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Inorganic Semiconductor Nanowires: Rational Growth, Assembly, and Novel Properties

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Inorganic Semiconductor Nanowires: Rational Growth, Assembly, and Novel Properties P. Yang et al. 1260 ¹ WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2002 0947-6539/02/0806-1260 $ 17.50+.50/0 Chem. Eur. J. 2002, 8,No.6 CONCEPTS Inorganic Semiconductor Nanowires: Rational Growth, Assembly, and Novel Properties Yiying Wu, Haoquan Yan, Michael Huang, Benjamin Messer, Jae Hee Song, and Peidong Yang*[a] into one-dimensional nanostructures in an effective and Abstract: Rationally controlled growth of inorganic controllable way. A number of nanolithographic techniques, semiconductor nanowires is important for their applica- such as electron-beam lithography[16] and proximal probe tions in nanoscale electronics and photonics. In this patterning,[17, 18] have been developed. These processes, how- article, we discuss the rational growth, physical proper- ever, generally are slow and the cost is high. Chemical ties, and integration of nanowires based on the results synthesis represents another important approach to one- from the authors× laboratory. The composition, diameter, dimensional structures.[19±26] It is much more promising in growth position, and orientation of the nanowires are terms of cost and potential for high volume production. A controlled based on the vapor ± solid ± liquid (VLS) significant challenge of the chemical synthesis is how to crystal growth mechanism. The thermal stability and rationally control the nanostructures so that their interfaces optical properties of these semiconductor nanowires are and ultimately their two-dimensional and three-dimensional investigated. Particularly, ZnO nanowires with well- superstructures can be tailor-made towards desired function- defined end surfaces can function as room-temperature ality. Below, we present the investigation results from our ultraviolet nanolasers. In addition, a novel microfluidic- laboratory directed toward controlled growth of inorganic assisted nanowire integration (MANI) process was de- nanowires. The organization is as follows. In Section 1, we veloped for the hierarchical assembly of nanowire build- describe the vapor ± liquid ± solid (VLS) mechanism for nano- ing blocks into functional devices and systems. wire growth used in this study. In Section 2, we introduce a novel vapor ± liquid ± solid epitaxy (VLSE) process for the Keywords: crystal growth ¥ nanostructures ¥ nanotech- controlled nanowire growth. In Sections 3and 4, we describe nology ¥ nanowires ¥ self-assembly the thermal stability and optical properties of these nano- wires. In Section 5, a novel microfluidic-assisted nanowire integration (MANI) process will be presented for the purpose of hierarchical assembly of nanowire building blocks into Introduction functional devices and systems. Finally, future directions will be discussed. Nanoscale one-dimensional materials have stimulated great interest due to their importance in basic scientific research and potential technology applications.[1, 2] Many unique and fascinating properties have been proposed and demonstrated 1. Vapor± Liquid ± Solid Nanowire Growth for this class of materials, such as metal-insulator transition,[3] Mechanism superior mechanic toughness,[4] higher luminescence efficien- cy,[5, 6] enhancement of thermoelectric figure of merit,[7] and A single-crystalline inorganic nanowire is an interesting lowered lasing threshold.[8±10] One-dimensional materials can example of an anisotropic crystal. The diameter of nanowire also be used as building blocks to assemble new generations of is in the range of 1 ± 200 nm and the length is several microns nanoscale electronic circuits and photonics.[11±15] or longer. In general, nanowires are not thermodynamically An important issue in the study and application of one- stable relative to their bulk materials. Consequently, a critical dimensional materials is how to assemble individual atoms issue in nanowire growth is how to kinetically promote anisotropic crystal growth. A well-accepted mechanism of nanowire growth through a gas-phase reaction is the so-called [a] Prof. P. Yang, Y. Wu, H. Yan, Dr. M. Huang, B. Messer, Dr. J. H. Song vapor ± liquid ± solid (VLS) process proposed by Wagner in Department of Chemistry 1960s during his studies of large single-crystalline whisker University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (USA) [27, 28] Fax : (1)510-642-7301 growth. According to this mechanism, the anisotropic E-mail: [email protected] crystal growth is promoted by the presence of liquid alloy/ Chem. Eur. J. 2002, 8, No. 6 ¹ WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2002 0947-6539/02/0806-1261 $ 17.50+.50/0 1261 CONCEPTS P. Yang et al. solid interface. This process is illustrated in Figure 1 for the Both physical methods (laser ablation, arc discharge, thermal growth of Si nanowire by using Au clusters as the solvent at evaporation) and chemical methods (chemical vapor trans- high temperature. Based on SiÀAu binary phase diagram, Si port and chemical vapor deposition) can be used to generate (from the decomposition of SiH4 , for example) and Au will the vapor species required during the nanowire growth. As an form a liquid alloy when the temperature is higher than the example, Figure 3shows Ge nanowires synthesized by a eutectic point (3638C, Figure 1 I). The liquid surface has a chemical vapor transport process.[19] Figure 3a shows the large accommodation coefficient and is therefore a preferred deposition site for incoming Si vapor. After the liquid alloy becomes supersaturated with Si, Si nanowire growth occurs by precipitation at the solid ± liquid interface (Figure 1 II, III). Figure 1. Schematic illustration of vapor ± liquid ± solid nanowire growth mechanism including three stages: I) alloying, II) nucleation, and III) axial growth. Recently, real-time observation of Ge nanowire growth was conducted in a high-temperature in situ transmission electron microscope (TEM).[29] The experiment result clearly shows three growth stages: formation of AuÀGe alloy (Figure 2b, c), nucleation of Ge nanocrystal (Figure 2d) and elongation of Ge nanowire (Figure 2e, f). This experiment unambiguously demonstrates the validity of the VLS mechanism for nanowire growth. The establishment of VLS mechanism at the nano- meter scale is very important for the rational control of inorganic nanowires, since it provides the necessary under- pinning for the prediction of metal solvents and preparation conditions. Figure 3. a) AuÀGe binary phase diagram. b) Schematic illustration of the vapor transport tube for the Ge nanowire growth. c) SEM image of the as- made Ge nanowires. Figure 2. In situ TEM images recorded during the process of nanowire À growth. a) Au nanoclusters in solid state at 500 8C. b) Alloying is initiated at binary phase diagram of the Au Ge system. As shown in the 8008C, at this stage Au exists mostly in solid state. c) Liquid Au/Ge alloy. diagram, Au is a good solvent for the Ge nanowire growth d) The nucleation of a Ge nanocrystal on the alloy surface. e) Ge because of the existence of the AuÀGe eutectic. Figure 3b nanocrystal elongates with further Ge condensation, and f) eventually illustrates the chemical vapor transport scheme in a sealed forms a wire. quartz tube. A mixture of Ge/I2 powder and a Si wafer coated with a thin film of Au are placed at the high- (10008C) and 8 Based on our mechanism study of the nanowire growth, it is low-temperature (800 C) end, respectively. Ge reacts with I2 conceivable that one can achieve controlled growth of nano- to form GeI2 vapor at the hot end, which is then transported to wires at different levels. First of all, one can, in principle, the cold end. GeI2 then decomposes into Ge and I2 vapor and synthesize nanowires of different compositions by choosing forms Ge nanowires as shown in Figure 3c. Nanowires of suitable solvents and growth temperatures. A good solvent many different materials have been synthesized by using both should be able to form a liquid alloy with the desired nanowire chemical and physical methods, including elemental semi- material, ideally they should be able to form a eutectic alloy. conductors (Si and Ge), III ± V semiconductors (GaAs, GaP, Meantime, the growth temperature should be set between the InP, InAs), II ± VI semiconductors (ZnS, ZnSe, CdS, CdSe), [19±26] eutectic point and the melting point of the nanowire material. and oxides (ZnO, MgO, SiO2). 1262 ¹ WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, 69451 Weinheim, Germany, 2002 0947-6539/02/0806-1262 $ 17.50+.50/0 Chem. Eur. J. 2002, 8,No.6 Inorganic Nanowires 1260±1268 The diameter of nanowire is an important parameter. Many nique into this VLS process, it is possible to achieve precise physical and thermodynamic properties are diameter depen- orientation control during the nanowire growth. This tech- dent. According to the VLS mechanism, the diameter of nique, vapor-liquid-solid epitaxy (VLSE), is particularly nanowire is determined by the size of the alloy droplet, which powerful in controlled synthesis of nanowire arrays. is in turn determined by the original cluster size. By using Nanowires generally have preferred growth directions. For monodispersed metal nanoclusters, nanowires with a narrow example, Si nanowires prefer to grow along the h111i diameter distribution can be synthesized. We have utilized direction, whereas ZnO nanowires prefer to grow along this strategy to grow uniform Si nanowires in a chemical vapor h001i direction. One strategy to grow vertically aligned deposition system.[29] Uniform nanowires with 20.6 Æ 3.2, nanowires is to properly select the substrate and to control 24.6 Æ 4.0, 29.3 Æ 4.5, and 60.7 Æ 6.2 nm diameters were grown the reaction conditions, so that the nanowires grow epitaxially by using Au clusters with sizes of 15.3 Æ 2.4, 20.1 Æ 3.1, 25.6 Æ on the substrate. Take Si as an example, if a (111) Si wafer is 4.1, and 52.4 Æ 5.3nm, respectively. Figure 4a shows a field used as substrate, Si nanowires will grow epitaxially and emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of vertically on the substrate and form a nanowire array uniform, long and flexible nanowires grown by using 15 nm (Figure 5a).
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