 270 320n.3l; architects in design of, 301, 302, Annex 13 to Convention on Civil Aviation, 36 309-11,312-13,357-58; Army plans for Anson training plane, 191, 195, 197, 204n.58 national airway system, 303-5; Black on Antheil, George, 216 design of, 303, 304-5, 318n.l7; bridges Arbitrary Blade Contour Program, 131 compared with, 314; city plarmers in design ARC (Aeronautical Research Committee) of, 301, 302, 309, 313-14; in commercial air (Britain), 227, 228, 229-30 travel development, xiv, 301, 309-10; architects, in airport design, 30 I, 302, 309-11, concrete for surfaces, 306, 319n.27; design 312-13,357-58 competitions for, 310-11, 321n.50; Detroit's armaments: Aircraft War Production Council Ford Airport, 309-10; engineers in design member research projects, 277; McCook of, 301, 302, 305-7, 309, 311, 312-13, 315, Field research on, 59 322n.53, 357-58; illumination systems, 57, Armor Company, 292 INDEX 367 Armstrong Siddeley, 218 B-58 bomber, 68, 80, 81, 118 Arnold, H. H. "Hap": on BDV interchangeability bag-molding techniques, 186 problems, 269, 270; Curtiss-Wright C-76 Bairstow, Leonard, 225; aerodynamics canceled by, 192; on Gloster E28/39 experiments at National Physical Laboratory, turbojet, 218; on prewar aircraft production, 223, 224, 235; at Imperial College of 202n.39; wooden airplanes supported by, Science and Technology, 227, 235; as 186, 193-94 middleman between scientists and engineers, Ashmead, Gordon, 263 225,236; Pasteur's power compared to that Associate Air Research Committee (Canada), 229 of, 228; on Prandtl correction, 233, 234, 236, associationalism, 326 356-57; on scale effect, 226, 228, 235, Aston, Francis, 225 237n.ll; stability and control as emphasis AT-6 trainer, 191, 194 of, 227-28; wind tunnel research defended AT-13 trainer, 192 by, xii, 223, 235, 356-57 ATR-n, 36-37, 42n.65 Baker, Donald, 313 Australia, 37 Bakhmeteff, Boris Alexander, 214 Austro-Hungary, 297-99 Bane, Thurman, 52,62 Auteil (France), 231, 251 Barling, Walter, 59 autogiros, New York University research on, 213 Barnes, Bill, 96 automatic rate-of-pressure change controls, basic (fundamental) research: at McCook Field, 336-37 62; NACA supporting, 328-29 automation, 340 Basquin, H. 0., 187 auxiliary hypotheses, 98, 350 Bauchman, Kevin, 24 aviation. See flight BDV Committee, 266 Aviation (periodical), 213 BDV (Boeing-Douglas-Vega) pool, 266-70, 351 Aviation/Aerospace Fundamentals B.E.2c biplane, 224 (SandersonlTimes-Mirror), 220n Beachey, Lincoln, 292 Aviation Consumer Action Project (A CAP), Bechereau, Louis, 290 4In.27 Becker, John, 215, 219 Aviation Corporation, 283n.33 Beech, 191 aviation law, 212 Bell, Alexander Graham, 325 Aviation Week and Space Technology Bell Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production Council (periodical), 213 East Coast, 283n.33; in B-29 production, Avon engine, 119 270-73; XP-59A, 68, 218; XS-I, 92,157 AVRO,219 Belmont Park, 292 AWPC. See National Aircraft War Production Bennett, James Gordon, 290, 292 Council Benz, Karl, 208 axial compressors: aerodynamics of compressor Berlin, 292, 294 blades, 150n.15; design difficulties for, 120; Berlin to Vienna Race, 292 NACA transonic and supersonic research Bernal,1. D., 359 1945-55, 120-26, 136, 148; shock-induced Bernardo, James v., 220n boundary layer separation, 124, 124; single Bijker, Wiebe, 317n.3 stage, 115; with supersonic stages, 124-25; Bilstein, Roger, xi, xiv, xv, I 99n.2, 354, 360 technological development 1945-55, Black, Archibald, 302-3, 304-7, 313, 318nn. 17, 115-16; transonic stages, 123; "ways of 22,319n.25 thinking" about aerodynamic forces for, 176. Blackbird fighters, 77 See also blade loading; compressor pressure• black noise, 96-97 ratio Blackpool (England), 292 axial fans: aft fan in GE CJ805-23, 127-36; front blade loading: in CJ805-23 engine, 135, 135; the fan in JT3D engine, 137-43; technological diffusion factor, 121-23; supersonic stages, development 1945-55, 115-16 124-25; transonic stages, 123 Blanton, John, 127, 128 B-17 bomber, 266-70, 351 Bleriot, Louis, 208, 224, 288, 289, 295 B-24 bomber, 262, 270, 280, 336 Bloor, David, xii-xiii B-26 Marauder, 92 bluckets, 127, 129, 143 B-29 Superfortress, 68, 270-73 Boeing 737: in Air Florida Flight 90 crash, 4-16; B-52 bomber, 118, 140, 144, 145 Aloha Airlines 737 accident, 31, 4In.44; 368 INDEX engine indicating sensor locations, 10; 297; Royal Air Service, 297; Royal Naval engine instrument indication, 11; Air Service, 297; wind tunnels and the as pitching up with contaminated wings, 16; emergence of aeronautical research in, P&W JT8D engines in, 146; two types of 223-39; wooden aircraft in World War II, engines in, 107, 108 183, 188-89, 193-99,355-56. See also Boeing Aircraft Company: in Aircraft War National Physical Laboratory Production Council, 283n.33, 284n.44; in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, 190 airframe revolution, 328; B-17, 26~70, 351; Brockington, L. W., 198 B-29, 270-73; in Boeing-Douglas-Vega Brooke-Popham, Henry R. M., 227, 229, 237n.23 pool, 26~70, 351; cabin pressurization Brookins, Walter, 292 device patent dispute, 33~37, 340; master Brooks, Peter, 317n.2 control gages, 270-73, 271; McDonnell Brown strip recorders, 92, 93 Douglas merger, 329; production-density Bryan, George, 224 system, 267--(,9,268; 707, 118, 140, 144, Buchwald, Jed, viii 145,334;727,146;777,107;245,328; Buck, Robert, 15-16,21,34 unique production techniques of, 266. See Bulletin o/the Experimental Department, also Boeing 737 Airplane Engineering Division (periodical), Boeing-Douglas-Vega (BDV) pool, 26~70, 351 60 Bolling Field (Washington, DC), 319n.30 Bureau of Air Commerce, 315, 31~17 Bolman, Lee, 18-19 Burgess Company, 327 Bolter, Jay David, vii Burgess Curtiss Company, 291 bombers: American emphasis on, 334; B-17, Burnett, Jim, 32 2~70,351;B-24,262,270,280,336;B-26 Busemann, Adolf, 158, 159,215,254 Marauder, 92; B-29 Superfortress, 68, Busk, Edward, 224 270-73; B-52, 118, 140, 144, 145; B-58, 68, bypass engines: classification of, 108; core 80, 81, 118; McCook Field research on, 59; engines of, 114-15; as disappearing from XB-70, 68, 77, 78,80-81,92-95,94 view 1945-55, 116; early history of, 113-15; bombsights: Norden, 216; Seversky's, 214 fundamental design problems of, 114-15; boundary effects in wind tunnels, 89-90, 90, principle of operation of, 108; thrust 9~97 achieved in, II 0; Whittle's patent of, 107-9, boundary-layer theory, xiv, 159, 242, 24~7, 113. See also turbofan engines 247, 294,357-58 bypass ratio, 108 Braun, Wernher von, 219, 220 breakdown system, 269 C-76 transport, 192, 195 Bredt, Irene, 219 cabin pressurization devices, 33~37, 339, 340 Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, 264, 265, calculators, mechanical, 73, 102n.20, 165 283n.33 Caldwell, Frank, 254 Briggs, Lyman, 254 calibration corrections, 70, 98 Bright, Charles D., 342n.7 calibration curves, 97 Bristol Fighter F-2B, 51 California Institute of Technology, xv, 213-14, Britain: Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 275, 284n.38, 294, 328 224,225,227,294,360; Aeronautical Calion, Michel, 39 Research Committee, 227, 228, 229-30; Cambridge University, 211, 225, 227, 234, 356 Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 243; Cammen, Leon, 62 all-metal airplane development in, 184, 185; Canada: aluminum production in, 196; Associate ambivalent attitude to the airplane, 198-99; Air Research Committee, 229; AVRO, 219; Blackpool, 292; Cambridge University, 211, as forest nation, 198; National Research 225,227,234,356; Croydon Airdrome, 306, Council, 190, 194; wooden aircraft in World 319n.25; declinist view of, 360, 360n.2; War II, 183, 189-91, 193-99,355,356 expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; , 292 Hendon, 292; Imperial College of Science cantilever monoplane, 334 and Technology, 227, 235; National Gas Capper, John Edward, 293, 294, 297 Turbine Establishment, 120; Royal Caproni, Gianni, 298 Aeronautics Society, 213; Royal Aircraft Caravelle, 119, 143 Establishment, 229, 230, 232, 236, 293; Carroll, F. 0., 304 Royal Aircraft Factory, 225-26, 228, 229, causal instability, 13, 17 INDEX 369 cause, probable, 35-36, 42n.63 for, 334, 339; supersonic flight envisaged Cayley, George, 243, 246 for, 143, 146; turbofan engine in, 107, 108, center of lift, 176, 354 146-47. See also airliners Central Aeronautical Institute (Italy), 229 communication: jamming systems, 216; McCook centrifugal compressors, 120, 151 n.29 Field research on, 57 Cessna, 192 Compagnie Generale de Navigation Aerienne CF6 engine, 110, 110, 146 (CONA),288 CF-700 engine, 143-44 competitions, 292 CGNA (Compagnie Generale de Navigation compressibility effects, 253 Aerienne),288 "Compressor Bible" (Confidential Research Challenger (Space Shuttle), 38 Memorandum), 121, 125-26 Chanute, Octave, 289 compressor bleed, 119-20 Chapin, Seymour, 336, 340 compressor pressure-ratio, 115-16; CJ805-23 Circuit of Berlin, 292 engine's 1.655 ratio, 132, 136, 139; as Circuit of Germany, 292 condition for turbofan development, 144; circulation theory oflift, 242, 244-45, 246, 251, and the diffusion factor, 122; as engine 294,358 performance parameter, 147; NACA 5-stage city planners, in airport design, 301, 302, 309, compressor's 1.35 per stage ratio, 135, 139; 313-14 overall ratio raised to 10 to I, 117 Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, 3, 317 compressors: centrifugal compressors, 120, Civil Aeronautics Authority, 3, 317 151 n.29. See also axial compressors Civil Airports and Airways (Black), 318n.22 computers: aerodynamic research changed by, civil aviation: Convention on Civil Aviation, 36; 177-78,255-56; for airframe wind tunnel and McCook Field research, 57, 61-63; data analysis, 89-89; data reduction by military R&D incorporated into, x, 46, digital, 76, 77,95; human computer 329-30,339. See also commercial aviation operation at NASA, 75; for modeling data, CJ805 engine, 127, 128, 139, 141 98; streamline-curvature method, 129-32, CJ805-3 engine, 118 144; streamtube method, 138 CJ805-23 engine, 126-37, 136; the aft fan concrete, 306, 319n.27 component, 127-28; as commercial failure, Confidential Research Memorandum 143; engineering response to ignorance in (the "Compressor Bible"), 121, 125-26 developing, 148; fan aerodynamic design, Consolidated Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production 128-32; fan operating speed of, 137; first Council, 274, 283n.33; B-24, 262, 270, 280, flight test of, 143; and General Electric 335; Thomas-Morse in, 209 engineering culture, 352; performance Constant, Edward, 107, 112, 157, 175, 177, comparisons, 14!; problems in the field 318n.4 with, 143; subsequent history of, 143; testing contests, 292 the engine, 136-38; testing the fan, 132-36; Continental Rubber Works, 265 weight of, 139; why it was developed when Convair 880, 118, 143 it was, 144-45 Convair 990, 143 Clark, Virginius E., 49, 52,186-87, 20On.14 Convention on Civil Aviation, 36 Cockpit Resource Management (CRM), 17-21, Conway engine, 119-22, 119; CJ805-23 engine 31,34,38 leapfrogging over, 145; core engine of, 112; Cody, Samuel Franklin, 297 engineering response to ignorance in Coffin, Howard E., 48, 64n.8 developing, 148; as first turbofan, 120,352; Cohu, La Motte, 274 performance characteristics of, 136-38, 14! Cold War, 329, 339, 340 Coolidge, Calvin, 62, 316, 328 Columbia University, 214 Cooper, Carolyn, 332 Comet, 119 Copernicus, 39 commercial aviation: accident investigation, Com, Joseph, 198 3-43; the airframe revolution in, 328, 334, cowlings, 213, 252, 329, 334 335, 337; airports in development of, xiv, Crisp, W. Benton, 326, 327 30 I, 309-10; first jet transports, 118; CRM (Cockpit Resource Management), 17-21, infrastructure required for, 212; market 31,34,38 developing in 1930s, 62; military technology crop dusting, 58 transferred to, x, 329-30; national subsidy Crossfield, Scott, 92 370 INDEX cross-licensing agreement, ix, 323-24, 326-28, production, 262, 280-81; theory and 331,337,341 experiment in, 157 Crouch, Thomas, ix, xi, 349, 351, 360 Detroit's Ford Airport, 309-10 Croydon Airdrome (London), 306, 319n.25 Deutsch de la Meurthe, Henri, 293 cultures, engineering. See engineering cultures Deutsche Versuchanstalt flir Luftfahrt, 294 cumulative industries, 332-33 development testing, 67 Curtiss, Glenn Hammond: commitment to DGAC (Directorate General pour Aviation original Wright configuration, 292; flying Civile) (France), 36-37, 42n.65 boats, 290, 297, 324, 326; military sales DH-4, 209, 219 before World War 1,291; Douglas Thomas DH-9,51 invited to America by, 209; U.S. government Dibner Institute, viii buying out interests of, xv, 326, 333; Wright diffusion factor, 121-23, 125, 132, 147, 148-49 patent suit against, 287, 288, 291, 324-26 digital data, 69 Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Company, 291, digital tape recording, 92-94, 94 302,327 Directorate General pour Aviation Civile Curtiss IN-4 "Jenny," 209 (France), 36-37, 42n.65 Curtiss-Wright: in Aircraft War Production "Discussion of the Aeroplane of 1930" (meeting), Council East Coast, 283n.33; C-76, 192, 227 195; failure to build wooden aircraft, 192, distance-to-go markers, 15 355 Divine, Robert, 220n Cushing, Steven, 37 Domestic Air News (periodical), 309 Dominguez Field (Los Angeles), 292 D-2 core engine, 127 Dormoy, E., 58 Daimler, Gottlieb, 208 Dornier, Claude, 294 Dart, 216 Doster, Alexis, III, 220n data, test. See test data Douglas, Deborah, xi, xii, xiv, 349, 357 data reduction, 70; for Ames Laboratory's wing Douglas, Donald, 274 aerodynamics research, 165; by computer, Douglas, Mary, xii-xiii, 352-53, 354-55, 357 76, 77; with digital tape, 95, 95; filtering out Douglas Aircraft Company: A-20, 268; A-26, noise, 97, 98; for J-93 engine tests, 80; by 268; in Aircraft War Production Council, mechanical calculator, 73, 165 274, 283n.33; in the airframe revolution, Davis, David R., 336 328; in Boeing-Douglas-Vega pool, 266-70, Davis, Forest, 187 351; cabin pressurization device patent Davison, Robert 1., 311 dispute, 336-37, 340; DC-2, 328; DC-3, xiv, Davis wing, 336 251,253,302,328; DC-8, 118, 140, 145, Day ton-Wright Airplane Company, 48-49, 327 334; Guerin process, 259, 263, 265, 335; and DC-2,328 Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, DC-3, xiv, 251, 253, 302,328 284n.36; production illustration method, 267, DC-8, 118, 140, 145, 334 283n.20; straight-line assembly system, 268, de Bothezat, George, 59 269; World Cruisers, 52. See also Deeds, Edward A., 48-49, 62, 64n.8 McDonnell Douglas defining technology, vii, viii Douhet, Giulio, 298 de Havilland, Geoffrey, 189, 194,297 drag: and airframe performance, 81; Eiffel's De Havilland Aircraft Company: Albatross, 195; measurements of, 250, 251; increase near bypass engine, 113, 114, 114, 116; Comet, Mach one, 253-54; induced, 231, 251; 119,195; DH-4, 209, 219; DH-9, 51; Goblin laminar flow airfoils decreasing, 211; NACA engine, 218; Mosquito, 189, 190, 194, 195, cowling reducing, 213, 252; NACA drag 196-97,355; Tiger Moth, 190,355; wooden cleanup program, 252; post hoc character of aircraft built by, 189, 190, 355 theory of, 358; Prandtl's boundary-layer Delano and Aldrich, 315 theory explaining, 246-47; scale effect in Delta Airlines Flight 191, 17 experiments on, 226; streamlining for delta-shaped wing, 216 reducing, 251-52; "ways of thinking" about, Deperdussin, 290, 295 176, 354; wing aerodynamics at supersonic design: by BDV pool, 267; devices as less speeds, 170-73 important than, 340; and engineering drawings, production (engineering), 51,270,273, knowledge, 260-62. 280-81; and 281, 283n.29 INDEX 371 Dryden, Hugh, vii-viii, 254 "McCook Field" as synonymous with, 47; dual-use, ix-x, 46, 329-30, 339 organized approach to problems of, 61; Duhem, Pierre, 350 postwar operations of, 52; reorganizations of, Dunne, John, 297 59. See also McCook Field duraluminum, 55 engineering (production) drawings, 51, 270, 273, Duramold, 186-87, 200n.14 281, 283n.29 Durand, William F., 221n.10 engineering exchange: airframe manufacture and, Durand-Lesley propeller studies, 164 259-85; culture affecting, 259-60, 265, 266, Dvorak, Dudley, 23, 25, 33 267,329,340,351-52; industry-oriented dynamic signals, 93 exchange, 273-80; through military dynamometers, 52-53 awarding of contracts, 263; product-oriented exchange, 266-73; before World War II, E28/39,218 262-66 Earhart, Amelia, 221n.1 engineering science: aerodynamics as, 241; earth-induction , 57 boundary-layer theory as, 247; defined, 241; Eastern Aircraft, 265, 283n.33 drag rise at critical speed as, 254; Eiffel's Echols, Oliver P., 194 contributions to, 250; Munk's thin airfoil Eckert, Ernst, 218 theory as, 251; Prandtl's lifting line theory Edgerton, David, 198 as, 251; swept wing as, 254; as synthesis of Edison, Thomas, 330 theory and practice, 358; Theodorsen's Edwards AFB Flight Test Center telemetry cowling analysis as, 252 ground station, 81 Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) gauge, 9-12, 10, 11 Eiffel, Alexander Gustave: as aerodynamicist, Engine Pressure Ratios, 5, 9 208,248,250-51,293; Hunsaker and, 209; engines. See power plants and International Trials of wind tunnels, 229, engine speed, 71 230; and scale effect, 226; wind tunnel engine testing, 70-81; engine test cells, 71-72, research of, 209, 226, 229, 230, 242, 248, 72; established airframe for, 68-69; flight 250,293 testing, 72-81 Electra, 144 Erwin, Jack, 126 electrical pressure transducers, 71 Euler, Leonhard, 242 end-member (variant) modeling, 98 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) gauge, 5, 10, II endurance testing, 67 engineering: in airport design, 301, 302, 305-7, F-2B fighter, 51 309,311,312-13,315, 322n.53, 357-58; as F-4H fighter, 118 community activity, 177; defined, 241; F9F Panther, 218 design and production in, 260-62; Eiffel's F-14 Tomcat, 100 contributions to, 250; international influence F-46 commercial airplane, 186, 200n.14 on American, 207; knowledge as embodied F-84 F Thunderstreak, 218 in physical artifacts, 280-81; NACA drag F-86 fighter, 253, 255 cleanup program as, 252; in nineteenth• F-102 fighter, 68, 69 century aerodynamics, 242--44; production F-104 fighter, 96, 118 engineers, 262; science distinguished from, FAA (Federal Aviation Administration; formerly 260; Society of Automotive Engineers, 266, Federal Aviation Agency), 3, 32 275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327; three aspects of Fairchild, Sherman, 186 research in, 157, 175; tooling engineers, 261, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation, 261, 262,267,279; Weick's cowling 186-87, 193-94, 283n.33 development as, 252; working around Fairchild F-46, 186, 200n.14 ignorance, 147-50. See also aeronautical Fales, Elisha, 254 engineering; engineering cultures; fanjet engine. See turbofan engine engineering exchange; engineering science fan whine, 133 engineering cultures: and engineering exchange, Farman company, 288, 295 259-60,265,266,267,329,340,351-52; in Farren, William S., 225, 226, 232, 233, 234, turbofan engine development, 142--43,352; 237n.12,238n.48 variations among, xiii, 352-56 Fedders, 276 Engineering Division (U.S. Air Service): Federal Aviation Administration (FAA; formerly dismantling of McCook Field, 45--46; Federal Aviation Agency), 3, 32 372 INDEX Federal Courts Improvement Act, 331 Fokker, Anthony, 211-12, 297 Federal Technical University (Zurich), 159, 163 Fokker company: mixed wood and metal Ferber, Ferdinand, 293 construction, 201n.l9; T-2, 60, 61; Ferguson, Eugene, 283n.29 tri-motor airliners, 212; in the United States, Ferguson, Robert, ix, x-xi, xii, 329, 335-36, 340, 211-12 351,352 Ford, Henry, 310, 326 Ferri, Antonio, 159--61,216 Ford Airport (Detroit), 309-10 fighter aircraft: Blackbird fighters, 77; Bristol Ford Air Transport Service, 310 Fighter F-2B, 51; European emphasis on, Ford B-24 production, 262, 280 334; F-4H, 118; F9F Panther, 218; F-14 Forest Products Laboratory, 193, 284n.37 Tomcat, 100; F-84F Thunderstreak, 218; foundational (pioneering) patents, 332, 333, 338 F-86, 253, 255; F-I02, 68, 69; F-I04, 96, France: aero engine industry by 1894, 295; 118; Fokker's World War I fighters, 211; Aeronautical Institute at St. Cyr, 226, 229, lack of American in World War I, 209; 230,231,293; all-metal airplane Messerschmitt ME-262 jet fighter, 215; development in, 184, 185; Auteil, 231, 251; P-35, 214; P-39 Aircobra, 92; P-47 on causality in accident reports, 37; Thunderbolt, 214; P-51, 217; P-80 Shooting Directorate Gem!ral pour Aviation Civil, Star, 218; technologies as having little 36-37, 42n.65; expenditures on aviation to commercial application, x 1912,295; fluid dynamics research, 242; filtering out noise in data, 98-99 Reims, 290, 292, 295, 296; State Airship final shape macroetching, 31 Factory at Chalais-Meudon, 293; as world's firsts, question of, 145 leading aeronautical power by 1914, 295-96 Fitch, Dennis, 23, 25, 33 French curves, 97, 97 Five-Foot Wind Tunnel (McCook Field), 51-52, Freudenthal, Elsbeth, 289 54,56 friction, 172-73,246 flaps, 334, 335 fuel flow gauge, 5, 10, 11 flight: adolescence of American, 46-47; the fundamental research. See basic (fundamental) aeroplane of 1930, 227; as a defming research technology of the twentieth century, vii-viii; as differing from other technologies, xi-xii; Galison, Peter, viii, xi, xii, xiii, 350--51 high standards required for, xii; galvanometers, 73, 75 infrastructure of, xi-xii; institutions in galvanometer swing, 75 development of, xiv; inventions after the Gardner, Lester, 307 Wrights and Curtiss, 334; jet-propelled gas generators: as core engines of bypass engines, airplane era, 253-54; the Lindbergh boom, 114; technological gains 1945-55, 116 45, 64n.2; mature propeller-driven airplane Gaspari, Mario, 159 era, 251-52; nationalism in development of, Geertz, Clifford, 204n.66 xii; patents and technical advance in, General Dynamics: Convair 880, 118, 143; 333-41; romance of, xi; scientific skepticism Convair 990, 143; Thomas-Morse Aircraft regarding powered, 243; similarity to other Corporation in evolution of, 209 technologies, ix-xi; stability of technologies General Electric (GE): CF6 engine, 110, 110, 146; of, vii-viii; -and-wire-biplane era, CF-700 engine, 143-44; CJ805-3 engine, 248-51; technology becoming more 118; DC-IO jet engine failure, 26, 29, 30, 35; universal and homogeneous, xv-xvi; engine testing, 75,76, 77, 78; in high-bypass transnational development of, 183. See also jet engine development, xiii, 112, 126; J-47 accidents; airports; civil aviation; engine, 117; J-79 engine, 118, 142; J-93 manufacturing; military aviation; patents; engine, 68, 78, 80, 80--81, 94; NACA power plants; research and development; compressor engineers join, 126; variable supersonic flight; and aircraft by name geometry compressors, 118; Whittle engine flight suits, 57 copied by, 218. See also CJ805-23 engine flight testing: airframe testing, 90--95; basic rule General Motors: in B-29 production, 270--73; of, 68--69; engine testing, 72-81 Eastern Aircraft, 265, 283n.33 fluid dynamics, 242-43, 255-56 "general understanding," 175-76 fluid mechanics, 242 Germany: Air Law Institute of Konigsberg, 212; flying boats (seaplanes), 215, 290, 297, 324, 326 all-metal airplane development in, 184, 185; Foche, Ferdinand, 296 aluminum production in World War II, 188, INDEX 373 20In.23; American postwar research Hawley, Alan, 290 influenced by, 215; Berlin, 292, 294; Haynes, AI, xi, 21, 23-25, 33, 34 Circuit of Germany, 292; expenditures on Hayward, Charles 8., 287, 289 aviation to 1912,295; Fokker's World War I Hazel, John R., 288 fighters, 211; German Wright Company, Heaslet, Max., 162 288; as making greatest technical heat transfer, 218 contributions to aviation, 334; Peenemiinde, Heliarc welding process, 279 159,163; as second in air strength by 1914, helicopters: McCook Field research on, 59; New 296-97; universities as aeronautics research York University research on, 213; Sikorsky'S centers, 294; University ofGottingen, 208, research on, 215 210,229,230,231-32,236,294; Zeppelin Helmholtz, Hermann von, 242 Company, 238n.31, 294, 296, 297 Helmreich, Robert, 18 Gilfillan, S. C., 331, 332, 343n.51 Hendon (London), 292 G1auert, Hermann: on corrections for wind tunnel Heron, Samuel, 212 walls, 228, 231, 232, 233, 234, 239n.52; Herring, A. M., 287 German background of, 239n.64; at Royal Herring-Curtiss Company, 287 Aircraft Factory, 225; visit to Prandtl's high-bypass turbofan engines, xiii, 108, 146, Gottingen laboratory, 229, 230 155n.85 Glazebrook, Richard, 225, 230, 233 Hispano-Suiza engine, 342n.19 Gloster E28/39, 218 Hoffinan, Edward L., 55, 57 Gluhareff, Michael, 215-16 Hogben, Lancelot, 359 Gnome engine, 290, 295 Holley, I. 8., Jr., 342n.7, 343n.29 Goblin engine, 218 Hoover, Herbert, 307, 316 Goddard, George, 57 "How to Lay Out and Build an Airplane Landing goggles, 57 Field" (Black), 303, 306 Goldstein, Sydney, 247 Hughes, Howard, 187, 193,276 Goodman Crouch, R. J., 231 Hughes, Thomas, 317n.3 Gottingen, University of, 208, 210, 229, 230, human error, 36 231-32,236,294 human factors, 4, 19, 31 Graham-White, Claude, 288 Human Factors for General Aviation (Trollip and Gray, Jack, 316 Jensen), 19 Gray, W. E., 173 Hunsaker, Jerome C., 53, 208, 209, 210, 213, 294 Great Britain. See Britain Huygens, Christiaan, 242 Griffith, A. A., 113 , 217 Gross, Courtland, 274 hydraulic presses, 263, 264, 265 Gross, Robert, 274 Grumman: F9F Panther, 218; F-14 Tomcat, 100; lAS (Institute of Aeronautical Sciences), 213, Northrop merger, 329 275, 284nn. 36,37 Guerin, Henry, 263 ICAO (International Civil Aviation Guerin process, 259, 263, 265, 335 Organization), 36 Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory, xv, 294 Ide, John J., 210 Guggenheim, Daniel, Fund for the Promotion of illumination systems for airports, 57, 306, Aeronautics, 212, 213 319n.25 Guggenheim Professorship of Aeronautics Imperial College of Science and Technology (New York University), 213 (Britain), 227, 235 Guidonia (Italy), 159, 163 Imperial Research Service for Aviation (Netherlands), 229 Hadden, Gavin, 311 improvement patents, 332 Haldane, J. B. S., 359 inclinometers, 57, 91 hard alpha inclusions, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38 indexes, 275 Harding, Warren G., 303 India, 37 Harker, Ronald W., 217 induced drag, 231, 251 Harris, Harold, 57, 59 inlet guide vanes, 139, 155n.75 Harvard Boston Meet, 292 input transducers, 69, 70 Hashimoto, Takehiko, ix, xi, xii, xv, 356, 360 Institute of Aeronautical Sciences (IAS), 213, Haskelite Manufacturing Company, 186, 187 275, 284nn. 36,37 374 INDEX instrumentality-expressivity grid, 18 performance parameters for engines, 147. instrumentation (aircraft): in flight testing, See also bypass engines; turbofan engines; 90-91; McCook Field research on, 57 turbojet engines; turboprop engines instrumentation for flight and ground testing, Jewkes, John, 344n.56 67-105; for airframe flight testing, 90-95; IN-4 "Jenny," 209 for airframe wind tunnel testing, 81-90; job performance, grid approach to, 19, 20 basic units of, 69-70; black noise associated job shop production methods, 263 with, 96-97; cost of developing, xi; for Johnson, J. B., 186, 187, 193 engine flight testing, 72-81; for engine test Jones, B. Melvill, 227, 228, 233, 234, 251-52 cells, 71-72; military technology transferred Jones, Robert T., 161, 165, 171,216,254 to commercial use, x; quantity of data Joukowski, Nikolay: as academic embracing the increased by advances in, 99-100; research flying machine, 247; circulation theory oflift, environment of, xiii; three styles of, 67-69. 242, 244-45, 246; Kutta-Joukowski theorem, See also wind tunnels xiv, 245, 246, 294; and Lilienthal's work, xiv, interchangeability, 269-70, 283n.28, 351 244, 248; Russian government support of, interest model: for accident reports, 351; for 297; as taken with the airplane, 247 airport design, 357-58; for Bairstow's defense Journal of the Institute ofAeronautical Sciences, of wind tunnels, 356-57; for McCook Field's 284n.37 relations with private industry, 358; for JT3C-6 engine, 118, 137, 140, 141, 145 wooden aircraft manufacture, 355-56 JT3C-7 engine, 140 International Civil Aviation Organization JT3D engine, 137-43, 141; bypass ratio of, 140; (lCAO),36 design solutions, 139-40; engineering International Trials (wind tunnels), xv, 229-32, response to ignorance in developing, 148; 235-36 front fan design problem, 138-39; as Interstate, 276 incremental improvement, 141-42,352; as Invention and the Patent System (Gilfillan), 332 leapfrogging over the Conway, 145; inviscid gases, 159, 175, 176 performance comparisons, 141; subsequent Irvin, Leslie, 57 history of, 144, 146; success of, 144; tip Italy: aviation development before 1914,298; Mach number requirement, 139, 145; Central Aeronautical Institute, 229; titanium blades and disks, 140, 142, 145 expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; JT 4A engine, 118 Guidonia, 159, 163; Milan, 292 JT8D engine, 107, 110,110 JT9D engine, 146 J-42 engine, 218 judgment, protocol-defying, 4, 15,35 J-4 7 engine, 117 J-48 engine, 218 Kantrowitz, Arthur, 124 J-57 engine, 118, 137, 140, 142, 145 Kappus, Peter, 127, 142, 144 J-65 engine, 218 Kartveli, Alexander, 214 J-75 engine, 118 Kelly, Oakley G., 60 J-79 engine, 118, 142 Kettering, Charles, 48, 49, 216 J-85 engine, 68, 69 Kindelberger, J. H., 194,274 J-93 engine, 68, 78, 80, 80-81,94 Klapproth, John, 125, 126, 128, 132, 136, Jacobs, Eastman, 211, 217, 254 153n.47, 154n.65 Jakab, Peter, ix, xiv, 349, 358 Klemin, Alexander, 53-54, 213, 310-11 jamming systems, 216 Kollsman, Paul Wilhelm, 216 Japan: expenditures on aviation to 1912,295; Kollsman Instrument Company, 216 Imperial Navy in International Trials for Kolstad, James, 29 wind tunnels, 229; von Kanmin introducing Kovach, Karl, 126, 153n.47 aeronautic research to, 294 Kuhn, Thomas, 150n.9 Jeep research aircraft, 217-18 Kunik, I. Jordan, 331-32 Jensen, Richard, 19 Kutta, Wilhelm, 242, 245-46, 247, 248, 294 jet propulsion: in aviation development, 334; Kutta-Joukowski theorem, xiv, 245, 246, 294 German World War II combat aircraft, 215; Kwan, Chun-Ming, 322n.53 the jet-propelled airplane era, 253-54; von Kanmin as leading figure in, 214; Langley Lafave, Wayne R., 35 Laboratory research on, 217-18; LaGuardia, Fiorello, 315, 316 INDEX 375 LaGuardia Airport (New York City), 314-16 Production Council, 274, 283n.33; Electra, Lamarr, Hedy, 216 144; F-I04 fighter, 96; Martin merger, 329; Lamb, Horace, 234, 360n.1 P-80 Shooting Star, 218; and Pacific laminar flow wings, 211, 217 Aeronautical Library, 275, 276, 284n.36; laminar friction, 172, 173 photo-template process, 282n.17; Skunk laminated wood products, 185 Works, 178; Vega, 186, 252 Lampert Committee, 328 Lomax, Harvard, 162 Lane, D. R., 309, 310, 319n.27 Love, Philip, 309 Langley, Samuel, 243-44, 287 low-aspect ratio tailless aircraft, 216 Langley Aeronautical Laboratory: axial low-bypass engines, 108 compressor research, 121; captured German Lower, Arthur, 198 data used at, 215; cowling design, 213, 252; L.w.F. Engineering Company, 302, 327 drag cleanup program, 252; experimental supersonic wind tunnel, 163; in International MAA. See Manufacturers Aircraft Association Trials on wind tunnels, 230; jet propulsion MacDonald, Austin, 308 research, 217-18; Theodorsen as chief Mach cones, 162, 166, 168, 170, 171, 176 physicist, 211; variable density wind tunnel, Mach lines, 158, 158 210 Mach number, 159 Langley Field (Hampton, VA), 319n.30 MacKenzie, Donald, 188 Latour, Bruno, xii, 39, 223-24, 228, 236, 317n.3 Macready, John A., 57, 58, 60 Latrobe, Benjamin, 207 magnesium, 55 Laux, James, 295 magnetic tape recording, 92, 101 law, aviation, 212 Mahoney, Franklin, 45 Layton, Edwin, 260, 261, 262 manometers, 86, 87, 91 Legagneux, G., 290 Manufacturers Aircraft Association (MAA): in Lehigh Portland Cement Company, 321n.50 aircraft patent pool, 262--63, 323-24; Leonardo da Vinci, 250 amendment of 1928, 328; Anti-Trust suit Levy, Hyman, 358-59 against, 323-24, 341; and Boeing-Douglas Lewis, George, ix patent dispute, 336-38; Congressional Lewis Flight Propulsion Laboratory, 121,218 criticism of, 327; as familiar response to Liberty engine, 48, 51, 53, 59,302 industrial patenting, 332-33; manufacturers libraries: McCook Field Aeronautical Reference embracing, 335; royalty agreement, 326; Library, 59--60; Pacific Aeronautical Library, tooling patents excluded from, 266 275-76,27~ 284nn.36,38 manufacturing: Aircraft War Production Council Lieblein, Seymour, 121 member research projects, 277; of wooden lift, 81; center of lift, 176,354; circulation theory aircraft, 195. See also airframe of, 242, 245-45, 246, 251, 294, 358; Eiffel manufacturing; production explaining, 250; Kutta's research on, Mariotte, Edme, 242 245-46; in Prandtl's aerodynamic theory, Martin, Glenn, 292 231; scale effect in experiments on, 226; Martin, Glenn L., Company: in Aircraft War "ways ofthinking" about, 176, 354; wing Production Council East Coast, 283n.33; aerodynamics at supersonic speeds, 162--64, Army bomber order of 1919,62; B-26 166-70 Marauder, 92; in B-29 production, 270; Lilienthal, Otto: cambered airfoils research, 243, Lockheed merger, 329; Martin Bomber, 59 245; crash of, xi; Joukowski taking his work Martin, Glenn L., Wind Tunnel: basic facility, 82; seriously, xiv, 244, 248; Kutta motivated by, beam balance mechanism, 85, 85; 245, 248; photographs of flights of, 244; and computers, 88; data gathering console, 86; scientific interest in powered flight, 248; digital data read-out, 88; single return tunnel Wright brothers inspired by, xi, 207, 325 design, 82; wind source, 83 Lindbergh, Charles, viii, 45, 212, 221 n.l, 328, Martin B-26 Marauder, 92 337 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. See MIT Lindemann, Frederick, 225 mass production: in airframe manufacturing, 263, linear theory, 158-59, 166, 175 280; BDV B-17 assembly lines, 267--69; of liquid-film method, 173, 174 military aircraft, 63; of World War I aircraft, load testing, 51, 51, 54 50-52 Lockheed Aircraft Corporation: in Aircraft War master control gages, 270-73, 271 376 INDEX materials: Aircraft War Production Council meteorology: Guggenheim Fund supporting member research projects, 277; magnesium, research in, 212; McCook Field data 55; McCook Field research on, 55; plastics, collection, 57-58 186-87,193; Plexiglas, 216-17; titanium, Metropolitan-Vickers turbofan engine, 113, 113, 27, 140, 142, 145. See also aluminum; metal 114, 116, 145 airplanes; wooden airplanes Michigan, University of, 212-13 Materiel Division (Army Air Corps), 186 Milan, 292 mature propeller-driven airplane era, 251-52 Miles, F. G., 187 McCook Field, 45-{i8; aerial photography military aviation: armaments research, 59, 277; research, 57, 58; aerial view of, 45; civil aviation incorporating R&D of, X, 46, aerodynamic testing, 53, 54; Aeronautical 329-30,339; engineering exchange during Reference Library, 59-{i0; armament World War II, 266-81; German World War II research, 59; Army Air Service air transport jet combat aircraft, 215; as leveling in speed, service from, 319n.30; bomber 146; metal replacing wood in, 184; wooden development, 59; Bulletin of the airplanes in World War II, 188-99, 202n.43. Experimental Department, Airplane See also bombers; fighter aircraft Engineering Division, 60; and civil military-industrial complex, 329 aviation, 57; communication research, 57; Miller, Richard, 274 crop dusting research, 58; depth and variety Miller, Ronald, 252, 333-35, 337, 344n.70 of projects of, xiv, 52; drag rise at critical Mindell, DavidA., x, xi, xiii, 349, 352 speed observed at, 254; engineering school Mingos, Howard, 343n.29 at, 60; establishment of, 49; Five-Foot Wind MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology): Tunnel, 51-52, 54, 56; flight records set at, aeronautical engineering course, 53, 208, 60; Flight Test hangar, 55; instrumentation 209, 294, 328; in International Trials on research, 57; Liberty engine project, 48, 51, wind tunnels, 229, 230; meteorology 53; main design and drafting room, 50; department, 212 mass production techniques at, 50-52; Mitcham, Carl, 282n.7 materials research, 55; meteorological data Mitchel Field (Long Island), 319n.30 collection, 57-58; naming of, 49; Mitchell, William "Billy," 59, 327 navigation research, 57; parachute research, model airplanes: Academy of Model Aeronautics, 55, 56, 57; postwar phase of, 52; and 210; Bairstow's experiments with, 223; scale private industry, 61-63, 358; propeller effect in tests with, 225-26, 228, 232-35, research, 53, 53, 54; propulsion research, 236; Thomas's promotion of, 209-10 52-53; structural testing, 53, 54; as Model Airways program, 304, 307, 319n.30 temporary facility, 47, 49; as training modeling of data, 96, 97-99, 100 ground, xiv, 61; vertical flight research, 59; modifiers, 69, 70 wind tunnels at, 51-52, 54 monocoque structure, 290, 328 McDonnell Douglas: Boeing merger, 329. See Monopoly Committee, 331 also McDonnell Douglas DC-IO-1O Montgomery, John, 287 McDonnell Douglas DC-IO-IO: engine Moore, Norton, 161 arrangement, 22; fan rotor assembly, 25; Morrow Board, 328 planform elevator hydraulics, 26; in United Morse Chain Company, 209 Airlines Flight 232 crash, 21-34 Moses, Robert, 316 McMullen, Alexis, 316 Mosquito, 189, 190, 194, 195, 196-97,355 ME-262 fighter, 215 Mouillard, Louis, 287 mechanical calculators, 73, 102n.20, 165 multiplexing, 78 Merges, Robert Patrick, 331, 343n.51 Munk, Max, xiv-xv, 210, 211, 216, 251, 294 Merlin engine, 217 Messerschmitt ME-262 fighter, 215 NI gauge, 5, 9,10, 11 metal airplanes: the airframe revolution, 328; N2 gauge,S, 10, II metal associated with progress, 184-85, 197; NACA. See National Advisory Committee for rivets required by, 185-86, 200n.1 0, 336, Aeronautics 340; stressed-skin construction, 184, 212, Nader, Ralph, 41n.27 328,334; transition from wood to, 184-85; National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Tubavion monoplane as first all-metal (NACA): aerodynamic testing, 54; on aircraft, 290. See also aluminum airframe flight testing, 90-91; authorization INDEX 377 for, 209; axial compressor research 1945-55, navigation, McCook Field research on, 57 120-26, 136, 148; Black's "How to Lay Out NAWPC. See National Aircraft War Production and Build an Airplane Landing Field" Council reprinted by, 303; cowling design, 213, 252, Nayler, Joseph L., 228, 231 329; and cross-licensing agreement of 1917, Needham, Joseph, 359 324,326; in early aeronautical R&D, 47; Netherlands Imperial Research Service for 8-stage compressor, 145, 152n.33, I 53n.41 ; Aviation, 229 European influence on, 210-11; fundamental Newhouse, John, 324, 335 research supported by, 328-29; in Newton, Isaac, 242 International Trials on wind tunnels, 229, New York City's LaGuardia Airport, 314-16 230, 235; motivation at, 177; Paris office, New York University, 213 210; patents committee, 324; publications in Nieuport, 290, 295 Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, 284n.37; night airways system, 57 in subsidizing aviation development, ix; Nikolsky, Alexander, 214 variable-density wind tunnel, xiv-xv, 54, Noble, David, 317n.3 210, 235, 294. See also Ames Aeronautical Nolen, John, 313-14 Laboratory; Langley Aeronautical Norden bombsight, 216 Laboratory normal technology, 112, 150n.9, 318n.4 National Aeronautics and Space Administration, North American Aviation: in Aircraft War 219 Production Council, 274, 283n.33; AT-6 National Aircraft Standards Committee, 266 trainer, 191, 194; F-86 fighter, 253, 255; National Aircraft War Production Council P-51 fighter, 217; and Pacific Aeronautical (NAWPC), 273-80; Engineering Committee Library, 275, 276, 284n.36; X-15 rocket, 77, information exchange statistics, 278; 78, 79, 80, 92, 97; XB-70 mach 3 bomber, founding members of, 274, 283n.33; 68,77,78,80-81,92-95,94 interplant visits, 279, 284n.44; and non• Northcliffe, Lord, 292 interchangeability in BDV pool, 269, 270, Northrop Aircraft: in Aircraft War Production 283n.28; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, Council, 274, 283n.33; Grumman merger, 275; research projects of members, 277; for 329; Heliarc welding process, 279; and sharing proprietary technologies, 329; on Pacific Aeronautical Library, 276, 284n.36 standardization, 274, 279-80, 281 Northwestern University, 212 National Airport Survey, 317 Novak, Richard, 126, 127, 128, 130,132 National Gas Turbine Establishment (Britain), NPL (Britain). See National Physical Laboratory 120 NTSB. See National Transportation Safety Board National Physical Laboratory (NPL) (Britain): "numerical experiment," 177-78 Aeronautics Division, 224, 225; Bairstow's Nye Committee, 330-31 aerodynamic experiments at, 223; in British aeronautics, 293-94, 297; in International Oakland, California, Municipal Airport, 308, 309 Trials on wind tunnels, 229, 230; and Prandtl observation, 96 correction, 233; on scale effect, 226-27; Ohain, Hans von, 218 stability research, 224-25 oscillographs, 75, 76, 77,86,92,99, /01 National Research Council (Canada), 190, 194 output transducers, 69, 70 national subsidy: for American commercial oxygen equipment, 57 aviation, 334, 339; in aviation development, ix, 359; expenditure by country to 1912, P-35 fighter, 214 295; after World War I, 62 P-39 Aircobra, 92 National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB): P-47 Thunderbolt, 214 on Air Florida Flight 90 crash, 9,12-16; on P-51 fighter, 217 probable cause, 42n.63; responsibility for P-80 Shooting Star, 218 reporting on aviation accidents, 3; on Pacific Aeronautical Library (PAL), 275-76, 276, Simmons Airlines/American Eagle ATR-72 284nn.36,38 crash, 36-37, 42n.64; on United Airlines Page, Logan Waller, 321n.35 Flight 232 crash, 26-27, 29-35 parachutes, McCook Field research on, 55, 56, 57 Naval Aircraft Factory, 47 parameter variation, 164 Navier, Henri, 242-43 Parker, Jack, 143 Navier-Stokes equations, 243, 357 Parkin, J. H., 190, 194, 197-98 378 INDEX passenger aircraft. See airliners flying machine, 247; boundary-layer theory Pasteur, Louis, 228 of, xiv, 159,242,246-47,247,294,356-57; Patent Act of 1836, 330 and circulation theory, 294; correction for "Patent Nonsense in the History of Technology" aerodynamic interference, 231-34, 236; on (Sherwood), 332 Eiffel's drag measurements, 251; and patents, 323-45; aircraft patents pooled in 1917, International Trials on wind tunnels, 229-30; xv, 288, 323-24, 326, 338; American system lifting line theory of, 251; and Munk, 210; of, 330-33; anti-patent movement, 331; in on supersonic flow over airfoils, 158; trailing aviation and other technologies, ix; in vortex concept, 231, 233, 251; at University aviation development, 335-41; foundational, of Gottingen, xiv, 208, 210, 236, 294 332, 333, 338; for Guerin process, 265; Pratt & Whitney (P&W): conservative design improvement, 332; Manufacturers Aircraft philosophy of, 142-43,352; in high-bypass Association in pooling of, 263, 323; pooling jet engine development, xiii, 112, 137, of, 332-33; proprietary information 142-43,145; J-42 engine, 218; J-48 engine, preferred over, 339-40; technical 218; J-57 engine, 118, 137, 140, 142, 145; development not correlating with, 338-39; J-75 engine, 118; JT3C-6 engine, 118, 137, U.S. government making patents difficult to 140,141, 145; JT4A engine, 118; JT8D rely on, 329 engine, 107, 11 0, 110; JT9D engine, 146; Patterson Field, 46 two-spool turbojet engine, 117-19, 137, 142. Paulhan, Louis, 287-88 See also JT3D engine Pawlowski, Felix, 212-13 pressure-ratio. See compressor pressure-ratio Pearse, Richard, 287 pressure transducers, 86, 96 Peenemiinde (Germany), 159, 163 Prevost, Maurice, 290 performance parameters for jet engines, 147 Primard, 290 Perrow, Charles, 38 prizes, 291-92 Pettit, Roger Alan, 4-7, 19,21 Probability versus Consequence graph, 32, 33 Phillips, Horatio, 243 probable cause, 35-36, 42n.63 photography: of Lilienthal's flights, 244; production: and design, 262, 280--81; job shop McCook Field research on aerial, 57, 58 production methods, 263. See also mass photopanels, 72-73, 74, 91-92, 101 production photo-template process, 282n.17 production-density system, 267--68, 268 phugoids, 23, 33, 34 production (engineering) drawings, 51, 270, 273, Pilcher, Percy, 208 281, 283n.29 Pinsent, David, 360n.1 production engineers, 262 pioneering (foundational) patents, 332, 333, 338 production illustration method, 267, 283n.20 piston engines: Gnome, 290, 295; Hispano-Suiza, Project Paperclip, 218, 219 342n.19; Liberty, 48, 51, 53, 59, 302; Merlin, propellers: Durand-Lesley studies, 164; McCook 217; radial, 212, 213, 252, 290, 334 Field research on, 53, 53, 54; and scale pitch moment, 81 effect in model experiments, 226; variable• Pitot, Henri, 242 pitch, 334. See also turboprop engines planform, for supersonic flight, 157-59, 161-74 proprietary information, 329, 335, 339-40 plastics, 186-87, 195 propUlsion: McCook Field research on, 52-53; Plexiglas, 216-17 superchargers, 57. See also power plants; plywood, 186, 187, 191, 195 propellers point failures, xiii propulsion efficiency, lll-12, 111, 147 point systems, 311, 322n.53 protocol-defying judgment, 4, 15,35 Polanyi, Michael, 176-77 protocol instability, 13 Ponche,290 Pt2 probe, 9-11, 10 Postan, M. M., 194 Pt7 probe, 9, 10 power plants: Aircraft War Production Council PT-19 trainer, 191-92 member research projects, 277; Puckett, Allen, 161, 172 developments before 1914,290; as exempt from patent pool, 326, 341, 342n.19; French quasistatic signals, 93 before 1914,295. See also engine testing; jet propulsion; piston engines races, 292 Prandtl, Ludwig: as academic embracing the radial engines, 212, 213, 252, 290, 334 INDEX 379 radial equilibrium problem, 129-32, 138, 144 Ruchonnet, 290 radio beacons, 57 Runner, George, 75 RAE (Royal Aircraft Establishment) (Britain), runways, 306, 319n.27 229,230,232,236,293 Rupler,296 Rae, John B., 342n.7 Russia: emigres in American aeronautics, raw data, 97, 99, 233 214-15; expenditures on aviation by 1914, Rayleigh, Lord, 208, 243, 360 295,297; Soviet Union, 185,329 RB.211 engine, 146 Rutherford, Ernest, 225 Reason, James, 38 Ryan, 283n.33 Records, Bill, 21, 25, 33 Reid, H. J. E., 213 SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers), 266, Reims (France), 290, 292, 295, 296 275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327 Reissner, Hans, 290 St. Cyr (France), 226, 229, 230, 231, 293 Renard, Charles, 293 San Francisco, 309 Renault, 295 Sanger, Eugen, 219 Republic Aircraft Corporation, 214; in Aircraft Sapphire powerplant, 218 War Production Council East Coast, Sawers, David, 252, 333-35, 337, 344nn. 56, 70 283n.33; F-84F Thunderstreak, 218; P-47 scale effect, 225-26, 228, 232-35, 236 Thunderbolt, 214 Scale Effect Panel, 235 research and development (R&D): Aircraft War "Scale Effect" subcommittee, 226, 228, 236 Production Council member projects, 277; scaling up data, 21 0 basic research, 62, 328-29; civilian use of scanivalve mechanism, 71, 73, 78 military, x, 46, 329-30, 339; in Europe Schatzberg, Eric, xi, xii, xv, 355, 360, 360n.2 before World War I, 293; in Germany before Scherrer, Richard, 178 1914,294,297; at McCook Field, 45-68; Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., viii national subsidy for, ix, 334, 339; national Schmookler, Jacob, 331, 339 variations in, xv, 339. See also Schmued, Ed, 217 instrumentation for flight and ground testing Schnieder, Jacques, 292 Reynolds, Osborne, 242 science: academic science discovers the airplane, Reynolds number, 235, 251 244-48; in aviation and other technologies, x; Rickenbacker, Eddie, 209 boundary-layer theory as, 247; defined, 241; rivets, 185-86, 200n.! 0, 336, 340 Eiffel's contributions to, 250, 251; Robins, Benjamin, 242 engineering distinguished from, 260; freeing robust effects in the data, 98, 99 engineering from limitations of, 149; in Roe, A. v., 297 nineteenth-century aerodynamics, 242-44; as Rohm and Haas, 216 skeptical about powered flight in nineteenth Rohrbach, Adolf, 212 century, 243. See also engineering science Roland, Alex, viii, ix, x, xi, xv, 349, 351, 359 S.E.5 biplane, 248, 249 roll moment, 81 seaplanes (flying boats), 215, 290, 297, 324, 326 Rolls-Royce: Avon engine, 119; compressor• See, Elliot, 96 bleed engines, 119-20; Merlin engine, 217; Seguin, A., 290 multistage axial fan of 1941, 113; RB.211 Seversky, Alexander Prokofieff de, 214 engine, 146. See also Conway engine Seversky Aero Corporation, 214 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 314, 316 Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 323 Rossby, Carl-Gustav, 212 Sherwood, Morgan B., 332 rotary wing flight: autogiros, 213; New York shock-expansion method, 158--59 University research in, 213. See also shock-induced boundary layer separation, 124, helicopters 124 Royal Aeronautical Society Journal, 284n.37 Short, Mac, 267 Royal Aeronautics Society (Britain), 213 side force, 81 Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) (Britain), Signal Corps (U.S. Army), 47 229,230,232,236,293 Sikorsky, Igor, 214--15, 290, 297 Royal Aircraft Factory (Britain), 225-26, 228, Simha, Evelyn, viii 229,297 Simmons Airlines/American Eagle ATR -72 crash, Royal Air Service (Britain), 297 36-37, 42n.65 Royal Naval Air Service (Britain), 297 65-series airfoils, 121, 122, 123 380 INDEX slotted wing, 334 structural escalation, 98 Smeaton, John, 207, 242 structural testing: Aircraft War Production Smith, George E., X, xi, xiii, 154nn. 59,71,349, Council member research projects, 277; at 352 McCook Field, 53, 54; supersonic Smith, Leroy H., Jr., 153n.57 experiment affected by, 163 Smith, Richard K., 255 strut-and-wire-biplane era, 248-51 Smith, W. Sumpter, 316 Sturtevant Aeroplane Company, 327 Smithsonian Institution, 244, 325 subsidies. See national subsidy soap-film instrument, 239n.52 superchargers, 57 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 266, supersonic flight: axial compressors for, 120-26; 275,280, 284n.37, 314, 327 for commercial aviation, 143, 146; the sound sodium-cooled valve, 212 barrier, 161,253; wind tunnels for, 90,159, Sombart, Werner, 198 161, 163-{)6, 216. See also wing Somervell, Brehon, 315 aerodynamics at supersonic speeds Sopwith, T. O. M., 297 Suppe, Frederick, xi, xii, xiii, 96, 349, 358, 359 sound barrier, 161,253 swept-back wings, 161-74,215,254,334 Southwell, Richard, 228, 233, 235, 239n.52 Swirsky, Sidney, 267 Soviet Union, 185,329 synthetic resin adhesives, 185 space station, viii "Specifications for Municipal Airports" (U.S. Air tachometers, 57, 91 Service), 304 tacit knowledge, 265, 279 specific fuel consumption, 147 tail planes, 224 specific power, 114-15, 144 Talbot, H. E.. , 48, 49 Spirit o/St. Louis (airplane), 45, 212 tape recording: digital, 92-94, 94; magnetic, 92, stability: Bairstow emphasizing control and, 101 227-28,235; National Physical Laboratory Tarrant Tabor, 228 research on, 224-25 Taube, Etrich, 296, 298 Stability in Aviation (Bryan), 224 Taylor, Geoffrey I., 225, 233-34 Stack, John, 254 technologies: ambiguity between human and stage construction, 308, 321n.35 material causation on, 39; choices between, Standard Aero Corporation, 327 188; contextualist history of, 183; culture standardization: Aircraft War Production Council and technological change, 199; defining on, 274, 279-80, 281; of airfoil sections, technology, vii, viii; as differing and alike, 208; of airports, 301, 302, 304, 307-9, vii; international influence on American, 320nn. 32, 33; entering aircraft design and 207, 220n; normal technology, 112, 150n.9, testing, xii; in European World War I aircraft 318n.4; transferring between competing production, 50; of tooling, 266; of wind companies, 259. See also engineering tunnels, 229-32, 235-36 telemetry, 80, 101 Stanton, G. E., 293, 294 Temporary National Economic Committee, 331 Stanton, Thomas, 224, 236n.4 test cells, engine, 71-72, 72 static engine test cells, 71 test data: from airframe flight tests, 90-95; from static pressure-rise coefficient, 152n.35 airframe wind tunnel tests, 86-89; automated stealth technology, x collection of, 100; from engine flight tests, Stedman, E. W., 190, 194 72-81; from engine test cells, 71; first law of Stevens, Albert, 57 scientific data, 96, 97; instrumentation Stillerman, Richard, 344n.56 advances increasing quantity of, 99-100; Stokes, George, 243 kinds of, 69-70; modeling of data, 96, Stott, Samuel, 315 97-99, 100; philosophy of, 96-99; raw data, straight-line assembly system, 268, 269 97,99,233; scale effect, 225-26, 228, strain-gauge pressure transducers, 86 232-35,236; scaling up, 210; second law of streamline-curvature method, 129-32, 130, 138, scientific data, 96; as varying by purpose of 144 test, 67. See also data reduction streamlines, 129, 153n.57 TF-33 engine, 140, 144 streamlining, 251-52 Theodorsen, Theodore, 211, 252, 254 streamtube method, 138 theory -in-use, 18-19 stressed-skin construction, 184,212,328,334 theory of practice, 18, 19 INDEX 381 theory ofthe situation, 18, 19 thrust achieved in, 110; turbofan engine thermocouple apparatus, 70 superseding, 107; two-spool engine, 117-19, thin airfoil theory, 251 137,142; variable geometry compressors, Thomas, Douglas, 209 118. See also Conway engine Thomas, Oliver, 209 turboprop engines: core engines of, 114; Thomas, William, 209-11 economic sense of, 144; principle of Thomas Brothers, 209 operation of, 108; propulsion efficiency of, Thomas-Morse Aircraft Corporation, 209, 327 Itl, Ill; schematic of, 109 Thompson, Floyd, 173 turbulent friction, 172, 173 Thomson, George P., 225 turn-and-bank indicators, 57 through-blade analysis, 154n.65 two-spool engine, 1t7-18, 137, 142 thrust-to-weight ratio, 116, 147 type testing, 67 Ti-6AL-4V titanium, 27 Tiger Moth, 190, 355 United Aircraft Corporation, 214, 215 titanium, 27, 140, 142, 145 United Airlines Flight 173, 17 Tizard, Henry, 227, 228, 237n.12 United Airlines Flight 232,21-34; crash of, 25; tooling, 266, 277, 329 ground track of, 24; hydraulic systems' tooling engineers, 261, 261,262,267,279 failure of, 27, 32, 42n.58; number two Townend, Hubert, 213 engine, 21,23,26; stage I fan of, 26--29, 28, Townend ring, 213 30; things versus persons in responsibility trade journals, 265, 266 for crash 0 t: 38 trailing vortex, 231,233,251 United Kingdom. See Britain transducers: electrical, 73; pressure, 86, 96 United States: aeronautical development as triangular wings, 161, 166, 172, 173 different in, xv; air mail, 209, 301, 319n.25, triple-vacuum heating, 29, 31 328; all-metal airplane development in, 184; Trollip, Stanley, 19 commercial airliner market dominated by, Tubavion monoplane, 290 324; and European technology in interwar turbofan engines, 107-55; advantages over period, 199n.2; expenditures on aviation to turbojet engine, 107; CF-700, 143-44; in 1912, 295; first non-stop coast-to-coast commercial aviation, 107, 108, 146-47; flight, 60; international influence on aviation Conway engine as, 120,352; core engines in, 207-22, 354; McCook Field, 45-68; of, 114, 126--27; as disappearing from view patent system, 330-33; post-World War II 1945-55, 116; early history of, 113-16; aerospace industry, 329-30; university high-bypass turbofan engines, xiii, 108, 146, aeronautical engineering programs, 212-13, 155n.85; JT8D, 107, ItO, lIO; JT9D, 146; 294, 328; wooden aircraft in World War II, Metropolitan-Vickers turbofan, 113, 113, 183,191-99,355,356; World War I aircraft 114, 116, 145; military technology production, 327, 343n.29; World War II transferred to commercial use, x; principle of aircraft production, 329; Wright patent suits operation, 108-12; priority in development allegedly retarding American aeronautics, ix, of, 145; propulsion efficiency of, 11t-12, 289-91, 351. See also National Advisory Ill; RB.211, 146; schematic of, 109; steps Committee for Aeronautics in emergence of, 112; TF-33, 140, 144; with University of Giittingen, 208, 210,229,230, tip Mach numbers above 1.0, 123; why they 231-32,236,294 emerged when they did, 144-50,352. See University of Michigan, 212-13 also CJ805-23 engine; JT3D engine U.S. Air Mail, 209, 30 I, 319n.25, 328 turbojet engines: Avon, 119; CF6, 110, 110, 146; U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, 195, 284n.37 CJ805-3, 118; compressor-bleed engines, 119-20; core engines of, 114; as eclipsing VI speed, 5-6, 14-15 turbofan engine 1945-55, 116; evolution V2 speed, 6 1945-56, 116-20; in Gloster E28/39, 218; Vander Meulen, Jacob A., 326, 342n.7 Goblin, 218; J-47, It 7; J-57, 118, 137, 140, Van Sickle, Neil D., 14 142,145; J-75, 118; J-79, 118, 142; JT3C-6, Van Sickle s Modern Airmanship, 14 It 8, 137, 140, 141, 145; JT4A, 118; in variable geometry compressors, 118 Messerschmitt ME-262 fighter, 215; variable-pitch propeller, 334 principle of operation of, 108; propulsion variable-sweep wings, 334 efficiency of, III, Ill; schematic of, 109; variant (end-member) modeling, 98 382 INDEX Vaughan, Diane, 38 Wiener, Norbert, 103n.56 VC-I0,120 Wilcox, Ward, 153n.45 Vega (aircraft), 186,252 Willow Run facility, 262 Vega (company): in Aircraft War Production Wilson, Edwin, 225 Council, 274, 283n.33; in Boeing-Douglas• Wilson, Woodrow, 210 Vega pool, 26~70, 351; breakdown system, wind tunnels: airframe testing in, 81-90; at Ames 269; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, 275, Aeronautical Laboratory, 159, 161, 163--66; 276, 284n.36 Bairstow's defense of, xii, 223, 235, 35~57; velocity triangles, 115, 122 basic principle of, 250; boundary effects in, Venturi effect, 90 89-90, 90, 9~97; in British aeronautical venturi tubes, 57 research, 223-39; cost of building and vertical flight: autogiros, 2 \3; McCook Field operating, xi; Eiffel's research with, 209, research on, 59. See also helicopters 226,229, 230, 242, 248, 250,293; at French Verville-Sperry Racer, 61 State Airship Factory, 293; Gottingen closed Vickers VC-IO, 120 circuit design, 210; International Trials for Vidal, Eugene, 190-91, 195, 204n.58 standardizing, 229-32, 235-36; Leonardo da Vienna, 292, 297 Vinci on, 250; at McCook Field, 51-52, 54, Vincenti, Walter: case studies in aeronautics, 108; 56; NACA's variable-density, xiv-xv, 54, on design in engineering, 260; on 210,235,294; at National Physical dimensionless groups, 147; on normal Laboratory Teddington, 293-94; Phillips in design, 112; and patents in aviation development of, 243; scale effect in, 225-26, development, 336; on riveting, 200n.l 0, 261, 228,232-35; social organization and 336, 340; on supersonic flow over an airfoil, hierarchy required by, 354-55, 357; ix, x, xi, xiii, 349; on uncertainty in supersonic wind speeds for, 90, 159, 161, engineering, 149; on "ways of thinking," 163--66, 216; transonic wind speeds for, 90; 175-76,241,354 typical turntable and balance mechanism, 84; viscosity, 159, 166, 176,243 Wenham in development of, 207, 243, 250. Voisin, 287, 295 See also Martin, Glenn 1., Wind Tunnel Volta Congress on High-Speed Aeronautics wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds, (1935), 158, 163,211,215,254 157-79; airfoil experiment, 159--61; airfoil von Braun, Wernher, 219, 220 theory, 157-59; Ames Laboratory research von Karman, Theodore: American aeronautics 1946-48, 161-74; knowledge circa 1945, influenced by, xv; at California Institute of 157-{)1; planform experiment, 163--66; Technology, 2\3-14, 294; introducing planform theory, 161--63; planform theory aeronautical research to Japan, 294; and and experiment compared, 166-74 Puckett's work on triangular wings, 161; on wings: ailerons, 23; Davis, 336; delta-shaped, supersonic flow over airfoils, 158 216; flaps, 334,335; laminar flow, 211, 217; Vought-Sikorsky Division (United Aircraft slotted, 334; sweepback of, 161-74,215, Corporation), 214 254,334; triangular, 161, 166, 172, 173; VR speed, 6, 14 variable-sweep, 334; Wright brothers Vultee: in Aircraft War Production Council, 274, discovery of wing-warping, 325. See also 283n.33; and Pacific Aeronautical Library, wing aerodynamics at supersonic speeds 276, 284n.36 wing-warping, 325 wireless telephony, 57 Walcott, Charles D., 208, 209, 327 Wislicenus, G. F., 127, 142, 145 Walsh, Vandervoot, 312, 3\3 Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 359, 360n.l Warner, Edward Pearson, 210, 2 \3 Wolfe, K. B., 194 "ways of thinking," 175-76,354 Wood, Robert McKinnon, 229, 230, 232, 233, Weick, Fred, 252 234 Wenham, Francis, 207, 243, 250 wooden airplanes, 183-205; American Wennerstrom, Arthur, 154n.65 production in World War II, 183, 191-99, Wheaton, Larry Michael, 4-7, 19,21 355, 356; British production in World War White, John H., vii II, 183, 188-89, 195-201,355-56; Canadian Whitehead, Alfred North, 325 production in World War II, 183, 189-91, Whitehead, Gustave, 287 195-201,355,356; Duramold, 186-87, Whittle, Frank, 107, 113, 126, 145, 150n.ll, 218 200n.14; maintenance of, 195; national INDEX 383 preferences regarding, xv, 196-99,355-56; 292; paying more attention to patent suits number produced for World War II, 202n.43; than to aircraft development, 291; as plywood, 186, 187, 191, 195; revival in late quintessentially heroic, viii; and scientific 1930s, 185-88; wood as dominant material interest in powered flight, 248; selling their until early 1930s, 184 planes to the Army, ix, 47, 291; U.S. Woodhead, Harry, 274 government buying out interest of, 326, 333; Woods, John Walter, 319n.27 wing-warping developed by, 325. See also World Cruiser, 52 Wright, Orville; Wright, Wilbur; Wright World War I: American aircraft production patent during, 327, 343n.29; American aviation Wright Field, 46 shortcomings underscored by, 208-9; Fokker Wright Flyer, 248 fighters, 211; McCook Field research, 47, Wright-Martin Company, 291, 325, 326, 327, 48-52; S.E.5 biplane, 248, 249 342n.l9 World War II: Aircraft War Production Council, Wright patent, 287-300; American aeronautics 273-80; American aircraft production allegedly retarded by, ix, 289-91, 351; during, 329; American aviation affected by, bought out by the government, xv, 288; 216; B-29 cooperative production, 270-73; Curtiss suit, 287, 288, 291, 324-26; Boeing-Douglas-Vega B-17 pool, 266-70; European suits, 287-89; Wright brothers engineering exchange during, 259; German paying more attention to patent suits than to research during, 215; wooden airplanes in, aircraft development, 291 188-99, 202n.43, 355-56 Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 46, 53 WPA,315,316 Wu, Chung-Hua, 131, 155n.90 Wright, Lin: in CJ805-23 engine development, 128,128, 131,132,136, 153n.45, 154n.65; X-2,91 joins General Electric, 126, 127, 144 X-I5 rocket: data collection in airframe testing, Wright, Orville: in Day ton-Wright Airplane 92,97; data collection in engine testing, 77, Company, 48; in Germany in 1909,296; on 78,79, 80; European influence on, 218-19 safe places for landing, 30 I; selling out his XB-70 mach 3 bomber, 68, 77, 78, 80-81, 92-95, interest in the firm, 288, 291, 325-26 94 Wright, Theodore Paul, 221 n.l 0 XP-59, 68, 218 Wright, Wilbur: European demonstrations of XP-63A Kingcobra, 74, 92,93 1908, 248, 290; patent battles weakening, XS-I, 92, 157 289 Wright Aeronautical, 212, 218 yaw moment, 81 Wright brothers: ailerons' invention, 23; on Yeager, Chuck, viii aircraft development before World War I, 293; Capper and, 297; as entering the field at Zaharoff, Basil, 293 a late date, 287; European demonstrations of Zahm, Albert F., 208, 209, 295 1908,224,248,290; European influences Zeppelin Company, 238n.3l, 294, 296, 297 on, 207-9; first flights of, 290; infrastructure zero point, 75 of, xi; Lilienthal as inspiration for, xi, 207, Zhukovsky, Nikolay. See Joukowski, Nikolay 325; original configuration of aircraft of, Zurich, 159, 163