3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 184

10

Sport and the Media

DAVID STEAD

Overview

→ Context and key issues → The sport–media partnership → The media sports product: influences and outcomes → The media sport audience → Media sport: where to now?

CONTEXT AND KEY ISSUES to income generated directly or indirectly from the media. The way in which sport In many ways, both today’s sport and the fills newspaper pages and television and media are classic outcomes and, indeed, radio schedules bears testimony to the icons of the far-reaching social, economic influence it has on the structure and extent and technological change that charac- of media activity. terised the twentieth century. Each has However, partnerships are not always developed extensively and rapidly as a equal, stable or constructive for those major global industry. Each plays a signifi- involved. In this chapter, consideration will cant part in structuring and informing be given to a number of themes and issues people’s lives. Each has a global as well as that characterise the link between sport and more local scope of operation and has the the media. Difficulties and tensions exist structures and practices to reflect this. but ultimately a media sports product Importantly, they are two industries tied emerges whether it is, for example, a live TV together in complex networks of relation- broadcast of the Olympic Games or a news- ships. Their respective histories of develop- paper report on a local rugby match. This ment have been fuelled and influenced by raises a series of issues about the nature of the dynamics of this partnership. The the product. Does the media presentation evidence of the partnership is all too appar- of sport mirror reality or is it a representation ent. The wellbeing of particular sports or, and a construction reflecting the media’s indeed, sport as whole has become linked objectives and the influences and practices 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 185

Sport and the Media 185

of the professionals working in it? Such has, indeed, become a principal leisure questions will also be considered later but activity and source of information. Through they in turn introduce the part played by it we gather our knowledge not only of our the audience for media sport. For example, immediate world but also of the complex is the viewer knowledgeable about the sports global village in which we now live. It acts products on offer to them and do they exer- as a key socialisation agent and is integral to cise choice about what they view and how framing, determining and influencing our they receive the messages and influences picture of reality. Our experience of sport inherent in the programmes? The chapter has become increasingly constructed and will conclude by addressing this conun- ordered through television output. drum. Questions about the genesis and con- Sport has become ‘big business’. It is now tent of media products and the influences a well-established global industry with impacting on them figure prominently in international organising bodies, like the what is a growing sociology of sport litera- International Olympic Committee (IOC), ture on media sport (see in particular eager to promote and structure its further Kinkema and Harris, 1998; Maguire, 1999; development. Sport, but not necessarily in Rowe, 1999; Wenner, 1998; Whannel, all its forms, has something to sell. It has its 1992). events, leagues, clubs and elite performers. The mass media entered the twentieth Sport can make money but the costs century with the emphasis on the printed involved, not least the large rewards paid to word. Today, in the early years of the the top performers in some sports and the twenty-first century, it is television and capital and revenue expense of increasingly radio that are to the fore. Satellite-based spectacular sports stadiums, has left it with multinational companies like BSkyB TV an insatiable appetite for more and more have appeared on the scene and are now funding. The world of sport is a competitive major players in the global sport media one, not just in terms of which team tops marketplace. There are new developments the league or who wins the gold medal, but like the Internet which have further also which sports are able to attract the extended media activities. Sport has long greatest financial resources. The relation- been an important aspect of media output ship with the media is central to the politi- but more recently there has been a growth cal economy of sport. Traditionally, it was in specialist media sports products. the medium through which key informa- Dedicated sports-only TV channels (e.g. tion like schedules of events/matches, SkySport1), radio stations (e.g. TalkSport), venues and times was transmitted to the and publications (e.g. Sports First) have public. Today, the media, primarily televi- appeared in ever increasing numbers. sion, offer sport-added attractions in terms The exposure to and consumption of of finance from broadcasting fees and expo- media products, including those concerned sure to advertisers, sponsors and a wider with sport, have increased dramatically. A audience. Hence there is the all too appar- Henley Centre report has gone as far as to ent readiness of sports organisations to get suggest that people in the UK spend nine involved with the media. However, along- hours a day consuming media in its various side the obvious benefits come some possi- forms, with television viewing occupying ble costs to sport. To link with the media the equivalent of a day a week. (Financial has meant sport losing a degree of control Mail on Sunday, 31 Jan. 1999: 38). Television over its own activities and destiny. The 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 186

186 The Impact of Commercialisation

promise of media attention and the wide- the bidding and decision-making processes ranging spin-offs (in terms of increased pro- are complex and sensitive. Competition for file, status and finance, greater numbers of broadcasting rights and the prominence of participants and spectators and enhanced sport in media schedules have had a dra- attractiveness to sponsors and advertisers) matic inflationary effect on the fees paid to make such loss of control something sports some sports. An early globally televised organisations appear willing to accept Olympics, such as the 1964 Tokyo Games, (Goldlust, 1987). The ability to appreciate cost the lead broadcaster around £1m. and deal with the full extent of the conse- More recently, it has been reported that the quences of its partnership with the media is US broadcaster NBC has paid the IOC a major challenge confronting sport in the $3.5bn for the rights to the Winter twenty-first century. Olympics of 2002 (Salt Lake City) and 2006 (Turin) and the Summer Olympics of 2004 (Athens) and 2008 (Beijing). These massive sums of money have to be balanced out by THE SPORT–MEDIA PARTNERSHIP the very considerable amount of airtime that can be filled by such events. Indeed, The media: competition sports broadcasting can be seen as a relatively and control cheap way to fill schedules. Sports events can also be particularly useful for the all-impor- The media sport production process tant audience ratings by attracting large num- involves the sports organisations, e.g. the bers of viewers and listeners. For example, ITV Fédération Internationale de Football in the UK attracted 23.2 million viewers, some Association (FIFA), the governing body of 80 per cent of the available television public, world football, working with the media for the England versus Argentina football companies. The sports bodies may do this match at the 1998 World Cup finals. The directly or through intermediary marketing number of viewers peaked to almost 27 mil- and promotional agencies operating on lion during the penalty shoot out! (Sport First, their behalf. They may engage with the 3 Jan. 1999: 16). media as individual companies or in partner- A successful bidder’s production costs for ship with others. The media organisation a major global sports event will involve the concerned may be a quasi-governmental expense incurred in securing the broadcast- body, like the British Broadcasting ing rights plus a heavy investment in Company, or a multinational global com- people, accommodation, travel and equip- mercial one such as BSkyB. A sport has ment. It is not surprising therefore that a something to sell, such as the TV and media company will endeavour to exercise radio broadcasting rights to cover its world considerable control over the event. If the championships, and it is up to the media sporting event concerned is not one that is companies to submit bids. The competition deemed to be particularly attractive, then to to become the agreed lead broadcaster can get the media on board may involve the be intense, although the sheer size of the sports organisation accepting an especially financial undertaking can lead to fierce weak bargaining and control position. Even media rivals working together on a bid. In the when the sports organisation involved is example of FIFA selling the rights to its World powerful, such as the IOC or FIFA, there is Cup, the sums involved are considerable and still a trade-off in terms of a loss of control. 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 187

Sport and the Media 187

This can lead to significant changes in Another important control aspect of sport, for example, to dates, times and global media sport is the power exercised by venues. The actual structure and presenta- the North American media market. The tional style of an event may be strongly upward explosion in certain broadcasting reflective of the media’s interests. Football’s fees has been fuelled largely by US media World Cup competition is an example of a money. Sport on television is particularly particularly large-scale and well-established popular in the USA and the advertising sport event but it is still not immune from revenue the media companies can obtain media preferences. Indeed, loss of control on the back of sports coverage can be enor- needs to be considered whenever a sports mous. For example, advertising slots around organisation, however local and small, gets TV coverage of the American Football’s involved with the media. Many more sports Superbowl can cost many thousands of and events are vying for media money and dollars per second. to an extent, the media, notably television In the UK, the private satellite-based com- with its schedules to fill, are not averse to panies have put themselves in a powerful encouraging sports bodies to approach position with regard to their terrestrial and, them. sometimes, public sector competitors. BSkyB The rise in the numbers and influence of started buying up the right to cover events the private media companies has had a and sports as soon as it appeared in the UK. number of important consequences. The Sport was seen as a particularly useful prod- private sector is characterised by the exis- uct through which to sell subscriptions to its tence of some large-scale monopolistic service. There had always been competition groupings. Global media entrepreneurs like to broadcast some sports. However, the Rupert Murdoch, Alan Bond, Kerry Packer emergence of BSyB injected new dynamism and Silvio Berlusconi have recognised the into the media sport marketplace and high- value of media sport and each has, to a lighted the differential abilities of media varying degree, made a significant impact organisations to compete financially. on the world of sport. BSkyB in the UK, The licence-fee-funded BBC, which for so FoxTV in North America and Channel long had enjoyed a high reputation for its Seven in Australia form just part of sports programming, has found itself Murdoch’s extensive News Corporation unable to match the sports resources avail- media empire. Each has won major sports able in the private sector, principally the contracts and invested heavily in sports- satellite companies. It has lost out on the related programming. Murdoch’s activities rights to cover many major sports or partic- cover radio, TV and newspapers and have ular events and is now criticised for what put him in a powerful position to direct appears to be a lack of commitment to media sport developments. In some cases, sport. Flagship BBC programmes like these multinational media companies have Grandstand, for decades Britain’s leading gone further and strengthened their con- media sports product, has become margin- trolling opportunities by actually moving alised as it has sought to fill its time with an into sport’s ownership through investing in increasingly limited diet of available events. clubs. BSkyB’s ambitious, but eventually From season 2001/02, another symbol of thwarted, attempt to take a controlling the BBC’s long-standing contribution to stake in Manchester United is a telling case sport (i.e. its Saturday evening football in point. highlights programme), has been lost to 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 188

188 The Impact of Commercialisation

another terrestrial channel (i.e. ITV), albeit require the viewer to make a one-off working in partnership with BSkyB. Whilst payment on top of their subscription. The the BBC may be marginalised in the media introduction of BSky B’s ‘pay-to-view’ facility sport marketplace, other UK media organi- (i.e. Sky Box Office), is representative of sations like ITV and Channel 4 have looked what may be the greatest challenge to wide to increase their involvement. The latter access to media sport. has wide sporting interests and has invested Governments, particularly in the European in motor racing, Italian football, WWF Union, have been encouraged to respond to (wrestling) and cricket. To a degree, compe- this equity concern, particularly when it is tition for sports to cover has extended the access to major national sporting events choice for the television viewer but the ques- that is coming under threat. In 1996, ironi- tion of access is a somewhat more complex cally one media form (newspapers), led a question. ‘Save our Sport’ campaign in the UK which opposed the movement of sports events to the satellite companies. Government inter- Issues of access and equity vention was called for. The campaign arose in response to Sky buying up, and attempt- As media sport has risen in prominence, so ing to monopolise, the media coverage of questions have to be asked about whether top sporting events. An example of Sky’s this represents sport for all or only for some. success was the obtaining of the rights to The extensive involvement of satellite com- golf’s Ryder Cup. The significance and con- panies and their array of dedicated sports- cerns at the time can be summed up in the only channels have clearly led to a major following quote from a disgruntled BBC extension of the range and number of producer: ‘They’ve sold it to a station sports choices available to viewers. nobody watches. It’s like buying Gone with However, this has come at a financial cost the Wind and showing it at the bottom of a to the viewer in terms of the equipment coalmine’. (The Mail on Sunday, 14 Jan. (e.g. satellite discs) and regular subscrip- 1996: 86). In the UK, there are a number of tions that are required. These kinds of ‘jewels in the sporting calendar’, like the financial factors, allied to the satellite com- Football Association’s Cup Final and the panies’ growing domination of broad- Wimbledon tennis championships, which casting rights, highlight the issue of equity are on a special government list requiring in the sense of media sport becoming them to be broadcast on terrestrial TV. This primarily the preserve of those people who list has protected opportunities for the can afford it. Interestingly, the greater media sport consumer but it is a safeguard involvement, indeed in some ways the constantly under threat as the satellite re-emergence, of ITV in the media sport media companies see a valuable and popu- marketplace has been through the introduc- lar commodity beyond their grasp and the tion of a subscription-based channel. The sports organisations involved see poten- financial implications for the viewer are tially lucrative events being kept out of the likely to become even more problematic as broadcasting rights marketplace. the private companies offer more sport on a Interestingly, both FIFA and the IOC have ‘pay-to-view’ basis. This involves events (e.g. resisted approaches from BSkyB on the boxing championships and selected English grounds that a satellite-based broadcaster Premier League football matches), which did not offer access to the highest possible 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 189

Sport and the Media 189

audience. This is not to say that FIFA and backdrops ‘wallpapered’ with advertising the IOC have not gone some way towards hoardings. Sport has become more of a appeasing the media. Both these world product that is manufactured, bought and bodies have extended the number and the sold. The sports organisations have gone scale of their international flagship events. along with this and, increasingly, have used In doing so they have provided even more agents and marketing companies to get broadcasting opportunities. The FIFA World their particular products into the media Cup finals now involve more teams than sport market place. Thus further complexity previously and the event extends over a to the web of interdependencies that char- longer time period. Such specific changes in acterises media sport has been introduced. sport are now, to a large extent, often part The media/sport production complex that of a deliberate response to the pressures and has emerged today comprises the sports promises of being part of the media sport organisations, the media marketing organi- partnership. sations and the media personnel (Wenner, 1989). Sometimes a sport jumps before it is The media involvement in the pushed and, in a quest to make itself attrac- changing face of sport tive as a media product, has been keen to introduce changes itself. Highly traditional Media’s increasing involvement in, and aspects of the sporting experience disappear control over, sport and sports organisations or are diluted. English football was once a has put it in a powerful position to dictate Saturday afternoon ritual: today it has the characteristics of events or, indeed, even become almost a daily event as the televi- to change fundamental aspects of a sport sion companies endeavour to fill their (e.g. its rules). Sport’s sovereignty over its schedules and, importantly, maximise the own destiny has weakened. In essence, the return on the considerable sums they have media have come to play an increasingly invested in the game. Not only can the influential part in both the construction sporting day change, but so too can the and destruction of sporting structures and season. English Rugby League, traditionally practices. The media have been influential a winter sport, has now developed a seem- in the genesis and development of new ingly made-for-television summer Super competitions, events and leagues. New League characterised by a quest for enter- sport forms have appeared and old ones tainment and impact (Falcous, 1998). Clubs have become marginalised. Rules have been have changed their names (e.g. to the changed and playing conditions revised so Bradford ‘Bulls’), so as to enhance the spec- as to enhance media coverage. Even the tacle and to offer potentially more commer- clothes athletes wear and the equipment cial spin-offs. Rugby League in England has they use have come to reflect media-related come under increasing competition for interests. The colours and designs can add funding and exposure; the newly profes- to the spectacle and the drama. Names on sional rugby union game has emerged as the players’ kit help the viewer. Sponsors’ one notable threat. The media-inspired logos proliferate. Opportunities to link Super League has offered salvation, even media, sport and commerce are all too though the trade-off has involved the loss readily available. For example, the increas- of traditions and even the disappearance or ingly spectacular sports stadiums provide downgrading of long-established and 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 190

190 The Impact of Commercialisation

famous clubs. There are numerous examples which apparently ends when the referee where sports with a record of limited or receives the signal that the TV advertising reducing attraction to media companies has been completed. have tried to encourage interest. It is not Another area of sports development always easy to establish the extent to which particularly reflective of media involvement the push originated from the media compa- has been the growth in the ‘big event’. The nies. Night games and coloured clothing proliferation of high-profile and spectacular and many other changes in cricket, tighter events, notably global championships and ‘figure hugging’ clothing in a number of competitions (e.g. Rugby Union World female sports (e.g. netball), and rule Cup), has given the media access to larger changes to speed up play (e.g. hockey), are and more varied audiences and hence just a few examples of sports trying to add greater potential in terms of recruiting to the glamour and spectacle and thus make advertisers. The media can also be seen as a them more marketable. central factor in the emergence of new Specific timetabling changes in sports sports (e.g. beach volleyball and beach foot- events have been made that are all too ball). Attention has also been focussed on clearly about meeting the needs of the the way in which media companies have media. Events are sometimes held at times attempted to extend the wider global diffu- that would not appear to be in the best sion of sports. The initiatives taken by a interests of the athletes involved, but which partnership of the NFL, its sponsors and fit in with the viewing habits of the primar- media companies to make American foot- ily North American television audience. ball a global game are prime examples Olympic or World Championship marathons (Maguire, 1990). A somewhat less far-reach- run at the hottest time of the day and a ing but nevertheless revealing initiative has number of high-profile heavyweight boxing been the coverage of Japanese Sumo championships in the early hours of the wrestling, which has appeared on European morning are cases in point. In the UK, foot- television schedules. ball and rugby matches are not only played Sports, large and small, are vying for on non-traditional days, but lunchtime or media attention, exposure and money but early evening kick-offs have become part of the experience of the media sport partner- the experience. Sports agree to such condi- ship is by no means the same for all tions so as to secure the best broadcasting of them. fees. However, whether such decisions benefit the spectator or are consistent with the wellbeing of the athletes concerned is Who are the winners and losers? questionable. The commercial media gain much of their income from advertising, The greater penetration of the media into hence the introduction of more or longer the world of sport has had an impact on the breaks in sports events. North American relative status of particular sports and also sport, in so many ways the exemplar of the on relationships within sports. Sports that practical realisation of media influence, is are especially attractive to the media (e.g. characterised by action frequently and football), have gained far greater status, deliberately punctuated by the ‘time-outs’ exposure and economic wealth compared or other breaks in proceedings. Association with other sports. The more glamorous football has a ‘15-minute’ halftime break football clubs in the Premier League, with 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 191

Sport and the Media 191

the wealth of their BSkyB/ITV contracts to Media sport is about a production support them, have been able to distance process. As media intrusion into sport con- themselves from the rest of the clubs in tinues to grow, it becomes more important England. The economic and political dis- to delve more deeply into the actual nature tance between sports and between clubs of the media sport product, how it is devel- and leagues has widened. The media have oped and the objectives behind it. The par- helped fuel this in a direct sense by their ticular ways in which the media structure, patronage and contracts, but as sponsors direct and influence the public’s experience and advertisers gravitate to the more glam- of sport and with what impact are now key orous and high-profile sports, events, concerns. They are more relevant when one leagues and clubs, so the differentials fur- considers the significant degree to which ther increase. The introduction of media people now gain their sports knowledge money and influence has also had an and understanding through the media impact in pulling elite sport away from its rather than through direct personal roots. Elite sport, with its media-supported involvement in spectating and participa- emphasis on spectacle, personalities and tion. As implied earlier, the media’s objec- financial rewards, can become a somewhat tive in engaging with sport is based largely alien activity for the recreational-level par- on the profit motive. For the government- ticipant, who may have difficulty relating supported media bodies there is the respon- to it as the same sport. sibility of providing a public service. The The elite performers in a number of production process involves the media pro- sports have become all too aware of their fessionals using their knowledge and exper- marketability as part of the media sport tise to develop media sports products that package and also of the vast amounts of reflect their ability and proficiency, and in media money that have flowed into sport. doing so they are, in part, seeking to Aided by the emergence of agents working enhance their status and reputation, not on their behalf, an increasing number of least amongst their peers. These kinds of elite athletes have sought and obtained objectives impact on what is produced. very high salaries or substantial prize money. This has further alienated athletes from the people who watch them on tele- THE MEDIA SPORT PRODUCT: vision and who read about them in the CHARACTERISTICS, IN-LUENCES newspapers. Whilst all this media attention AND OUTCOMES and money may raise the profile and status of elite athletes, this may also contribute to Much of what has been discussed has centred a more restricted life for them. They are on sport’s interrelationship with television now in the public eye and have become and radio. The latter elements of the media part of the media sport spectacle. Their are the ones injecting finance into sport and, degree of control over their own lives is increasingly, wishing to assume a greater brought into question. The media creates degree of control. However, the media sports sporting personalities to help sell their pro- products on offer also include the printed grammes and newspapers and this involves word, the traditional mediated way that athletes being media commodities in situa- sports knowledge and understanding have tions that can extend way beyond the been conveyed to the public at large. This direct sporting context. section examines the specific nature of the 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 192

192 The Impact of Commercialisation

media sports product and what is influencing countries suggests the heavy influence this. Therefore much of what is discussed of such ideological factors as capitalism, reflects the activities of newspapers and other nationalism, patriarchy and racism (Gruneau, printed media as well as television and radio. 1989b; Whannel, 1992; Sage, 1990). Each of these factors may reflect the ideological Meanings and messages biases evident within the ownership and control of the increasingly domi- nant multinational media companies and, Reference has been made to the higher profile indeed, the dominant values in a particular of elite athletes and how the media have been society. instrumental in bringing this about. However, personality creation is only one of the ways in which the media influence and Capitalism direct the sporting experience for their Media sport is an area of endeavour where customers. This structuring of knowledge, capitalist virtues can come to the fore, not messages and meanings inherent in media least in the prevalence of the profit motive sport products has become an increasingly (Lawrence and Rowe, 1986, McKay and researched and significant area of interest Rowe, 1987). The media, a key cultural (Lawrence and Rowe, 1986; McKay and Rowe, industry and so much a symbol and vehi- 1987; Sage, 1990; Whannel, 1992). It is a field cle of capitalist interests, have become, of enquiry that encompasses interest in the through sports pages and programming, a ideological content of sports coverage and source of support for ownership values and reporting and, in particular, how this reflects priorities. Media’s implicit and explicit the dominant values and ideology prevalent support for the dominance of monopoly in society. A principal focus is on the ways in capitalism has contributed to the resilience which the media transmit the values and sup- of capitalism in society and for the status port the political and economic objectives of quo in the way society is stratified. The their owners and controllers. At a different inculcation and acceptance of the desired level, there is the interest in the roles played characteristics of the ‘workplace’ are by the media professionals and the nature fostered. The value of hard work and the and impact of their particular production spirit of free enterprise are characteristics codes and techniques on media sports prod- to be found in sport that the media may ucts. In summary, the challenge is to examine choose to emphasise and describe in the degree to which what the media audience noticeably positive terms. An adherence to is exposed not to a neutral and objective pre- the work ethic is deemed worthy of sentation of reality, but rather to a packaged particular praise. Core sporting characteris- representation and construction imbued with tics such as competitiveness and teamwork ideological content and reflective of the prac- are highlighted. An athlete’s power, aggres- tical and professional interests of the produc- sion and competitiveness are applauded. tion staff involved (Gruneau et al., 1988). The Olympic motto, Citius, Altius, Fortius, emphasises the challenge of getting ‘Faster, Textual messages and meanings Higher and Stronger’. It is not surprising therefore that sport, particularly as it has Research into the textual messages con- become increasingly commercialised, has tained in the media sport output of various been seen by the media ownership as a site 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 193

Sport and the Media 193

for promulgating capitalist values and host countries’ matches against Spain and interests.The USA can be portrayed as the Germany respectively (Maguire and leader in promoting the role and impor- Poulton, 1999). Newspaper coverage of tance of capitalism. It is also a world leader events can involve the use of photographs in media sport. Bring these factors together and headlines to underline the stances and it is clear why the Americanisation being taken. A proliferation of national tendencies found in media sport produc- flags and colours on the sports pages (and tion can be highlighted and explained in even front pages) and emotive banner head- terms of monopoly capitalist domination. lines may serve to direct the reader’s inter- American media sport glorifies organisa- est and enthusiasm. These kinds of media tion and leadership. The qualities and devices can be used extensively in the ambitions inherent in the Olympic motto coverage of events. Story lines strongly are particularly evident in US media reflective of nationalist interests are devel- and sport. There is also the fascination oped and presented. with sporting statistics to back up such interests. Patriarchy

Nationalism Gender bias and inequality are evident in both sport and media. It is not unexpected Sociological research has highlighted the therefore that patriarchy is a characteristic significance of media sport as a site for of sport media products. It is an area that nationalistic fervour and national stereo- has come under close and extensive typing (Maguire, 1999; Rowe et al., 1998). scrutiny (see, for example, Birrell and Cole, Nationalities can be promoted or put down. 1994; Duncan and Hasbrook, 1988; The home country’s athletes and teams are Eastman and Billings, 2000; Theberge, portrayed as heroes and their opposition as 1989; Williams et al., 1986). Media sport the villains of the piece. Sporting events can ownership and production are male domi- be used a vehicle for calling for unity within nated; sport and media sport are important a nation and for a show of allegiance. aspects of culture which help to underpin Media-led national and local campaigns can male hegemony in society (Birrell and be established to encourage the public to Theberge, 1994). Of particular attention to rally to the cause. Heightened emotional researchers has been the way in which the attachment can sell newspapers and recruit media disregard and marginalise women’s viewers and listeners. Nostalgic memories of sport (Daddario, 1994). Female athletes and past triumphs can be evoked as a way of sports get little coverage in the media rela- ‘rallying the troops’. Whilst victories of a tive to their male counterparts. It is rare to sporting nature (e.g. the, 1966 England find newspaper column inches and photo- football World Cup success), can be revis- graphs allocated to women’s sport. Few ited by the media, it is not unusual for audi- female sports are to be found in television ences to be reminded of events of a schedules and those that are tend to be non-sporting nature. For example, during given a low profile. the Euro ’96 Football Championship held in Not only is the quantity of the media England, the British media drew attention coverage of women’s sport highly limited, to the Spanish Armada and the Second but its form and quality have also to be World War as part of the build-up to the questioned. The media are seen to stereotype, 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 194

194 The Impact of Commercialisation

trivialise and sexualise female athletes is that the sporting achievements of certain (Duncan, 1990; Duquin, 1989; MacNeil, groups can either be celebrated or played 1988). Sportswomen are either put down as down in the sports media. In a similar not fitting male perceptions of appropriate fashion to gender, stereotyping based on femininity or they are glamorised. Attention racial or ethnic lines may also be evident has been drawn to photographic approaches (Davis and Harris, 1998). For example, black that highlight and emphasise the physical male athletes may well be applauded in the characteristics and attractiveness of some media for their aggression and physicality female athletes. The narrative that is whilst their hard work and intelligence are attached to the media output is of a similar disregarded. In contrast, it is the latter nature, often with sporting prowess dis- attributes that the media assign to the white regarded or played down. There are fewer athletes. On television the performance of high-profile female athletes, a fact reflective black athletes is frequently linked to such of the low media attention paid to women’s stereotypical attributes as natural ability sport in general. Those that do exist usually and tactical naïvety (Whannel, 1992: 129). correspond to stereotypical images which Racism in the media can also be seen to frequently view sporting ability as a seem- reflect a kind of nationalistic prioritisa- ingly secondary consideration. An example tion. International success by black British is the extensive media coverage afforded to athletes can get played down in comparison the Russian tennis player, Anna Kournikova: to similar successes achieved by their white media interest has focused primarily on her counterparts. physical attributes rather than her prowess The above kinds of ideological influences on court. are important considerations when examin- The connection between gender in media ing media sport but so too are the particular sport extends beyond the treatment of professional approaches of the people who female sport and athletes. There is the actually put together the programmes and interest in how the media report male sport. newspapers. This can encompass a concern with the treatment of violence in sport (Young and The media professionals Smith, 1989) and the imagery associated with male bodies and masculinity (Trujillo, The media professionals (e.g. producers, 1995; Messner et al., 2000). directors, commentators, reporters and cameramen) exist to produce a media sports Racism package that aims to attract, interest and excite their audience. They work in a par- The ownership control of the major global ticularly competitive working environment. media institutions is dominated by white The emphasis is on making the product males. National media reflect dominant attractive and to this end it is sometimes racial and ethnic interests (Tudor, 1998). difficult to establish where the sport starts The background, values and practices of the and the media event ends. Selling a tele- professionals working in the media and in vised sports programme is the paramount sport are usually consistent with such con- concern. Often sport is sold as ‘showbiz’ cerns. The consequence of all these factors with similar characteristics to the Hollywood 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 195

Sport and the Media 195

‘thriller’ or the weekly ‘soap opera’. It not and build-up, the nature of the presentation surprising that what emerges is a distorted and its placement in the programming and packaged representation of reality schedules help to provide the audience with rather than a neutral, objective and natural information and points of reference to help presentation. Neutrality is clearly a debat- explain what is going to happen and why it able point, as the evidence of the ideologi- is significant. There is often harking back to cal content referred to above illustrates. The previous events that are deemed to have a various professionals working in television bearing on what is about to take place. and radio attempt to naturalise events for Statistics and other historical material are their audience. They bring to bear the skills presented to contextualise what is about and technical developments. They endeav- to happen. our to provide atmosphere and to encour- age a feeling of attachment to what is happening. They present the event as being Media sport production an experience of reality. The media compa- nies may bill sporting programmes as pro- The ways in which meanings and messages viding a ‘ringside seat’, but in many ways are organised and influenced are reflected nothing could be further from the truth. So in the narrative, audio-visual and technical much is missed by not being present at the and presentational/packaging aspects and event and so much is added by the media objectives of the media sports product. The professionals. Not all your senses are media personnel involved are the commen- brought to bear. The media sports experi- tators and reporters, photographers, camera ence is not the same as being there live at operators, sound technicians, producers, the event. editors and directors. These production Sociological research has suggested a aspects and individuals are central to what number of key characteristics of the media is, in essence, a process of event construc- sports product (Gruneau, 1989a; McKay and tion undertaken by the media. Increasingly, Rowe, 1987; Whannel, 1992). Each of these media sports programmes are being devel- characteristics reflects the way in which oped with the following important charac- media professionals work to a series of teristics to the fore. codes, conventions, assumptions and There is, first, a growing emphasis on approaches. The outcome is to move the spectacularisation (Gruneau, 1989a; Sewart, audience away from a sporting and towards 1987). Reference has already been made to a media experience. The media interpret the growth of the big global sporting occa- happenings and provide their audience sions. These offer opportunities to add vari- with explanations and meanings. They ety, colour and impact, to enhance the structure our knowledge and understanding entertainment element and to provide a for us. What is offered is not inevitable. wealth of material for the ‘big build-up’ to Decisions are taken for the audience; you the event. The Olympics have gone far are directed what to see and read and how beyond the status of a sports event. The to make sense of it. The media professionals opening ceremonies have become spectacu- construct and frame the sport experience lars tailor-made for the medium of global their audience. The pre-event advertising television. 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 196

196 The Impact of Commercialisation

Box 10.1 The choreography of the opening of an Olympics: a made-for-television spectacular

Spectacular stadiums and locations. A confined and defined space. Colour, banners and flags. Parades of athletes. Dancers and music. Nationalism and internationalism. Youthfulness. Oaths and speeches. Nostalgia and vision. Symbolism: a release of doves (peace), the entrance of the Olympic Torch and the lighting of the flame.

A second powerful characteristic of media and microphones the moment their event/ sport production is that of dramatisation. match is over. Cameras are now even going The media professionals set up story lines into changing rooms. around the sporting event and the indivi- A third aspect of media construction is the duals involved. They work to script the process of personalisation that is undertaken. event so as to excite. They provide pre-event Individual sportspeople are highlighted, discussion and analysis. The audience’s built up and examined, often in great detail. appetite and anticipation are heightened by Media sport superstars are born. Post- the extent and form of the build-up that the event/match press conferences are now a media provides. The media endeavour to fact of life for many athletes. Both sporting create or home in on tension, emotion and and non-sporting lives come under the incidents. Suspense, conflict and confronta- media microscope. Great deeds or misde- tion are emphasised so as to add to the meanours of the past are resurrected and dramatic effect. Event creation has already inspected. The audience is encouraged to been discussed but the media may go further associate with and warm to an individual. than just helping in the establishment of a Alternatively they may be asked to view an particular competition or the development individual in less than favourable terms of new sport; they may create happenings Heroes and villains are created. Interpersonal within events. For example, a head-to-head rivalries are highlighted, indeed invented by encounter between the top two track and the media. The media’s obsession with the field athletes from a particular discipline relationship between Sebastian Coe and can provide the drama and personalisation Steve Ovett is a classic example (Whannel, on which the media thrive. Television and 1992: 140–8). An interesting example from radio seek to heighten the dramatic impact British media sport is the footballer, Vinnie by offering the audience a sense of immedi- Jones, labelled by the media as a ‘hard man’ acy. The television sport presentation aims characterised by his uncompromising way to provide that ringside seat mentioned ear- of playing. Reference was frequently made lier. The media claim to get their audience to his past offences and colourful discipli- as close as possible to the action: replays, nary record. Ironically and perhaps reveal- camera angles and interviews are employed ingly, Vinnie was later to find stardom as a to enhance this effect. Stump cameras in stereotypical villain and ‘hard man’ in cricket coverage get you close to action. You another media form, that of films. too can see what it is like to face the bowl- Often criticised but much in evidence in ing! Athletes today face a barrage of cameras the construction of media sport production 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 197

Sport and the Media 197

is the use of expert analysis. The wise head to which they are exposed. Are they able to with the penetrating insights to aid the lead make informed choices about what they commentator and the panel of experts to see, hear and read? One viewpoint main- tell us what is going and why have now tains that the audience does exercise free become the norm in so many sports presen- choice and is essentially receiving the sports tations. Love them or hate them, these media products that they want. Their individuals (usually former players or wishes are reflected in the output from the managers/coaches) are there to take a role media companies and the professionals in educating the members of the audience, who work for them. The media are viewed directing them to the salient aspects of as neutral and pluralist, reflecting the diver- what is about to or has happened and, sity in their audience and respecting the importantly, to structure and influence sovereignty of their consumers. A contrary their opinions. viewpoint sees the media sport audience as These various media sport construction one lacking in knowledge and experience. characteristics are reinforced and enabled Despite physical improvements in the by the actual technical conventions and many sports venues and the attempts by devices employed in the media world. In sports organisations to make the ‘live’ expe- newspapers, sports reporting is developed rience a pleasurable and exciting one, for an and enhanced through the skills of the edi- increasing number of people, their experi- tors, headline writers and photo-journalists. ence of elite sport is solely through the Sports reporting lends itself to the emotive media. The ‘couch spectator’ has before and ‘catchy’ headline and to the dramatic them a wealth of media sports products to or heart-rending photograph. Often a choose from, together with a growing array picture can send a stronger message than of gadgetry to make the involvement more words. In television, the programme direc- interesting and personal. Interactive televi- tor is central to making the most of the sion, with the ability to choose highlights, media opportunities available. They are to select camera angles and to have facts aided in this task by skilled camera and and figures at the press of a button, is pro- sound work. A camera angle obtained and moted as superior to being present at the then selected by the director can add to the event. It can be argued that one aspect of spectacle and drama of the occasion. Event the changing nature of this engagement location can help: the coverage of swim- with sport is a reduction in first-hand ming events at the Barcelona Olympics in, knowledge of what actual goes on at the 1992 will long be remembered for the spec- ‘live’ event. The sporting knowledge-base of tacular backdrop of the city. Similarly sound – the audience is therefore reduced and thus imported or at the actual event – can be renders them more susceptible to the inter- used to direct the attention and interest of pretations provided by the media. the audience.

MEDIA SPORT: WHERE TO NOW? THE MEDIA SPORT AUDIENCE The media set fashions but are also influ- A major question surrounding media sport enced by wider social change. They are con- is the role played by the audience. Are they scious of the importance of keeping their knowledgeable about the media sport product viewers, listeners and readership. Ratings 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 198

198 The Impact of Commercialisation

and sales and linked advertising revenues Internet, may have a profound effect on are crucial and are monitored carefully. media sport production. This is yet another Sport, by engaging with the media, has unknown factor to take into account. New increasingly linked itself with what is a players in what will become an increasingly volatile industry built powerfully on the global media sport marketplace, perhaps profit motive. It is also a highly competitive more specialised media sports companies, industry with media sport broadcasting may further enhance the money flowing rights a sensitive and significant battle- into sport, but will the patterning still ground. Media commitment to sport, and remain in terms of which sports benefit and more particularly to certain sports or which do not? The extension of ‘pay-to- events, can change, leaving an ever more view’ ways of marketing and receiving dependent world of sport vulnerable to media sports products is highly likely and instability. How elite commercialised sport therefore, the issues of access and equity are continues to operate in such an environ- unlikely to disappear in the short term. ment will be of particular interest. Further How the media sport audience reacts to far-reaching changes in some sports and in these kinds of developments will be vital. some events may result. Will the line The media live or die on the success or not between what counts as sport entertain- of their ratings or circulation. Will media ment and what counts as media entertain- sport still retain massive audiences in the ment become even more blurred? The years ahead or will the public discover par- initial inroads made by media companies ticipation and ‘live’ spectating to be far into direct ownership of sport may well be more satisfying? In doing so, will the audi- extended. This would fundamentally alter ence come to recognise that what they have the balance of power within the media been receiving as media sport has moved sport partnership and enhance the likeli- too far away from what sport should be hood of a growth in ‘made-for-television’ about? Inevitably the answers lie in the sport. Is the rise to prominence of WWF capacity of the public to influence their wrestling the shape of things to come? own media usage habits and the ability of Developments in the forms and technical the media, in all its forms, to keep its audi- aspects of media, principally the use of the ences contented with what is offered.

Chapter summary

• Sport and the media have both a global and a local scope of operation and are bound together in a complex network of relationships. • Since the 1980s the value of sport to media companies and their investment in sport have grown dramatically. • The power of the small number of major media companies raises important issues of access and equity, especially with the growth of pay-to-view sports events. • While the media have demonstrated a considerable capacity to influence the character and development of sport, it should be noted that there is little evidence of resistance to commodification from sports bodies or athletes. (Continued) 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 199

Sport and the Media 199

(Continued)

• Sports media generally promote and reinforce a distinctive set of values associated with capitalism, nationalism, patriarchy and racism. • The media production process emphasises spectacle, drama and personalisation.

-urther reading

Wenner’s edited volume (1998), Gruneau et al. (1988) and Rowe (1999) provide sound general introductions to the field. Birrell and Cole (1994) and Daddario (1994) explore the relationship between media and gender. Davis and Harris (1998) and Tudor (1998) explore the interrelationship between the media and race and ethnicity, and Rowe et al. (1998) exam- ine the impact of the media on sport and nationalism. As regards the role of the media in relation to particular sports, Maguire (1990) offers an analysis of the role of the media in the promotion of American football in Britain and Lawrence and Rowe (1986) provide a similar analysis of cricket. :inally, Young and Smith (1989) and Theberge (1989) explore the treat- ment of violence in sport by the media.

RE-ERENCES Eastman, S.T. and Billings, A.C. (2000) ‘Sportscasting and sports reporting. The Birrell, S. and Cole, L.C. (eds) (1994) Women, power of gender bias’, Journal of Sport and Sport and Culture. Champaign, IL: Human Social Issues, 24 (2): 192–213. Kinetics, pp. 245–322. Falcous, M. (1998) ‘TV made it all a new game: Birrell, S. and Theberge, N. (1994) ‘Ideological not again! Rugby league and the case of the control of women in sport’, in D.M. Costa and “Superleague”’, Occasional Papers in Football S.R. Guthrie (eds), Women in Sport: Studies: 4–21. Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Champaign, IL: Goldlust, J. (1987) Playing for Keeps: Sport, the Human Kinetics, pp. 341–60. Media and Society. Melborne: Longman. Daddario, G. (1994) ‘Chilly scenes of the 1992 Gruneau, R. (1989a) ‘Making spectacle: a case Winter Games: the mass media and the study in television sports production’ in marginalisation of female athletes’, Sociology L. Wenner (ed.), Media, Sports and Society. of Sport Journal, 11 (3): 275–88. London: Sage, pp. 134–56. Davis, L.R. and Harris, O. (1998) ‘Race and Gruneau, R. (1989b) ‘Television, the Olympics ethnicity in US sports media’ in L.A. Wenner and the question of ideology’, in R. Jackson (ed.), MediaSport. London: Routledge, and T. McPhail (eds), The Olympic Movement pp. 154–69. and the Mass Media: Past, Present and Future Duncan, M.C. (1990) ‘Sports photography and Issues. Calgary, AL: Hurford Enterprises 7, sexual difference. Images of women and men pp. 23–34. in the, 1984 and 1988 Olympic Games’, Gruneau, R., Whitson, D. and Cantelon, H. Sociology of Sport Journal, 7 (1): 22–43. (1988) ‘Methods and media: studying the Duncan, M.C. and Hasbrook, C. (1988) ‘Denial sports/television discourse’, Society and Leisure, of power in televised women’s sport’, Sociology 11 (2): 265–81. of Sport Journal, 5: 1–21. Kinkema, K.M. and Harris, J.C. (1998) Duquin, M. (1989) ‘Fashion and fitness images ‘MediaSport studies: key research and emerg- in women’s magazine advertisements’, Arena ing issues’ in L.A. Wenner (ed.), MediaSport. Review, 13: 97–109. London: Routledge, pp. 27–54. 3068-Ch10.qxd 12/3/02 7:52 PM Page 200

200 The Impact of Commercialisation

Lawrence, G. and Rowe, D. (1986) ‘The corpo- image’, in L.A. Wenner (ed.), Mediasport. rate pitch: televised cricket under capitalism’, London: Routledge, pp. 119–33. in G. Lawrence and D. Rowe (eds), Power Play: Sage, G. (1990) Power and Ideology in American the Commercialization of Australian Sport. Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Sydney: Hale & Iremonger, pp. 166–78. Sewart, J. (1987) ‘The commodification of sport’, MacNeil, M. (1988) ‘Active women, media rep- International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 22 resentations and ideology’ in J. Harvey and (3): 171–92. H. Cantelon, (eds), Not Just a Game: Essays in Theberge, N. (1989) ‘A feminist analysis of Canadian Sport Sociology. Ottawa: University of responses to sports violence: media coverage Ottawa Press, pp. 195–211. of the, 1987 world junior hockey champi- McKay, J. and Rowe, D. (1987) ‘Ideology, the onship’, Sociology of Sport Journal, 6: 247–56. media and Australian sport’, Sociology of Sport Trujillo, N. (1995) ‘Machines, missiles and men: Journal, 4 (3): 258–73. images of the male body on ABC’s Monday Maguire, J. (1990) ‘More than a sporting “touch- Night Football’, Sociology of Sport Journal, 12 down”. The making of American football in (4): 403–23. Britain l982–1989’, Sociology of Sport Journal, Tudor, A. (1998) ‘Sports reporting: race, differ- 7: 213–37. ence and identity’ in K. Brants, J. Hermes and Maguire, J. (1999) Global Sport. Identities, L. van Zoonen (eds), The Media in Question. Societies, Civilizations. Cambridge: Polity Press, London: Sage. pp. 144–206. Wenner, L.A. (ed.) (1998) Mediasport. London: Maguire, J. and Poulton, E. (1999) ‘European Routledge. identity politics in EURO 96: invented tradi- Whannel, G. (1992) Fields in Vision: Television tions and national habitus codes’, Sport and Cultural Transformation. London: International Review for the Sociology of Sport, Routledge. 34 (1): 17–29. Williams, C., Lawrence, G. and Rowe, D. (1986) Messner, M.A., Dunbar, M. and Hunt, D. (2000) ‘Patriarchy, media and sport’ in G. Lawrence ‘The televised sports manhood formula’, and D. Rowe (eds), Power Play: the Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 24 (4): Commercialization of Australian Sport. Sydney: 380–94. Hale & Iremonger, pp. 215–29. Rowe, D. (1999) Sport, Culture and the Media. Young, K. and Smith, M. (1989) ‘Mass media Buckingham: Open University Press. treatment of violence in sports and its effects’, Rowe, D., McKay, J. and Miller, T. (1998) ‘Come Current Psychology: Research and Reviews, 1: together: sport, nationalism and the media 298–312.