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High-Resolution Estimation of Summer Surface Air Temperature in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago

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High-Resolution Estimation of Summer Surface Air Temperature in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago 15 DECEMBER 2002 ATKINSON AND GAJEWSKI 3601 High-Resolution Estimation of Summer Surface Air Temperature in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago DAVID E. ATKINSON AND K. GAJEWSKI Laboratory of Paleoclimatology and Climatology, Department of Geography, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Manuscript received 27 August 2001, in ®nal form 4 June 2002) ABSTRACT In the Canadian high Arctic patterns of temperature are poorly resolved at the mesoscale. This issue is addressed using a model to estimate mean summer surface air temperature at high spatial resolution. The effects on temperature of site elevation and coastal proximity were selected for parameterization. The spatial basis is a 1- km resolution digital elevation model of the region. Lapse rates and resultant wind estimates were obtained from upper-air ascents. These were used to estimate the change in temperature with elevation based on the digital elevation model. Advection effects are handled using resultant winds, air temperature above the ocean, and distance to coast. Model results for 14-day runs were compared to observed data. The two effects captured much of the mesoscale variability of the Arctic climate, as shown by veri®cation with point observational data. Sensitivity analyses were performed on the model to determine response to alterations in lapse rate calculation, sea surface temperature, and wind ®eld generation. The model was most sensitive to the lapse rate calculation. The best results were obtained using a moderate lapse rate calculation, moderate wind ®eld, and variable sea surface temperature. 1. Introduction free, which varies signi®cantly on an annual basis. Land surfaces near the coast experience a typical pattern of Interactions of the earth's surface with the atmosphere maritime attenuation, whereas the interiors of larger is- are particularly evident in the Arctic. Plant survival and lands exhibit continental conditions. Exceptions are ar- growth is closely tied to the climate (Arft et al. 1999) eas near snowpacks or extended ice ®elds, which are and the presence of permafrost is a major in¯uence on cooled in the summer. Topographic complexity also con- landscape dynamics (Williams and Smith 1989). Un- tributes to mesoscale variability in temperature, precip- derstanding such climate±surface interactions is impor- itation, and cloudiness. These factors serve to render tant, as future climate changes are predicted to be greater here than in most areas of the world with a potentially questionable results taken from surface air temperature large impact on the landscape (Watson et al. 1995). plots that are based on interpolation from the few avail- However, at the present time, environmental and pa- able meteorological stations. leoenvironmental research in the Arctic is hampered by Improving the spatial resolution of surface air tem- a lack of mesoscale climate, and most importantly tem- perature estimates is thus an important contribution to perature, data. an understanding of surface climate in this region, and The Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA; Fig. 1) is one that is not forthcoming from the existing obser- served by few meteorological stations. The mean sep- vational network. Two mechanisms exist to better un- aration between stations of the Meteorological Service derstand mesoscale temperature: integrating alternate of Canada (MSC) is 500 km and the representativeness data or information into an analysis (Atkinson et al. of all stations suffers due to local coastal bias and highly 2000; Atkinson 2000; Kahl et al. 1992; Alt and Maxwell varied topography and surface types. Physiography con- 1990) or using empirical (Willmott and Matsuura 1995; tributes to temperature pattern variability at the meso- Daly et al. 1994) or physical models (Trenberth 1992) scale for various reasons. The archipelago is heavily of the atmosphere to augment traditional analyses and/ ®orded, exposing land areas to an ocean that can be ice or data sources. covered, contain isolated ¯oating ice ¯oes, or be ice Maxwell (1980, 1982) used information from histor- ical short-term stations and his own experience to sub- jectively modify isotherms to depict cooler ice ®eld/ Corresponding author address: Dr. David E. Atkinson, Geological upland regions. Alt and Maxwell (1990) employed non- Survey of Canada (Atlantic), Bedford Institute of Oceanography, 1 Challenger Dr., P.O. Box 1006, Dartmouth NS B2Y 4A2, Canada. standard, short-term weather observation data from sev- E-mail: [email protected] eral, more recent sources (e.g., Atkinson et al. 2000) to q 2002 American Meteorological Society Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/28/21 05:03 AM UTC 3602 JOURNAL OF CLIMATE VOLUME 15 uation with the underlying surface. The model described below takes as input the synoptic-scale features of the temperature ®eld, as estimated from the MSC upper-air stations, and modi®es their signal using elevational and coastal proximity data derived from the DEM. 2. Data and model description The model was implemented at a spatial resolution of1km3 1 km. Physical processes accommodated in this model areas follows: x The mean environmental lapse rate speci®c to the time period being modeled, derived using temperature data from rawinsonde ascents at MSC upper-air stations in the study region, is used to de®ne the rate of tem- perature change with elevation. FIG. 1. The CAA. Upper-air stations operated by the MSC are x The mean, low-level wind direction and velocity, de- indicated. rived from rawinsonde ascents, is used to determine the extent to which coastal zones are modi®ed by onshore advective ¯ow. increase spatial detail of a July temperature normal plot x Surface temperatures for locations possessing major for the Queen Elizabeth Islands. Jacobs (1990) linked ice ®elds are stipulated using a linear modi®cation of an automatic weather station to MSC weather stations the base temperature estimate. using transfer functions allowing the generation of data at a ``virtual'' station. Other studies have used the ap- The spatial basis of the model is a DEM of the Ca- proach of guided temperature estimation using a digital nadian Arctic Archipelago, organized as a matrix of 1996 elevation model (DEM) in conjunction with a lapse rate columns by 1833 rows, subset from the U.S. Geological for detailed climate work (Daly et al. 1994; Willmott Survey GTOPO30 DEM of the world (available online and Matsuura 1995; Daly et al. 1997; Daly and Johston at http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/gtopo30/gtopo30.html). Each 1998; Johnson et al. 2000) or to support other types of point represents approximately 1 km2. research (Santibanez et al. 1997; Goodale et al. 1998; The ®rst step in estimating surface air temperature Dodson and Marks 1997). values for each point was to obtain mean environmental In this paper, we describe a semiempirical model of lapse rates for each station. These were generated using the mesoscale summer temperature climate of the Arc- vertical pro®les of dry-bulb temperature obtained from tic. The conceptual basis for the model is that much of twice-daily rawinsonde ascents at stations throughout the spatial variability of the Arctic surface temperature the region (Table 1). The mean ascent curve was de- regime can be accounted for by several processes. Spe- scribed using a ®fth-order polynomial. A high-order ci®cally, we hypothesized that the two most important polynomial was used because it was felt important to contributors to the spatial variability of surface tem- model a shallow, surface inversion that was found to perature patterns at the mesoscale (horizontal scale of be present in many of the ascent pro®les (Figs. 2a,b), tens to hundreds of kilometers) are 1) variation of tem- which are discussed below. perature with elevation, and 2) location with respect to The inversions (Table 1) were smaller in magnitude advective sources of air temperature modi®cation, such than those observed in winter (Bradley et al. 1992; Max- as large bodies of water or ice ®elds. well 1980). Their likely cause is advective, rather than Elevational effects were targeted because many of the radiative, given that the summer net surface radiation islands consist of large central plateaus with a small balance is positive. It was thus assumed that a summer coastal zone. In the northern and eastern parts of the surface inversion at a coastal location is a local-scale archipelago, signi®cant mountainous regions are found. effect that must be removed before using the environ- Concurrent lapse rates applied to site elevations were mental lapse rate to represent interior sites. felt to be the best way to improve estimates of tem- Removal of the inversion involved ®rst detecting the perature in these areas. Advective effects were also in¯ection point on the curve above the inversion using modeled because many of the islands in the CAA are a global-maximum detection algorithm (McCracken and large enough to possess a coast-to-interior heating gra- Dorn 1964). Next, data were extrapolated from this dient that ranges from unimpeded surface heating in the point to the surface using the rate of change that existed interior to coastal locations completely dominated by in the curve above the inversion. The new ascent series maritime air. than had the polynomial equation re®t to it (Fig. 2c). In general, the surface temperature climate at the me- This procedure was veri®ed by comparing estimates of soscale is formed by the interaction of the synoptic sit- surface temperature made by the re®t polynomial to Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/28/21 05:03 AM UTC 15 DECEMBER 2002 ATKINSON AND GAJEWSKI 3603 TABLE 1. Upper-air stations used to generate regional estimates of environmental lapse rate. Frequency of inversions observed in mean ascent curves during model runs (1974±88, 1990) are listed. Value class is height of the inversion maximum in m above the ground. Here GT refers to ``greater than 700 m'' (observed only at the Alaska stations).
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