THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY
AUGUST 29, 2019 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development. It was prepared by Prof. Jean-Marie Cikuli Cizungu for Management Systems International (MSI), A Tetra Tech Company.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY
IMPLEMENTED BY SOLUTIONS FOR PEACE AND RECOVERY PROJECT CONTRACT AID-OAA-I-13-00042, TASK ORDER AID-660-TO-16-00004
DISCLAIMER The authors’ views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. CONTENTS
CONTENTS II ILLUSTRATIONS III ACRONYMS IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS V EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VI INTRODUCTION 1 Research Context 1 Theory of Change 1 Research Aims 1 Methodology 2 I. OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS PROJECTS 7 Definition of key concepts 7 Review of previous activity 9 Participatory conflict analysis process overview 11 2. RESULTS OF PARTICIPATORY CONFLICT ANALYSES 12 Context Analysis 12 Types of Conflict 12 Conflict Dynamics 14 Causes, Actors and Consequences 16 Conflict Transformation Mechanisms 18 Local Capacity for Conflict Transformation 19 Gender, Other Marginalized Groups and Conflict Dynamics 20 3. CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION METHODS AND RESULTS 24 Drivers of Conflict 24 Stakeholders' Conflict-Transformation Capacities 32 Hybrid Participatory Conflict Transformation Model 34 4. PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS 38 Perspectives 38 Potential Solutions and/or Recommendations 38 Conclusion 40 BIBLIOGRAPHY 41 ANNEX A. INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR COLLECTING ADDITIONAL DATA 42 ANNEX B. MAP OF THE KABARE CHIEFDOM 44
ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURES Figure 1: Factors and Drivers of Conflict in Lugendo and Ishungu Groupements 31 Figure 2: Hybrid Participatory Model 36 Figure 3. Simplified Hybrid Participatory Model 37
TABLES Table 1: Demographic Data for Kabare Territory 2 Table 2: Demographic Data by Village (Lugendo and Ishungu) 3 Table 3: Types of Conflicts 13 Table 4: Causes, Actors, and Consequences of Conflict in Ishungu and Lugendo Groupements 16 Table 5: Participation by Gender and OMG in Conflict Dynamics in Ishugu 22 Table 6: Participation by Gender and OMG in Conflict Dynamics in Lugendo 22 Table 7: Conflict Drivers in the Lugendo and Ishungu Groupements 27
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | iii ACRONYMS
CLDP Comité local de paix et de développement (Local Peace and Development Committee) CLOC Comité local pour l’organisation communautaire (Local Committee for Community Organization) CNDP Congrès national pour la défense du peuple (National Congress for the Defense of the People) CPJP Comité paroissial Justice et Paix (Parish Committee for Justice and Peace) CSDB Comité de santé et de développement de Birava (Birava Health and Development Committee) DGM Direction générale de migration (Department of Migration) FARDC Forces armées de la République démocratique du Congo (Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo) FDLR Forces démocratiques de libération du Rwanda (Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda) HPM Hybrid Participatory Model IFDP Innovation et formation sur le développement et la paix (Innovation and Training on Development and Peace) MSI Management Systems International NGO Nongovernmental organization OMG Other Marginalized Groups PAR Participatory Action Research SPR Solutions for Peace and Recovery SYNIGL Synergie et initiatives pour les Grands Lacs (Synergy and Initiatives for the Great Lakes) USAID United States Agency for International Development
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was a collaborative project, made possible thanks to the combined efforts of all those involved in the Solutions for Peace and Recovery project. We are grateful to the contributors, namely International Alert staff, organizations and community partners involved in the project, made possible thanks to financial support from USAID.
We would also like to thank Consortium Cinamula – SYNIGL and ISDR/Bukavu for gathering the data that served as the basis for our investigation, and for their willingness to provide additional information.
Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to the leaders of the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements, the Birava Lake police commander, the Birava head administrator, the CLDPs, the Cinamula field facilitator, the village leaders, and all the men and women affected by community conflicts for their availability and commitment to providing the information required for this investigation.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The first stage of this research, which focuses on Kabare territory in South Kivu province, concentrates on identifying and analyzing conflicts in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements. The second stage consists of a detailed analysis of the results provided by the SPR partners—the Cinamula Consortium with SYNIGL and ISDR/Bukavu—along with additional field data from target actors in the research area.
Six of the ten conflicts identified in each study area were prioritized. A PAR was also carried out in each area, focusing on the drinking water conflict between the two groupements.
Natural resources, and water in particular, were found to be at the root of community conflicts for both groupements (politics and security). The lack of access to primary social services (socioeconomic), and the scarcity of natural resources (environmental), also lead to conflicts in the community.
The conflict analysis process began by understanding the specific context, consequences and causes of the conflict, along with the stakeholders and how they interact. Community members also helped to identify possible solutions for each conflict, taking account of the conflicts’ causes to build effective social cohesion.
Thanks to support from the SPR project, these activities were carried out within a restricted framework that included local peace and development committees (CLPDs) and local leaders, and others. Local authorities and community leaders were contacted, community researchers were trained in data collection techniques, a workshop was held to identify and prioritize conflicts, followed by data collection, data analysis and the collection of additional data. After validating the work and taking ownership of the process, community fora were organized, the peacebuilding plan was drafted and advocacy guidelines at the territory level were developed.
The results of participatory conflict analyses focused on the factors and/or causes, as well as the actors and consequences of conflict dynamics in the areas concerned; on the local conflict transformation mechanisms; on the local capacity for peace as well as on contribution made by women and OMG to conflict dynamics. Following a discussion of the results, the key drivers of the different conflicts were identified along with an assessment of stakeholder capacity, and a hybrid participatory conflict transformation model was developed for the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements.
To foster peacebuilding and social cohabitation in the above-mentioned groupements, this report also includes recommendations for central government, local authorities, International Alert/SPR, community leaders and civil society, public services, lake military and police services, the local population, fishermen and lake operators, as well as some opportunities that could encourage sustainable social cohesion.
INTRODUCTION
This introduction will focus on certain protocol aspects that, at the outset, will help to define the contextual framework, present the theory of change used to develop hypotheses, and determine the objectives and methodology of this research.
RESEARCH CONTEXT The issue of conflict transformation in the provinces of North and South Kivu is a valid subject for this research, given the disturbing events that have beset the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo since the 1990s. Given how difficult it would be for this research to cover the entire scope mentioned above, a decision was taken to concentrate on Kabare territory, and particularly the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, in keeping with the project in question.
The context for this research, which draws on comprehensive scientific analysis to produce a concise piece of work, stems from an analysis of various reports on the identification, prioritization and systemic analysis of conflicts in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, as well as participatory action research by SPR partners. The project called for external expertise precisely because of the requirement for scientific analysis.
This document ends with potential solutions and/or recommendations that could build peace and social cohesion in the two above-mentioned groupements.
THEORY OF CHANGE Given the persistent instability in the DRC, as well as recurrent local conflicts, patrimonial governance and the exclusion of women and marginalized groups, communities in the eastern part of the DRC may be able to better resist organic and external conflicts if there was greater social cohesion in these communities. This prompts the following hypotheses: • If communities in eastern DRC were able to analyze conflicts, they would be able to develop impactful strategies;
• If Congolese women and other marginalized groups received the knowledge and opportunities that would enable them to participate in decision-making, their participation would have a tangible impact on results and sustainable solutions;
• If community decision-making were inclusive and participatory, the result would be better solutions and greater social cohesion.
RESEARCH AIMS In terms of the overall objective, which is also the project’s objective, this research aims to produce concise, high-quality summaries that can be widely shared and published.
In terms of specific objectives, our research aims to: • Identify the types of conflicts found in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements, along with their causes.
• Propose possible solutions and/or recommendations to build peace and social cohesion in the two above-mentioned groupements.
METHODOLOGY
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH AREA Kabare territory1, officially established in 1923, included the indigenous chiefdoms of the “Shi” tribe, namely Kabare, Nindja, Buloho, Kalonge, Burhinyi, Kaziba, Luhwinja and Ngweshe, as well as a southern part of the north inhabited by a handful of Pygmies. In later years, this vast territory was divided into two territories and some chiefdoms were hived off to arrive in its current form. The first act relating to the division of the Kabare and Walungu territories was approved by the Kivu Provincial Assembly under Edict No. 04 of October 10, 1961.
Kabare territory is governed by an administrator and is customarily subdivided into two chiefdoms: • The Kabare chiefdom, which includes 14 groupements: Bugobe, Bugorhe, Bushwira, Bushumba, Cirunga, Irhambi-Katana, Ishungu, Kagabi, Lugendo, Luhihi, Miti, Mudaka, Mudusa and Mumosho.
• The Nindja chiefdom, which includes three groupements: Ihembe, Irhega-Barhonyi and Luhago.
Table 1: Demographic Data for Kabare Territory
Chiefdom Men Women Boys Girls Total
Kabare 141,438 161,242 174,242 194,969 672,621
Nindja 6,460 7,082 11,033 12,249 36,764
Total 147,898 169,054 185,275 207,218 709,385
Source: Data taken from a 2015 Kabare territory Rural Development Report
Of all the groupements included in the Kabare chiefdom, this research focuses on the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, subdivided into four and five villages respectively according to the following demographic breakdown:
1 Kabare territory is one of eight territories in South Kivu province, the others being Idjui, Walungu, Shabunda, Mwenga, Fizi and Uvira; Kabare territory is our study environment and was established by Presidential Order No. 67-221 of May 3, 1967.
2 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Table 2: Demographic Data by Village (Lugendo and Ishungu)
Groupeme Village Women Men Girls Boys Total nt
Lugendo Lugendo 2,340 1,816 3,400 5,543 10,108
Cishugi 1,112 1,072 510 546 3,235
Kashimbi 1,461 1,130 621 726 3,920
Irambira Sud 827 658 316 306 2,105
Irambira 1,004 717 329 355 2,406 Nord
Total 6,732 5,393 5,176 4,487 21,774
Ishungu Bulungu 440 417 461 435 1,753
Kaboneke 779 712 751 617 2,860
Mulamba 629 526 501 428 2,084
Kabonde 613 524 705 607 2,449
Total 2,461 2,179 2,418 2,088 9,146
Source: Summary report into the population of Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, 2018 and first quarter statistics from the Kabare chiefdom’s civil state administrative office (November 2018)
The Lugendo and Ishungu groupements form a peninsula along Lake Kivu, which lies in the north-eastern part of Kabare territory, between 52° and 30° east longitude and 1° south latitude, just off National Road No. 2, which links the provinces of South and North Kivu. These two groupements can be accessed by taking the road through Amsar to Birava. They can also be reached via Katana, Fomulac, Luhihihi and then Birava, or via Miti, Bushumba and Birava. The two groupements are interconnected and are bounded to the North by the island of Idjwi, separated by three islets (Ibuza, Nyamizi and Muhemba); to the South they are bounded by the Mudaka groupement, while in the West, the two groupements are separated by the villages of Lomera, Cine and Mugererebo, which belong to the Luhihi groupement.
As a result, the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements contain Bashi people as well as a small proportion of Bahavu and Pygmies or Mbuti (in the Lugendo groupement in particular); they live from fishing, small- scale livestock breeding and agriculture. The latter suffers from major problems caused by cassava mosaic disease and bacterial wilt, which attack and destroy all plants. Other problems include: a drinking water problem, caused by the fact that both groupements have virtually no natural water sources; a shortage of employment opportunities for young people (especially in Ishungu); poorly managed health and educational facilities; harassment of the population by the police, public services and local political and administrative authorities.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 3 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Methods This research applied a systemic method combined with an analytical method. In terms of the systemic method, we treated the villages of the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements as systems where the internal links and movements2 in each of the above-mentioned groupements’ villages and sub-villages have an impact on the external action that affects both groupements.
In terms of the analytical method, to produce a scientific and publishable piece of work this research compared twelve conflict analysis reports on the two above-mentioned groupements that were carried out by ISDR and SYNIGIL partners.
Approach The dialectical approach enabled a comparison of views that helped to identify and take account of different nuances in the movements and dynamics of conflicts within the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements.
Data Collection Tools Literature research: To illustrate and/or complement this research, the literature research collected information from various books and reports into participatory and systemic conflict analyses into the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, PARs, as well as archives and various other books.
Interviews: The SPR partners employed a focus group interview to compile the first participatory conflict reports and analyses.3 The various focus groups were based on a progressive sample of 1,748 people from different social strata, including 989 men (57%) and 759 women (43%) for both groups; proportionately around 6% of the total population of 30,920 inhabitants (see Table 2). The partners sourced this progressive sample from the following field activities: contact meeting with local authorities; presentation of the PAR process to members of community peace and development structures, and selection of community researchers; community preparation and presentation of the PAR process to the community; conflict identification and prioritization workshop; community forum to validate the results of participatory conflict analysis; production of analysis reports on the five priority conflicts; presentation of analyses into the five priority conflicts identified in the Kabare chiefdom; training of community researchers in data collection techniques; data validation; data collection analysis by the consultant; collection of complementary data; validation of complementary data; organization of three mini-dialogues to develop guidelines; organization of a community dialogue.
At the second level, additional data was collected from “resource persons”, including ISDR and SYNIGL staff, facilitators from certain CLDPs and NDPs, local authorities and some other conflict analysis
2 It is important to note that the administrative subdivision of villages into “sub-villages” still applies in Lugendo and Ishungu, although this name was no longer recognized following Decree Law 081 of July 2, 1998 on the Territorial and Administrative Organization of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
3 Focus groups consisted of existing community structures, including the CLPDs (one CLPD per group), the Noyaux de Paix (one per village), community researchers, local leaders, local and tribal chiefs, civil society, church representatives.
4 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY stakeholders in the community. Over the course of two days, additional data and updated information, previously sourced from systemic conflict analysis reports on the groups concerned, were collected.
Occasional observation was carried out in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements to correlate data provided by systemic conflict analysis reports, PARs from ISDR and SYNIGL partners, and field information.
RESEARCH STRUCTURE In addition to the introduction, this research contains four main chapters. Firstly, the range of views available on the conflict analysis process in general and examined, along with a review of key concepts and previous work on conflict dynamics in Kabare territory.
This is followed by a presentation of the results of participatory conflict analyses in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, as reported by the partners in their systemic conflict analysis reports on the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements in Kabare territory.
The above results are then discussed, with a focus on conflict transformation in the community. The main conflict drivers are then identified with an assessment of stakeholders’ capacities for conflict transformation, ending with a participatory model for conflict transformation.
Finally, the overview ends with future perspectives and recommendations.
RESEARCH SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS This research aims to both help to integrate the “conflict sensitivity” paradigm into analytical and research activities and foster peacebuilding, and to strengthen and increase the social cohesion of populations in the villages and sub-villages4 concerned.
In terms of research limitations, this report is the product of an analysis of ten conflicts prioritized by the SPR partners in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements. This work was then further developed by a two-day piece of field research, including an interview with the SPR partner organizations, SYNIGL and ISDR, supplemented by other complementary data collection from resource persons in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements. Ideally, the interview period could have been extended to obtain more data on conflicts in the groupements mentioned. However, due to time constraints, we were satisfied with the limited information available.
In terms of methodology, and the geographical area targeted for this research in particular—i.e. the different territories of North and South Kivu selected for this study—it is important to remember that these areas are not truly representative of the eastern part of the DRC. The conflict drivers are different, and local participatory organizations experience different realities in Masisi territory and the city of Goma in North Kivu, and in the territories of Kalehe, Walungu and Kabare in the province of South Kivu (which has eight territories). The same cannot be said when we look at the two
4 The administrative subdivision of villages into “sub-villages” is still used in Lugendo and Ishungu, although this name stopped being recognized after the adoption of Decree Law 081 of July 2, 1998 on the Territorial and Administrative Organization of the Democratic Republic of Congo.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 5 groupements (Ishungu and Lugendo) in Kabare territory that were targeted during this research, out of the territory’s total number of 14 groupements.
For reasons of accessibility, the targeted areas reflect the categories of conflicts that are tearing the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo apart in general; strengthening social cohesion by including women and other marginalized groups applies to the entire territory and to the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Existing literature was thoroughly reviewed during the data collection and analysis process, and the reports and systemic conflict analyses provided by the project partner organizations were also examined. Out of the 20 or so conflicts that were identified, only ten conflicts were given priority. This is therefore a nonexhaustive list of priority conflicts.
6 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY I. OVERVIEW OF PREVIOUS PROJECTS
After this brief introduction, this chapter will discuss a range of views on some of the concepts used, followed by an overview of the conflict analysis process and a brief literature review.
DEFINITION OF KEY CONCEPTS In philosophy, the term “concept” is very often associated with a term’s meaning. For this reason, it is important to define the key terms used in this research to ensure that these are properly understood.
CONFLICT From the Latin conflictus which means clash, collision, fight; conflict can also mean an encounter between opposing feelings or interests. Generally speaking, a conflict is a situation of opposition between persons or entities, which can result in aggression or violence.
Used to describe a state of contradiction, the term conflict can be understood to mean a confrontation between two or more individual or collective wills that demonstrate hostile intent and aggression towards each other, because of a right to recover or maintain. These wills attempt to break the other's resistance, and eventually resort to violence.5
Conflict is not always understood to imply a “poor relationship.” This requires a positive view of the conflict. Some authors contend that conflict is not only a communication error; it is as normal and commonplace to argue as it is to get along with others. Such authors therefore believe that since relational problems are part and parcel of the nature and dynamics of a relationship, and conflict prevents a relationship from progressing and being productive, conflict must be resolved and regulated6. Despite the unfortunate realities witnessed in our communities and listening to the arguments put forward by the above-mentioned authors, conflict is not necessarily destructive. It is normal to encounter conflicts or relational problems, due to the intensely disparate nature of the human race, their history, culture and individual background.
IMAGINATION AND CONFLICT In a general sense, the term “imagination” can have several meanings depending on whether we are at the individual, group or society level. In the context of this research, the imagination refers to the capacity to transpose a social problem into a reality experienced on the ground. Indeed, many false images can emerge in the imagination, as seen in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements around the conflict related to the supply of drinking water. The two groupements have experienced a long period of unrest characterized by mutual accusations, mistrust, clashes between young people at wells, virtually no marriages between young people from both groupements, the nonrecruitment in Lugendo of staff from
5 http://www.psycho-ressources.com/bibli/conflits-et-origines.html. Consulted March 16 at 8:18. 6 See F. NIETZSCHE and others, quoted by http://www.psycho-ressources.com/bibli/conflits-et-origines.html. Consulted March 16 at 8:18. Ishungu, for schools, and vice-versa. Thanks to the PARs carried out by the SPR project, both groupements realized how much misrepresentation was present in the conflicts in both communities.
GOVERNANCE For Pascal Lamy, governance is a new form of decision-making capacity produced by permanent negotiations between stakeholders and between social actors, around a problem that requires a solution7. In other words, it is the best way to manage the political process8 and is based on a respect for principles such as freedom, transparency and accountability. “Good” governance is against corruption, and requires a respect for rights and freedoms that allow the emergence of a strong civil society. We will see that local governance in Lugendo and Ishungu seems contravene the principles mentioned above.
FOOD SECURITY Food security, at the individual, household, national, regional and global levels [is achieved] when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.9 Food security is traditionally considered to have four dimensions or “pillars”: • Access (the ability to produce one's own food and therefore have the means to do so, or the ability to buy food and thus have sufficient purchasing power to do so).
• Availability (sufficient quantities of food, whether from domestic production, stocks, imports or subsidies).
• Quality (of food and diets from a nutritional, health and socio-cultural perspective).
• Stability (of access and therefore of prices and purchasing power, availability and quality of food and diets).
HARASSMENT According to The Oxford Advanced American Dictionary,10 harassment is the act of annoying or worrying somebody by putting pressure on them or saying or doing unpleasant things to them. This can involve being harassed by your boss, the military, public services.
7 P. LAMY, quoted by Joseph Cihunda, ”Acteurs de bonne gouvernance en RD Congo post-électorale” in Congo-Afrique, N°423, 2008, p. 204.
8 Politics and governance are inseparable in Aristotle's understanding, even if governance is used as a form of politics. In the etymological sense, “politics” comes from the Greek “Polis” which means “city”. Aristotle defined politics as the art of governing the city based on justice. Because humans need to organize themselves socially in order to achieve a certain level of happiness and achieve this goal, governance then serves as a means to an end.
9 This definition was adopted by international consensus at the World Food Summit in Rome in 1996.
10 See Oxford Advanced American Dictionary, Electronic version.
8 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY NATURAL RESOURCES In general, a natural resource is a substance, organism or object present in nature and which is, in most cases, used to meet the needs (energy, food, amenities) of humans, animals or plants. This can be: • A mineral raw material (for example freshwater, metal ore) or a living material (meat, fish, wheat).
• A fossil organic material (oil, coal, natural gas, lignite or peat).
• A source of energy (solar power, wind power) and by extension of an ecosystem service (production of oxygen provided by photosynthesis for example).
Since the 1970s, this notion has evolved and tends to expand to include the resources required by any organism or ecosystem, as well as by any socioeconomic sectors. Therefore, the available bioproductive soil surfaces (a component of agricultural land), the quality of water or air, the landscape, biodiversity (...) are other aspects of natural resources.
CUSTODIANS OF TRADITIONAL PRACTICES In rural areas, there is little interest in modern values. This is because the population tends to respect tradition, with this intangible heritage the community's vector of identity. Tradition allows the continuous transmission of cultural content through the ages. A certain category of people remains attached to tradition and prevents any aspect of this heritage from being abandoned. These are known as the custodians of traditional practices.
GROUPEMENT According to Organic Law No. 10/011 of 18 May 2010 on the Establishment of Territorial Subdivisions within Provinces, the group (groupement in French) constitutes a decentralized territorial entity, or an administrative district without legal personality that is directly dependent on the chiefdom or sector. The group leader is in principle a traditional leader from the royal family. But in practice the group leader can be appointed; this is the case with the leader of the Ishungu group.
REVIEW OF PREVIOUS ACTIVITY This research is not unique and other reports exist, either on Kabare territory, or on other entities linked to the area of our research.
The first documents to be examined were two conflict identification reports and 12 prioritized conflict analysis reports provided by the SPR project partners, ISDR and SYNIGL. These documents were thoroughly analyzed and served as a matrix for our work.
In addition to the reports in our possession, there was also a systemic conflict analysis synthesis report on the two groupements mentioned above, whose editorial approach served as inspiration for our research.
Bosco Muchukiwa's “Identités territoriales et conflits dans la province Sud-Kivu, RD Congo” (“Territorial Identities and Conflicts in South Kivu Province, DR Congo”) is of particular interest to this
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 9 research, as it addresses the issue of general identity-based and territorial conflicts throughout the province, and more specifically in the tribes of the Kalehe, Fizi and Uvira territories.11
The author observes that these three territories—Kalehe, Fizi and Uvira—are sources of conflict whose roots can be traced back to the way in which political space has been organized since the colonial era. The reconfiguration of this area has created new territorial and administrative entities, including some chiefdoms larger than others, as well as sectors and territories; the lack of knowledge about the differences between territories and between indigenous peoples exacerbates conflicts. The author also suggests some potential solutions that could restore social peace with an ethical requirement for mutual recognition.
Finally, given the complexity of the sources of conflict in the eastern part of the DRC, two studies were also of interest: firstly, Steven Pittaels and Filip Hilgert12 who, in their research, focused on the presence of armed groups in this area, such as the CNDP, the FDLR, the Mai including the government army, in the Congolese provinces of North and South Kivu. They sought to understand which armed groups were most active, where they stationed their troops and the motivations behind these choices, as well as possible solutions to prevent them from continuing to pose security threats.
Second, let us focus on the overview conducted by the IFDP13 in partnership with the international NGO Cordaid14.
The issue of natural resources, and land resources in particular, is now hotly debated at the local, national, sub-regional and international levels. In the DRC, the IFDP finds that several factors lie at the root cause of land sector disruption and are damaging the livelihoods of a large part of the population. One of these factors is the law, which is the opposite of tradition, with written law taking precedent on land issues. The IFDP also focused on local land practices that emerged on their own, independent of any legal and customary provisions.
The focus here was the region known as “Mountainous Kivu”, where the IFDP analyzed a sample in two entities, Kabare territory (Kabare chiefdom excluding Nindja) and Walungu territory (Ngweshe chiefdom excluding Kaziba). They concluded that there was a need to assess the land issue's impact not only on the two chiefdoms in question, but across Kivu, in order to better understand the scale of the problem and to propose possible solutions that could minimize the situation by taking a more global approach.
11 B. MUCHUKIWA, “Identités territoriales et conflits dans la province Sud-Kivu, RD Congo”, Geneva, Globethics. net, no. 34, 2016, 62 pages.
12 S. PITTAELS and F. HILGERT, Mapping Conflict Motives: Eastern DRC Anvers, March 2008, 41 pages.
13 The IFDP is a Congolese NGO that was founded in Bukavu in 2002.
14 IFDP, Terres et conflits dans le Kivu montagneux. Enjeux et perspectives dans les territoires de Kabare et Walungu, Bukavu, unpublished, October 2012, 19 pages.
10 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY The final study to consider is that by Alexy Bouvy,15 who investigated conflicts in eastern DRC, particularly large-scale conflicts and land disputes. Carefully examining the situation in the four eastern territories of Beni, Kalehe, Walungu and Mwenga, in addition to the land conflict, the author also touched on the Rasta problem and the vigilance committees, the problem of access to land, the conflict between the Banro mining company, artisanal miners and the local community, (...) in Walungu territory; the conflict over customary power for control of Bwisha village in Kalehe territory.
Unlike the various pieces of research presented above, our investigation concentrated on Kabare territory, focusing our attention on the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements which sit at the crossroads between Idjwi, Katana and Rwanda. This study fits into the SPR - Amani Kwa Maendeleo project’s theory of change by examining how gender and OMG influence conflict dynamics. It also assesses their inclusion in conflict analysis and inclusive and participatory community decisions, with a view to strengthening social cohesion.
PARTICIPATORY CONFLICT ANALYSIS PROCESS OVERVIEW The conflict analysis process consisted of two main phases: conflict identification and prioritization, and conflict analysis.
The first sub-activity of phase one was to identify and prioritize the needs that generated conflicts. The second sub-activity was to rank the conflicts according to their order of importance at the level of each Ishungu and Lugendo group.
This first phase—identifying and prioritizing conflicts in the above groupements— was followed by the conflict analysis phase. Of the prioritized conflicts, those considered to be more important at the community level were subjected to a more thorough analysis. This activity fed into a community process to formulate solutions-based proposals that would be included in advocacy guidelines. These guidelines would be used to develop a peacebuilding plan that can be implemented by the community, i.e. local administrative authorities, development partners, local or international NGOs, and central government.
It is important to remember that conflict analysis is a long-term process whose duration can be difficult to predict, depending on the nature of the conflicts and the attitudes of the actors towards them. However, if this second phase is successful, i.e. there is a respect for the commitments included in the social agreements (between the lake public services and the fishermen/shipowners; between farmers and livestock breeders; between women and custodians of traditions; between teachers and parents; between rulers and the ruled), this will restore a climate of trust between the actors involved in previous conflicts and build social cohesion within the two groupements.
15 A. BOUVY, Beyond stabilisation: Understanding the conflict dynamics in North and South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo, International Alert, February 2015, 56 pages.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 11 2. RESULTS OF PARTICIPATORY CONFLICT ANALYSES
According to the participatory analyses, the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements have a characteristic that is unique to the specific problems that both entities face: demographic problems and their related consequences, such as unemployment, lack of quality care, education, lack of access to resources, problems of insecurity, local governance, to name but a few.
In this chapter, we will group the main conflicts by focusing on the causes, actors and consequences of prioritized conflicts, local conflict transformation mechanisms, as well as the role played by gender and OMG in conflict dynamics.
CONTEXT ANALYSIS At an administrative, political, security, socio-economic, cultural, environmental and security level, the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements share a similar context to that experienced by the entire Kabare territory, notably: rapid population growth,16 a location along Lake Kivu, military operations carried out by the FARDC and the PNC in all corners of the province and in these two groupements in particular, a poorly designed administrative authority at the local level, the virtual non-existence of agropastoral areas, fields that are practically unproductive but that were once the source of family income in rural areas, limited access to resources, the intransigent nature of traditional values in the face of modern values with all the consequences that this entails for the community.
Given this description, the general situation in Ishungu and Lugendo is clearly highly precarious, particularly given the increase in demographics; but instead of local resources being improved to deliver subsistence for the population, they are in fact deteriorating. The population is forced to turn elsewhere for its survival (i.e. fishing on Lake Kivu, agriculture and livestock breeding in the few areas still available) but as a result encounters a wide range of harassment and other forms of banditry.
TYPES OF CONFLICT From the 20 conflicts in these two groupements that were identified in the partner reports, ten major conflicts were selected and analyzed because of their severity, all of which were found to be fairly common to both groupements. By proposing sustainable solutions, it may therefore be possible to establish social cohesion and restore peace in both Ishungu and Lugendo.
Certain noteworthy conflicts were prioritized because they affect a significant part of the local community. These have been divided into three types:
16 See Tables 1 and 2 for Ishungu and Lugendo group demographics. Compare also Lugendo’s 2012 population statistics, which counted 18,471 inhabitants (according to the Rapport du Bureau du groupement 2012), with the population data for 2018, which saw an increase of 3,303 in six years, or an average of about 661 inhabitants per village. This only refers to one group. Table 3: Types of Conflicts
Type Description
Environmental: conflict over the provision of drinking Water is scarce in Ishungu and there is not always water. enough water in Lugendo and Bushumba. As a result, clashes have been recorded between young people at the well for the three neighboring groupements (Bushumba, Lugendo and Ishungu).
Political and security: conflict related to poor local Group and village chiefs assume all power at the local governance; conflict related to harassment on Lake Kivu. level, resulting in administrative harassment in the community, arbitrary arrests, ransom. On Lake Kivu, the population, in the course of their daily work as shipowners or fishermen, deal with the military and public services, and suffer widespread harassment. Socioeconomic: conflict related to quality healthcare; Insufficient equipment, limited level of technical skills conflict related to the management of school fees; of healthcare personnel and limited health conflict related to women's inheritance, access to infrastructure given the population's lack of financial services and participation in household management means. and decision-making. The setting and management of school fees shatters Conflict related to the free grazing of domestic trust in schools and their managers; animals; land disputes; conflict related to youth Women are excluded from resources and decision- unemployment; conflict related to exchange rate making in the community; as girls, females are still fluctuations. being abused by the custodians of ancestral customs. Farmers and their neighbors fight and/or clash all day long over field and/or plot boundaries; Young people who do not have jobs are a danger to the community. Ongoing clashes between growers and farmers due to the free grazing of domestic animals.
Aside from the ten conflicts that were analyzed in Ishungu and Lugendo, one conflict was selected for participatory action research (PAR) by both the ISDR partner and the CINAMULA and SYNIGL consortium. This is the conflict related to the supply of drinking water in both groupements. Given the virtual lack of water sources, the need for drinking water has created a conflict that has spread to both groupements. The only places where people can get their drinking water from are the nearby Bushumba group, about three hours' walk away, or from Rwanda, on the island of Idjwi.
The roots of the water problem are very complex, and this issue has been amplified by some members of the community, with mediation from the NGO CSDB, which previously dealt with the issue across Birava. “Antibwaki” installed the first drinking water supply facilities in Lugendo. After these were destroyed, the CSDB was created, but it encountered multiple problems. This is when the NGO TearFund intervened, inheriting a crisis situation over which it had no control. This is why both partners focused on the water conflict, intending to reconcile all parties, especially Lugendo and Ishungu, and achieve genuine social cohesion.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 13 We found that some conflicts are specific to each of the two communities: for the Ishungu group, we noted a conflict related to the operation of the Kabahavu wharf, while in the Lugendo group, we found conflicts related to youth unemployment and exchange rate fluctuations involving converting the US dollar into Congolese francs and vice-versa.
Our analysis categorized the conflicts and went beyond the conflicts prioritized in the SPR partners’ participatory analyses. To be more objective, we also attempted to establish possible connections between the causes, actors and consequences of the conflicts under investigation. We felt that identifying the real vectors of conflict would lead to genuine solutions that would deliver social cohesion.
CONFLICT DYNAMICS Since 1994, the countries of the Great Lakes region of Central Africa have witnessed violence that has surpassed anything before,17 and more specifically on August 2, 1998, when conflicts plunged the country into bloodshed.18 Since then, the eastern region of the DRC has developed a reputation as a hotbed of recurring tensions and conflicts. One question asked by more than one researcher is why this state of affairs has persisted, despite the constant peace efforts both at a national and international level.
This atmosphere can be clearly felt in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, where multiple conflicts arise on a day-to-day basis, sometimes taking on a new dimension or reacting to completely new events.
Some spatial conflicts revolve around land tenure because the issue of land has still not been resolved and continues to resurface in various forms.
For the record, power struggles were reported in the Kabare chiefdom’s royal court that pitted Ntaitunda against Mamimami in the 1980s, with land being one of the main issues in this conflict. People took sides depending on whether Ntaitunda or Mamimami lands had been acquired. Several families lost land during the construction of Kavumu airport in 1976 and subsequent expansion works, as well as during SINELAC’s construction of the Mumosho hydroelectric power plant on the Ruzizi River.19 This type of conflict is common in this region of eastern DRC.
Another major issue is the perpetuation of old-fashioned customs that convey negative and even discriminatory attitudes towards women,20 despite an awareness of women's rights. This behavior, which tends to denigrate women by questioning their skills, is sometimes fueled by women themselves and by some men who cling to old-fashioned views. There is still a lot of work to be done in rural areas
17 B. UGEUX [Dir.], Laissez-nous vivre! Essai de réflexion et de propositions chrétiennes à propos des violences dans les conflits armés, COE-WCC, Geneva, 2012, p. 15.
18A. SHANYUNGU MPENDA WATU, “La RD Congo sur la braise chaude. La paix et la sécurité encore hypothétiques à l’Est” in Congo-Afrique, no. 418 (October 2007), p. 632. 19 IFDP, Terre et conflits dans le Sud-Kivu montagneux: Enjeux et perspectives dans les territoires de Kabare et de Walungu, 2012, Unpublished, p. 12
20 Some of the negative and discriminatory practices against women include the fact that they are not allowed to express themselves in public and in front of men; that they are excluded from the management of an entity; that they are denied the same level of education as their husbands; and unable to inherit their parents' material assets.
14 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY to make it clear that women are also empowered to claim the same rights as men, including access to resources, inheritance, decision-making.
It is also important to note that some uncontrolled elements of the police and the FARDC, as well as some administrative services such as the DGRAD, tax collectors, have transformed into locally self- governing structures that engage in acts of intimidation and extort the property of law-abiding citizens in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements.
This is a serious situation and an issue that is unique to these two groupements located along Lake Kivu. The difficulties that plague the region and make agriculture impracticable (mosaic disease for cassava, and bacterial wilt for bananas, scarcity of land), are forcing people to transition from agricultural activities towards fishing on Lake Kivu. However, fishing, which falls under the state's authority, has produced clashes between different security services (Naval Forces, lake police, DGI, DGRAD) and fishermen and shipowners, who are also in conflict with each other, following suspected net thefts sometimes by the services in neighboring Rwanda, sometimes by the fishermen themselves
The increasing population requires a decent level of care. The existing system is no longer fit for purpose, in terms of health (primary healthcare), education (there are insufficient primary and secondary schools), and employment (young people of working age who finish their studies, and even those who have not studied, become a danger to the community).
The central authorities’ failure to properly supervise the political-administrative and military authorities means that in rural areas—specifically the villages of Kashimbi, Lugendo Centre, Chishugi, Irambira North and South—these local authorities are able to overstep the limits of their powers. This results in the imposition of certain unauthorized taxes, arbitrary arrests and other such harassment. A large part of the population refuse to accept these group leaders, and village leaders refuse to comply with their orders.
Turning to education, both groupements have nursery, primary and secondary schools. There are still few schools, due to an unsustainable infrastructure framework and few qualified teachers unevenly distributed between the two groupements’ schools. The few students who graduate from secondary school and sometimes university are faced with unemployment. For others, there is no chance of access to schooling. As a result, increased poverty, prostitution, rising social inequalities and other social ills are a real and serious obstacle to the social and economic reconstruction of the communities in these groupements.
Table 2 contains an overview of the different conflicts in the two groupements, with some identifying parameters, in particular: causes, actors, consequences and the conflict in the community. While causes and consequences are factors, it is important not to confuse them, let alone confuse the different conflicts. This is what differentiates the conflict’s phenomenology from one environment to another.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 15 CAUSES, ACTORS AND CONSEQUENCES
Table 4: Causes, Actors, and Consequences of Conflict in Ishungu and Lugendo Groupements
Causes Actors Conflict Consequences Overview
Failure to recognize a Custodians of Conflict related to Social discrimination and woman's/daughter’s right to traditions; women and women's rejection of women and inherit family property girls; women leaders; inheritance, access young girls men and boys; local to services and Sexual violence against authorities. participation in women household Family conflicts management and Perpetuation of decision-making. inequality between children Failure of security services; ill- Fishermen and Conflict related to Drop in daily fishermen's equipped security services; arrests shipowners; group, harassment on catch due to the of Congolese fishermen in so- village and sub-village Lake Kivu. destruction of lake called “Rwandan” waters; use of leaders; civil society; ecosystems and low mesh nets prohibited by the local peace and traffic-frequency on Lake Congolese State; capture of fish in development Kivu so-called “fish spawning” areas; committees, on the Insecurity and death use of unauthorized navigation one hand, and the threats against equipment; multiple illegal taxes; navy, lake police, Congolese by Rwandan fishing in prohibited areas of Lake maritime services lake services Kivu; competition and jealousy of (DGRAD, DGM, Collapse in collaboration some fishermen vis-à-vis others. ANR), on the other, between lake services, as well as Rwandan naval forces and lake services. fishermen/shipowners Fragile intra-community cohesion Attacks and deaths; theft of nets High rate of school dropout, lack of access to primary healthcare. Mismanagement by certain Group, village and Conflict related to Increased poverty, cases officials at the village and sub- sub-village leaders; poor local of kidnapping; arbitrary village level; corruption and civil society; local governance. arrests misappropriation; bias in conflict peace structures Complaints, management; widespread (local peace disagreement and incompetence, unpaid state framework); division among the officials, proliferation of state population population services in rural areas Revolt by young people and mass demonstrations Mistrust vis-à-vis local authorities
16 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Causes Actors Conflict Consequences Overview Complete chaos within the entity (group) Lack of quality health The sick, their Conflict related to Several cases of sick infrastructure; care provided by families; health center quality healthcare. people dying while being unqualified staff; misappropriation staff transferred due to poor of drugs by some direct managers. levels of care Neglect/Low attendance rate at health centers Use of traditional treatment as a palliative. School principals no longer Parents; parent Conflict related to Decline in education involve parents in setting school committees; school fees. levels fees; school principals and educational partners High student attrition managers unilaterally introduce (teachers, principals, Delinquency, early other fees known as “illegal fees” prefects, school marriage, school in league with the competent managers, inspectors) vagrancy, indiscipline authorities; failure to respect the Mistrust between free provision of elementary community members: education, which is a teachers, directors, constitutional right; acute poverty prefects. of the population and depreciation of the local currency Collapse in collaboration against the US dollar. between parents and school authorities Loss of the right to education Poor communication between community members and teachers. Fragile land policy preventing the Farmers; livestock Conflict related to Fragile social cohesion acquisition of land for agriculture breeders; local chiefs the free grazing of between the parties and livestock; virtually non- (group leaders, sub- domestic animals. Destruction of the existent pasture land; lack of village leaders); state environment by felling consultation framework between agronomist. trees, grasses and reeds the parties. around the lake Fights between families Arbitrary taxation of parties by agents of the Agriculture Department Lack of land titles Farmers among Land dispute. Clashes and disputes themselves and between farmers; mistrust between neighbors between neighbors Obstruction of water supply Ishungu and Lugendo Conflict over the Mistrust between the (TearFund) to Lugendo by the populations and supply of drinking populations of population of Bushumba. population of water. Ishungu/Lugendo and Birava Centre
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 17 Causes Actors Conflict Consequences Overview Bushumba and Birava Clashes between young Centre. people over water sources Waterborne diseases Protest marches. Acute family poverty; money Young people, Conflict related to Lack of interest in laundering by various employees; parents, the state youth education poor governance; lack of policy to (group leaders, village unemployment. Mistrust between support young people and create and sub-village community members and jobs; lack of a seniors’ retirement leaders). intellectuals policy Frustration and rural exodus Banditry and juvenile delinquency; alcoholism. Unregulated prices; poor Parents and Conflict related to Disagreement between monetary policy at the national educational staff; exchange rate parents and school level; dollarization of all services. Traders (sellers) and fluctuations. managers about the customers payment of fees. Blame-game between buyer and seller. Disagreement in households (women beaten by their husbands as a result of scholarship mismanagement).
CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION MECHANISMS For John Paul Lederach, the mechanism refers to “a set of practices, behaviors and logical behaviors in order to achieve a goal (...); most authors consider negotiation, mediation, conciliation, arbitration as strategies that traditional or modern societies use to prevent, resolve, manage and transform conflicts.”21
An effort is being made to transform internal conflicts in the communities of the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements. It is important to remember that while the mechanisms or practices adopted by these communities vary from one conflict to another, as a general rule they resort to mediation, conciliation and arbitration. For some time now these communities have used:
21 These conflicts keep the community in a state of constant tension. However, we believe that conflict prevention would be the best way of ensuring sustainable social cohesion, rather than waiting for the conflict to take hold to then consider settlement, resolution and peaceful transformation. Of course, Fidèle Muanda Mikiama warns us that conflict prevention is very risky if it is not tackled with care, prudence and wisdom. It would therefore be a huge risk that could lead to a more serious situation than the one we are trying to resolve [F. Muanda Mikiama Quoted by Op. Cit., p.145.]
18 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY • Mediation by neighbors;
• The “Kamweru”: if mediation between neighbors fails, each village has a “Kamweru” conflict resolution framework where the elders of the village, “the Bagula”, meet. Any conflict that has not been resolved at the village level is dealt with at a higher level, the “Kamweru” of the group leader who oversees the village “kamweru”;
• If the parties to the fail to come to an agreement at the “Kamweru” level, the injured party may bring the matter before the competent court;
• The noyaux et cellules de paix,22 which are trained in peaceful conflict management techniques that can deliver peaceful coexistence, and work alongside the kamweru.
We welcome the involvement of church leaders (Catholic and Protestant) who, via their main structures, successfully reconciled two families in Ishungu; the latter were in conflict because of free grazing goats that had grazed bean plants in nearby fields. Consensus was reached to repair the damage, by recultivating and then replanting beans. Unfortunately, there was a lack of follow- up on the solutions agreed between the parties, which further weakened the cohesion between these two families.
LOCAL CAPACITY FOR CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION Frameworks for peaceful conflict resolution exist in the villages of the different groupements investigated during this research. Indeed, as John Paul Lederach illustrates, local conflict management structures are local peacebuilding opportunities. For this author, “conflict transformation occurs when the opposing parties develop a common understanding of the causes that led to the outbreak of the conflict, view this as normal in a society and set up resolution structures to deliver lasting peace.”23
This was found to be the case among the people living in the Ishungu and Lugendo villages and sub- villages, whose understanding of the conflict situation was remarkable. First, these villages contain local conflict resolution structures: the cellules or noyaux de paix and the elders (the Bagula). The latter's role is to raise the community members’ awareness of the root causes of conflicts, to assess their consequences, to evaluate the players and to propose homegrown solutions in a participatory manner.
Second, the communities contain custodians of traditions who occupy the social ranks of elders, group leaders, sub-village leaders, and whose role is to manage disputes between neighboring or distant households by upholding and safeguarding the cultural or customary values of their ancestors.
It is also important to remember that community was actively involved in the conflict resolution activities organized by the partners of the SPR-Amani Kwa Maendeleo project, a sign that there is an
22 The noyaux de paix and local peace committees are a recent innovation and were created by NGOs due to the urgent need to work with the populations of both groups given the failure of traditional conflict transformation mechanisms. Noyaux de paix, which do not yet exist in all villages, are designed to enhance the kamweru at this level.
23 C. KAYSER & F. DJATENG, Les acteurs civils face à la prévention des conflits. Construire la Paix [French. translation by Guerlin], Berlin 2018, p.7.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 19 interest in finding solutions to the various conflicts that are tearing the community apart. It is unclear which mechanisms can deliver sustainable solutions, at least for the time being.
Despite the capacity for peace that exists in the community, as well as the goodwill shown by group, village and sub- village leaders, civil society, local leaders and churches, there are recurring conflicts in this community.24 Some conflicts are sensitive issues that exceed local competence and understanding, such as land disputes and conflicts over drinking water supplies. Indeed, the fact that social agreements have been signed by the two parties (Ishungu and lugendo) offers little reassurance, because there is still no water and setbacks have been reported, as pointed out by an inhabitant of Ishungu, who did not want his name to be mentioned:
The recent clash in March 2019 between a young shepherd from Lugendo who was guarding goats Monument erected by the community of the two Ishungu and a young girl from Ishungu who came to draw and Lugendo groups to commemorate the social water from a well in Lugendo: the poor girl got agreements after the conflict over drinking water that tore the communities apart. It was built with their own away with all her clothes torn off; so the victim's funds, with 500 francs contributed per household. This family screamed rape. This situation, which involved monument was completed in January 2019 and is located on the boundary between the groupements. both families, was alleviated thanks to the intervention of the leader of the Lugendo group. ISDR Photo: Conflict analysis in Lugendo, January 2019 Let us now focus on the inclusion of other members of the community. Categories of people who could, in our humble opinion, provide a solution, or at least a path to lasting solutions, because decision-making requires that all members of the community participate in work that is in the interest of the whole community.
GENDER, OTHER MARGINALIZED GROUPS AND CONFLICT DYNAMICS Women are responsible for the household finances in many rural areas because they are considered to be a unit of production in many conflicts. Women are therefore seen as ternary actors, and suffer the consequences of community conflicts. The term women also includes girls.
People who respected traditional customs and values have always been found in rural areas. For many of the problems or conflicts, reparation and justice were always the prerogative of the king, who acted as the custodian of tradition. As a result, in the event of a conflict between women or girls and men, women encounter prejudice, domestic violence and contempt. Here is a testimony that was given to us by a mother who lives in the group and who was a victim of these prejudices:
20 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Some time ago, a neighboring family experienced a conflict between a brother who was already the head of his household and his sister, who was already married. The conflict involved a property, a field that had been left to the daughter by her father in his will. The brother was not satisfied with the property entrusted to him by his father, so he wanted to take over the part belonging to his sister. Strangely enough, some neighbors (men) were keen to prove that their fellow man was in the right.25
We welcome the shift in attitudes that has begun to take hold in local communities with support from international and national development organizations,26 where women are being trained and empowered to discover, among others, their inheritance rights, which have been ignored in the community for many years.
Despite the ratification of international and regional legal instruments promoting gender equality and the implementation of various programs and actions designed to promote gender integration, women in rural areas and in the two lake groupements in particular continue to face socio-cultural obstacles; most of these women remain unaware of their rights.
The “gendered” conflict dynamic has an impact on the failure to involve women in meetings organized in the villages and sub-villages of the Lugendo group. It should also be noted that “no woman has so far been appointed to be a village leader or deputy leader,” as one woman commented during a field interview in Lugendo. Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that thanks to the work to raise women’s awareness carried out by ILDs, civil society and other projects, including Solutions for Peace and Recovery (SPR), a tiny minority of women is now involved in decision-making, heading up two to three cells called “nyumba kumi” in some sub-villages.27 This is still inconsequential compared to the number of positions held by men.
Testimonies that highlight the shift in mindset experienced by some mothers in the two groupements were given to us by a lady in Irambira Sud who asked not to be named:
Some men hide behind their authority to hold women back, because they are aware that some women are more talented than they are. Thanks to the awareness raising and training I have received, I already feel able to lead or investigate a criminal or non- criminal case at the village level, if the men listen to us and give us the opportunity.
This testimony shows that rural women themselves also contribute to their lack of involvement in the community, forgetting that social recognition is being snatched away. Women should continue the fight until their talents, skills and knowledge have been recognized.
25 This testimony was given to us by a mother who did not want her name to be mentioned, for personal reasons.
26 These local, national and international organizations include “Banyere Nkana”, AVEC, “Bunvikane Bulungu and Kabonde”, “Tuungane Kaboneke”, CLOC, ADECO Pêcheurs, “Amani kwetu”.
27 Examples of this are Namuka Myaziro, head of a cell in the Kanabahunde/Village Mulamba sub-village; M'mushubusa who also heads a cell in the Buhungu/Village Buhungu Sud sub-village in the Ishungu group. Other examples found in the Lugendo group include: Ms. Nzigire Bizimana, who heads a cell in the Mushwira/Village Irambira Nord sub-village, and M’mushaka Chantal, the current chairperson of the CLD.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 21 We should also point out that OMG are poorly accepted in the community of Ishungu and Lugendo, because they find it difficult to show themselves in public. Not only are they discriminated against, but they also discriminate against themselves. After the training organized by SPR, the people in these groupements have gradually begun to reduce the level of discrimination against these OMG. In future, it is vital to ensure that people from these OMG attend any meetings in Lugendo and Ishungu: single mothers, the disabled, widows, Pygmies.28
Given the prevalence of women in daily life, involving women, youth and OMG in local decision-making would deliver change and in doing so reduce inequalities and achieve greater social cohesion, because women—being more numerous in society—would have a greater scope to make changes and prevent conflicts.
The conflict analyses prioritized by the SPR partners in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements included the following participation by women and other marginalized groups:
Table 5: Participation by Gender and OMG in Conflict Dynamics in Ishugu
Activities Women OMG Men Total Identifying and prioritizing conflicts activity 17 9 64 90 Analyzing the five conflicts activity 6 14 40 60 Restitution; validation of conflicts and conclusion of agreements 27 21 62 110 between parties to conflicts Total 56 44 166 266 Percentage 21% 17% 62% 100%
Table 6: Participation by Gender and OMG in Conflict Dynamics in Lugendo
Activities Women OMG Men Total
Identifying and prioritizing conflicts workshop 42 07 56 105 Presentation of the PAR process to the community 45 07 53 105 Community forum to validate the results of participatory 45 07 53 105 conflicts analyses Organization of three community mini-dialogues to draft 92 07 96 195 guidelines Total 224 28 258 510 Percentage 44% 5.5% 50.5% 100%
28 This testimony was confirmed by the current leader of the Lugendo group, Mr. Denis Mubale; Ms. Bushege, who serves as an ISDR relay agent and is also married to the Ishungu group leader, Ms. Bushege Lugalika; Mr. Bisimwa Bizoga Moïse, a SYNIGL field researcher in Lugendo; Ms. Nalwango Valentine, a teacher and women’s leader at the parish level (Parish of Birava) as well as the chairman of the Lugendo CLPD, Mr. Fabien Rukiko Bujiri.
22 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY These tables show that marginalized groups participate in conflict dynamics in both the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements. The marginalized group includes single mothers, people with disabilities, widows, albinos and Pygmies. What is interesting is that this marginalized group was more active during the exchanges, the Pygmies and single mothers in this case (in the Ishungu group where their participation is high compared to Lugendo). Furthermore, more women are involved in conflict management activities in the Lugendo community than in Ishungu. Men find it hard to understand the need for conflict management that includes both men and women, which is why greater awareness is required to achieve social and sustainable cohesion.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 23 3. CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION METHODS AND RESULTS
In the previous chapter we analyzed conflicts, identified the different types of conflicts as well as the causes, actors and consequences for those we prioritized, and evaluated the extent to which gender and other marginalized groups were involved in conflict transformation. We will now focus on the key drivers of conflict and the capacity of stakeholders to transform these conflicts within the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements. This analysis will lead to a potential conflict transformation method, based on the different relationships between the drivers of the chosen conflicts.
DRIVERS OF CONFLICT Given the current circumstances, life in rural areas is not as easy as it used to be. Following the various wars in eastern DRC, people were forced to flee their villages to settle in more secure areas, in this case cities. These include young people and others who were needed to help with the socio-economic recovery of rural areas. The situation of the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements seems patently obvious because, in addition to the above-mentioned problem, agriculture—which is a key source of subsistence in the villages—has been devastated by bacterial wilt, resulting in greater poverty.
The geographical location of these two groupements, surrounded in certain places by the lake, means that they can fish, and this remains the main activity today. In addition to agriculture and fisheries, the population of Ishungu and Lugendo also engage in small-scale commerce because of their strategic location close to Rwanda, the island of Idjwi, the city of Bukavu and the city of Goma. The lake, land and other elements are therefore factors that drive conflict in these two groupements, depending on which location the population uses as a source of business. The drivers of conflict are therefore:
AMPHIBOLOGICAL NATURE OF THE LAND In Ishungu and Lugendo, land is used for farming, rearing livestock and housing. Conflicts can vary depending on how the land is used for day-to-day activities. First, land can be a source of identity conflicts, as occupied land is associated with a person, a family, a tribe or a clan. In this case, land disputes may arise when two families or two people argue or clash over plot demarcation. These conflicts are frequent in Ishungu.
Second, the land can be a source of competition, as is the case in Ishungu and Lugendo where there are conflicts between livestock breeders and farmers.
SHORTAGE OF NATURAL RESOURCES, FOOD INSECURITY Because agriculture is no longer profitable, the populations of Lugendo and Ishungu in particular benefit from the providential godsend that is the lake, used first for fishing and then as a means of transport or communication with other trade networks, including neighboring Rwanda, the city of Goma, Idjwi territory and the city of Bukavu, even though there is also a road connection with Bukavu via Amsar. It is worth repeating the fact that the lake is a source of fishing for a population whose fields produce only meagre harvests. As they carry out this activity, fishermen come into contact with different public services. This results in conflicts related to the theft of nets and the use of inappropriate nets, harassment by public services, the maritime police. In addition to the lack of sambaza fish in the lake, there is also the more general issue of water itself. There is in fact an unequal distribution of drinking water sources between the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements, the latter having fewer sources than the former. The need for water is a natural one, and the fact that the population of Ishungu tries to source it from Lugendo and Bushumba, where there is also a shortage, generates conflicts with these neighboring groupements. This is why the conflict over drinking water supply has torn both groupements apart, groupements that waited in vain for a lasting solution provided by the CSDB and TearFund NGO projects.
CRISIS OF CUSTOMARY POWER AND CRONYISM A key feature of local governance in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements is the level of poor governance following the recruitment of incompetent staff to lead groupements, villages and even sub- villages. It is often said that these people are chosen by the chiefdom and are loyal to the king. These people are well known, and their mismanagement makes it difficult for them to have those they rule over comply with the law. This often leads to people boycotting their authority, which leads to arbitrary arrests by the police. Furthermore, unpaid state officials turn to the population to supplement their income; this also provokes conflicts associated with harassment by public services. The chiefdom has also temporarily replaced the leader of the Lugendo group, Mr. Bashige Ngaboyeka Damien, a person from within the royal line, with another appointed leader, Mr. Denis Mubale. This has caused a lot of frustration and division among the population. Some clashes between populations are sometimes linked to a person’s viewpoint in response to this situation.
UNEMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC SLUMP Due to the lack of work, young people who have not been able to go to school, and even those who have finished their studies, are unable to find work in the area. For this reason, the only work that both old and young can find is fishing on the lake using fishing methods prohibited by Congolese law. The Lake Police Commander provided this testimony:
At night, we often meet fishermen of all ages on the lake: from five-year-olds to seniors. We should arrest them but feel sorry for them. We drive them away, but every day we catch them doing their dirty work. We cannot cope with this situation. Unfortunately, these people even use mosquito nets instead of nets. As a result, tiny sambazas and fish are caught too. This is unfair for future generations, especially because they also fish in bays that serve as fish spawning grounds.29
When questioned by law enforcement officers, these fishermen have no shame when they answer: “Our fields are no longer productive; we must resort to the gift that God has given us.”
29 Testimony delivered by the Lake Police Commander at the port of Birava, Captain Mushagalusa Bahaya, on April 17, 2019 from 9:10 to 11:20 a.m.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 25 The situation often turns into cases of harassment; the police are overwhelmed by the repeated violations committed by the fishermen, who are arrested and released, with the arrests followed by the seizure of non-compliant nets and other fishing equipment. This leads to conflicts between fishermen themselves, and between fishermen and police officers.
GENERAL POVERTY The consequences of recurrent wars in the eastern part of the DRC can be found both in the entire eastern part of the DRC and in the two groupements mentioned above. The population has been reduced to an unprecedented level of poverty. The only sector on which this population could still rely was agriculture, but this has unfortunately been destroyed by bacterial wilt. To date, no appropriate or effective treatment has been found to treat this disease. This poverty also has repercussions on the issues of education, healthcare.
ACUTE IGNORANCE AMONG PEASANT COMMUNITIES As a general rule, access to information is a driving force for development. The lack of information is in fact at the root of many conflicts in Lugendo and Ishungu. The most telling cases are women's right to inheritance and fishermen suffering from harassment both at night and during the day. Today, several legal instruments30 exist both nationally and internationally that grant women the same dignity as men; unfortunately, many women are still unaware of these laws. As for fishermen, they are often victims of harassment by some unorthodox police officers, even when they find themselves in authorized fishing areas. As a reminder, the laws governing the organization of fishing in the DRC provide that this fishing must be practiced 300 meters from shore, with this 300 meters set aside for fish to spawn.31
30 Among these legal instruments, the following are noteworthy at the national and international levels: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women's Rights, Peace and Security, proposing increased representation of women at all levels; the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women adopted on December 18, 1979, by the United Nations General Assembly, which entered into force on September 3, 1981; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Act No. 15/013 of August 1, 2015, on the implementation of women's rights and equality; Law No. 06/015 of June 12, 2006 authorizing the Democratic Republic of the Congo's accession to The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa; the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo amended by Act No. 11/002 of January 20, 2011 amending certain articles of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo of February 18, 2006; the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Discrimination Against Women of 1979.
31 Among the various laws that protect aquatic ecosystems are: The Decree of July 12, 1937, repealing the Decree of April 21, 1937 regulating fishing concessions; Law No. 14/003 of February 11, 2014, on nature conservation, especially Chapter 3, which protects flora species.
26 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Table 7: Conflict Drivers in the Lugendo and Ishungu Groupements
Area or Type of Sector Conflict Specific Conflict Contributory Factors Causes Actors Consequences
Politics and Governance Mismanagement of Dictatorship of local Group leaders, Impunity; harassment by security related villages and sub-villages leaders village leaders and public service officials; by the group leader Opacity in the population, corruption of public Mismanagement of management of especially in officials. onlending at the public affairs Lugendo Mistrust between the chiefdom level Ignorance of the law National police and population and Power struggle in and administrative population administrative, groupements and procedures Lake police, ANR, customary and police villages DGM and authorities Poor security fishermen as well Arbitrary arrests management at lake as lake operators level and in the group Group and village leaders are not paid Dysfunctional institutions at the chiefdom level Poor management of noncriminal court cases by the police Economic Livestock and Conflict related to Insufficient arable land Lack of space for Livestock breeders Clashes between families agriculture the free grazing of Low level of pasture and agriculture and farmers, of livestock breeders and domestic animals knowledge about particularly in Cishugi farmers and land dispute livestock and and the BIRAKINA Clashes and disputes agricultural practices plantation between families due to Mosaic disease, rural boundaries bacterial wilt Food insecurity destroying banana trees
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 27 Area or Type of Sector Conflict Specific Conflict Contributory Factors Causes Actors Consequences
Fishing Conflict related to Soldiers taking nets Use of nets that are Fishermen and Fall in fish production police and military Lack of access to unsuitable or state control Poverty, unemployment, harassment, theft of fishing inputs prohibited by the services theft and banditry services that regulate nets on Lake Kivu. Rwandan fishermen's Fishermen among Hate, revenge, killing fishing in the DRC envy of the nets of themselves fishermen Security services (Kashimbi) Congolese fishermen Aggressive destruction of failure (DRC) Injustice in the taxation Lake operators aquatic ecosystems in of lake operators Insufficient (traders) and tax Lake Kivu equipment dedicated collectors Some lake operators Police harassment to lake security on are adversely affected the Congolese side Disputes between tax due to irregularities in collectors and lake their shipping activities. operators (traders) Traders increase the price of their basic products at will. Access to Related to youth Unpaid state employees Lack of employment Young people who Several cases of armed employment unemployment policy for young have finished their robbery or theft people studies and High rate of idle youth Lack of job community and youth lost to crime prospects for young Some young people people prefer to work elsewhere with less chances of success. Currency Related to exchange Products are expensive Poor monetary policy Between members of Exchange rate fluctuation rate fluctuations on the market at the national level the community (and Misunderstandings (Congolese francs— Children are sent away and non-regulation of especially sellers). between parents and US dollars) at an early age product prices school managers about school fee rates Environment Conflict related Low involvement of Obstruction of Population and Mistrust between the to drinking the population in water supply to state officials Ishungu, Lugendo and water supply environmental Lugendo by the Bushumba populations protection
28 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Area or Type of Sector Conflict Specific Conflict Contributory Factors Causes Actors Consequences (access to Unregulated tree population of Civil Society Organization of protest water) felling; environmental Bushumba Organizations and marches damage around the Physical exploitation authorities Clashes over water lake. of locally recruited Population of the sources Unequal distribution of staff Lugendo group and Waterborne diseases resources between Problem population of the Ishungu and Lugendo encountered by Ishungu group TearFund in supplying water from Lugendo to Ishungu Social and Health Conflict related to Poor healthcare policy Lack of healthcare Healthcare workers Some deaths have been human quality healthcare by the Health Zone infrastructure and patients recorded as a result of Office Lack/absence of inadequate treatment Poor quality of medication for the and/or failure to transfer healthcare many cases of patients disease Preference for follow-up Medical treatment by care at the Mushweshwe unqualified Health Center personnel Territorial or coverage Community too issue between the poor to offer Cishugi and healthcare Mushweshwe Health Centers Education Conflict related to Poor governance in the Non-involvement of Parents and school Decline in quality of the setting, payment education sector state services in managers teaching and management of Disputes between running schools, Low attendance rate at school fees parents and school especially in the schools managers over the payment of teachers' Child vagrancy payment of school fees salaries Student attrition (fees, construction costs
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 29 Area or Type of Sector Conflict Specific Conflict Contributory Factors Causes Actors Consequences
Gender Conflict related to Preference given to boys Old-fashioned Between members of Fewer girls in school women's inheritance over girls by some customs and the family. than boys practices in the and participation in parents Fewer women in household community positions of management Lack of information responsibility about the Family Women are afraid and Code lack of self-confidence
30 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY Figure 1: Factors and Drivers of Conflict in Lugendo and Ishungu Groupements
Banditry Poor governance
Theft of nets
Mismanage POLITICS INSECURITY ment Poverty Poor soil/Plant diseases Disregar d for Lack of ECONOMIC laws pasture land Low level of involvement by high-level Food ENVIRONMENT authorities Harassment/Imp insecurity unity/Corrupt Injustice officials Little access to drinking water
Unpaid state Lack of Limited officials economic access to resources
employme nt/Unempl SOCIAL oyment Inadequate Low level of healthcare access to educatio n
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 31 STAKEHOLDERS' CONFLICT-TRANSFORMATION CAPACITIES The entire population of Ishungu and Lugendo is engaged in a difficult struggle to regain human dignity, both of them in need of peaceful coexistence within their groupements.
We believe that despite the population's being aware of the reality of conflicts, the success of a “transformational approach”32 to conflicts is far from assured given the failures of local conflict resolution mechanisms in the past and the fact that no permanent monitoring framework has been established by the community and other partners. Worse still, some local leaders are scaling back peace initiatives undertaken by local structures, which are themselves the driving force behind some conflicts.33
The positive attitude observed among the inhabitants of the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements, namely, the sensitivity to conflicts that sometimes oppose the members of each group and sometimes both groupements,34 is worthy of note. Conflicts are often aggravated by the lack of any consultation framework that could bring the conflict parties together to find ways and means to resolve the issue at hand. Some situations clearly exacerbate conflict: poor local governance, poverty, ignorance, declining incomes, and lack of pasture for livestock breeders.
In addition to the sensitive nature of some conflicts, it is important to reiterate that there is a lack of “local peace committees”35 in some villages; and where they do exist, there is an ongoing need to revive and strengthen the conflict sensitivity and transformation capacities of community leaders in order to ensure permanent positive social cohesion. This is one reason why “local populations are often unable to cope on their own with all the aspects, [in all their forms] and all of the factors involved in conflicts.”36
Participation is clearly the root cause of many community success stories. This is made clear in a testimony provided by a resident of the Lugendo group who was satisfied with the inter-community dialogue on drinking water supply. This is when the communities discovered the real cause of the conflict between the two groupements, which dates back to the previous generation:
I am very happy to realize that nobody wanted to get involved in this conflict that divided us, the people of Lugendo and Ishungu. Neither the group leaders nor the church leaders, no one wanted to make the first move because we all got involved. SPR helped us to realize that what we thought was a problem was not a problem, but rather a consequence. Through face-to-face meetings, the Lugendo and Ishungu delegations
32 It is an approach to conflict resolution based on specific techniques, a certain way of looking at and perceiving reality, that is specific to the people of the Ishungu and Lugendo groups.
33 These examples are more evident in the Lugendo group than in the Ishungu group.
34 The conflict that divided the two communities was over the supply of drinking water, a project intended to draw water from the neighboring Bushumba group and for which a large part of the piping had been prepared and installed.
35 The “local committee” is an initiative of international NGOs working within the Ishungu and Lugendo groups, including TPO and Caritas. Here, the local peace and development committee, working at the group level, collaborates with the cellules de paix and noyaux de paix, which work at the group and village levels, in conflict resolution.
36 See ANU-RDC, L’État africain et les mécanismes culturels traditionnels de transformation des conflits, Bukavu, October 2012, p. 30.
32 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY managed to get everything off their chest. That's when we discovered the lies and manipulation. In the end we realized that some of our grandparents had problems with each other; and without consciously knowing it, we had been caught up in this situation too.37
Given the dynamics of the persistent instability of conflicts in eastern DRC and recurrent local conflicts, patrimonial governance and the exclusion of women and marginalized groups, the disparity of the efforts being undertaken seems to be having an increasingly positive impact on establishing social cohesion and laying the foundations for lasting peace. But one condition remains clear: permanent monitoring by all parties is required, as well as the creation of grassroots social structures. However, much remains to be done in terms of the participation of women and marginalized groups in rural areas,38 in this case in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements.
We welcome the initiative that provided these two groupements with a local monitoring committee following the conflict that had engulfed them, namely the conflict over the supply of drinking water. To ensure a successful follow-up of the various conclusions and social agreements, the committee is assisted by advisers, in particular the two leaders of the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements as well as Mr. Elias Murhala Bagabo, currently pastor of the fifth CELPA Kanyantende.
In Lugendo, the former group leader discusses the fact that he has been cited in the conflict over drinking water supply.
Several actions have been initiated nationally and internationally, often with unsatisfactory outcomes. Several factors help to explain this situation. In the introduction to the book mentioned below, the
37 For reasons of conflict sensitivity, the person who gave this testimony preferred not to be named.
38 See Table 3, which shows that women are less involved in community conflict analysis activities. The situation is even worse for the OMG. These low numbers show that there is still much to be done.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 33 author argues that the reasons for the failure of conflict transformation may be because methods were employed that do not take into account local39 and internal community realities.
The same situation was observed in both Lugendo and Ishungu groupements. It was difficult for the parties involved to face each other in order to resolve a conflict. This often led to failed conflict transformation. A village leader gave us this testimony:
We really thank the SPR project for bringing us together, the people of Lugendo and Ishungu. For a long time, few marriages had been celebrated between girls and boys from Lugendo and Ishungu; with hardly any dating between both groupements. We were all sorry about the problem that tore us apart but never discussed it or listened to each other. By getting together, we discovered that the conflict was at the grandparents' level and that we had no reason to be suspicious of each other.40
It is also important to remember that traditional methods are often overtaken by the realities of the situation; given the groupements’ heterogeneity, the traditional method of conflict resolution may no longer be effective.41 There are of course different methods of conflict resolution. The choice must be made according to the extent of the conflict and the willingness of actors to get involved.42 This helps to explain the lethargy witnessed during the community conflict over drinking water, for example.
A restructuring of the existing model of conflict resolution and peaceful coexistence in the Ishungu and Lugendo communities could achieve greater success in the future. Different “kamweru” and cellules/noyaux de paix could be combined, along with the permanent monitoring that has always been lacking, as revealed by a resident of Lugendo who preferred to remain anonymous for reasons of conflict sensitivity.
We also suggest that peacebuilding and actor empowerment activities be included, along with coordination of these activities. We also welcome the small-scale progress achieved in Lugendo and Ishungu, thanks to the support of the SPR project. This resulted in elections being held for members of the local monitoring committee for the social agreements concluded between these two groupements, focusing on the conflict over drinking water supply.
HYBRID PARTICIPATORY CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION MODEL First, this model is inspired by the traditional framework in the Ishungu and Lugendo community for peaceful conflict resolution, including the Ngombe and Kamweru, a meeting place for the Bashamuka and Bagula village elders.
The process begins with arbitration by neighbors who provide advice and practical guidance to the parties to the conflict. Hence the use of village chiefs to have their voice heard (by the village elders) and achieve a peaceful settlement. The kamweru consists of village bagula or elders, whose role is to listen
39See ANU-RDC, Op. Cit., p. 2.
40 Testimony of a resident of Ishungu who did not want his name to be mentioned, for reasons of conflict sensitivity.
41 See Ibid.
42 Yvan Potin, La gestion des conflits dans les organisations, p. 10, Editions du CREG, 200-2008, p. 10.
34 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY to people in conflict at the grassroots level and advise the parties with a view to ensuring peace and cohesion in the village. If this fails, the parties concerned can resort to arbitration by the group leader. The group kamweru consists of the group leader surrounded by elders (or bagula) from the villages, who try to reconcile the parties or punish one of the parties. In the event of disagreement, the unsatisfied party can take the matter to court.
Second, this hybrid model is inspired by the NGO initiatives that produced cellules/noyaux de paix that work alongside the Kamweru, given the level of discrimination and mistrust and failure to obey orders given by local leaders, which further fueled the fragile social cohesion so sought by the community. The CDP/NDP helped to resolve the drinking water conflict in the two groupements, an issue that nobody had dared to tackle up to that point. Local experts (group leaders, village and sub-village leaders, civil society, community leaders and churches) had failed to address the issue because of the sensitive nature of the conflict.
THE HYBRID PARTICIPATORY MODEL AT WORK The hybrid participatory model begins with the CDP/NDP, whose members43 are chosen at each village’s general assembly. Their task is to raise awareness among families and help to peacefully resolve conflicts.
At the higher level, the CDPs collaborate with the “Kamweru” of the group with supervision from the local monitoring committee, the group leader is one of the advisors, along with church leaders, Catholic and Protestant in particular: these then form the local monitoring committee.
Many conflicts are now resolved at the village level by NDPs; the “Kamweru”, the police are less involved in conflict resolution at the village and even groupement levels.
43 Members of the CDP/NDP are chosen on the basis of a criteria developed and validated by the entire assembly, as well as the people who should sit in this group. Each village must elect its NDP. All of the NDPs are headed by a local monitoring committee that works alongside the group's “kamweru.”
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 35 Figure 2: Hybrid Participatory Model
Higher jurisdiction (court, etc.) (9)
Local (8) Monitoring Noyaux de Paix (NDP) Committee CLS
(7)
(8)
Group “kamweru” (6) Cellules de Paix CDP
(5)
(3) (13) (5) advisors Village (4) “kamweru”
(2)
(1) CLOC (10)
(11) Mediation by CPJP neighbors (12) (sub-villages) CLD
The diagram shows that the model has a dual role: it covers the procedure to be followed for a civil case (1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12) and (2, 4, 8), or a criminal case (13).
In the event of a civil case, the persons in conflict can appeal either to the Noyau de Paix or to the Kamweru, which are two alternative bodies; or for a criminal case, they can appeal directly to the court (13).
There seems to have been a multiplication of efforts to resolve conflicts by NGOs in the Lugendo and Ishungu communities. This has resulted in duplication. Would it not be better to revive existing community conflict resolution structures, instead of constantly create new ones?
Moreover, given the extent to which NGOs have helped to resolve community conflicts, it would be more advantageous to think about the future of the community; these NGOs rely on funding for their
36 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY work, and so when they leave social structures will still need to operate. There is therefore an urgent need to revive existing local structures to ensure a sustainable level of social cohabitation.
Based on the hybrid model and given how unwieldy structures can be and the level of duplication, an amended and simplified model for sustainable social cohesion may be required. In this model, the different support structures should only intervene at the grassroots level, i.e. at the level of sub-village or village.
Figure 3. Simplified Hybrid Participatory Model
(3)
(2)
(4)
(1)
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 37 4. PERSPECTIVES AND RECOMMENDATIONS
After analyzing the conflict dynamics and assessing the local capacities of stakeholders to transform conflicts in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements, our investigation identified some perspectives and recommendations in terms of the personal contribution that could create and improve the precarious state of social cohesion in the area.
PERSPECTIVES • Organization of activities to revitalize existing local structures for peaceful conflict resolution, with a view to sustainable social cohesion.
• Creation of a permanent consultation framework for the different layers of society, in order to decide on possible problems and/or conflicts and thus maintain social cohesion.
• Extension of the SPR project to other groupements not included in this selection for genuine social cohesion throughout Kabare.
POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS AND/OR RECOMMENDATIONS
CENTRAL AND PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS • Equip sailors and lake police officers with the equipment necessary to secure the fishing sector against bandits, wherever they come from; the number of personnel should also be increased to ensure an optimal service.
• Demarcate the waters of the lake to allow Congolese fishermen to carry out their activities in safety with respect to Rwanda.
• Take charge of the education system in order to resolve the main problem and thus strengthen social cohesion in the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements.
• Improve lake transportation and communication to the benefit of lake services and the navy to provide security cover for the lake and all areas where the Ishungu and Lugendo groupements reside.
LOCAL AUTHORITIES • Ensure compliance with the various agreements reached by the parties to the conflict and involve women leaders and other marginalized groups in local decision-making.
• Continue to raise awareness and train marginalized groups on the rights of women and girls, particularly in terms of inheritance and the fight against gender-based sexual violence in rural areas. • Given the significant decrease in agricultural land, develop solutions to strengthen, develop and enhance non-agricultural activities in order to expand employment opportunities for young people and incomes from other sectors not dependent on agricultural production.
• Conduct zoning in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements.
INTERNATIONAL ALERT AND SPR • Continually advocate with the Congolese government for the unconditional removal of the fees and other illegal charges in schools.
• Support projects and/or activities that can revitalize existing local structures for peaceful conflict resolution, to achieve sustainable social cohesion in Lugendo and Ishungu.
SYNIGL AND ISDR PARTNERS • Establish local peace committees dedicated to conflict transformation in villages that do not yet have one and revive those that already exist in the villages of the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements.
• Support traditional chiefs and senior citizens to help them understand the relevance of equality in the community.
• Promote and intensify conflict transformation activities to address the root causes of community conflicts.
COMMUNITY LEADERS, CIVIL SOCIETY AND LOCAL NGOS • Support the population, truly raise awareness in order to bypass conflicts and act as a relay for the channeling of claims in Ishungu and Lugendo;
• Support the ongoing project to diversify water sources, as with the drilling project initiated in the village of Mudugurhu by TearFund in the Lugendo group.
SUPERVISING DOCTOR VIA THE HEALTH ZONE • Provide the medical facilities in Lugendo and Ishungu with adequate infrastructure to provide quality healthcare to patients.
• Strengthen the capacity of health service providers and pay their salaries.
GOVERNMENT SERVICES (DGM, ANR) • Continue to raise awareness among lake operators of the need to comply with navigation standards and the need to maintain the ship's documents that are vital for any lake operator activity.
• Treat fishermen and lake operators with dignity.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 39 MILITARY SERVICES (NAVAL FORCE, LAKE POLICE) • Ensure the complete safety of fishermen and shipowners on the lake.
• Denounce unorthodox police and military who harass the population and lake operators as they carry out their work.
• Continue to raise fishermen's awareness of the law governing fishing in the DRC, widely disseminate the legal texts that govern all lake activities in the DRC and, if necessary, translate them into the local language.
THE POPULATION OF THE LUGENDO AND ISHUNGU GROUPEMENTS • Create a framework for ongoing consultation between the various community structures with a view to internal collaboration;
• Initiate fodder cultivation to promote stable livestock farming in rural areas given the scarcity of pastures.
• Promote collaboration between school staff and educational partners and ongoing monitoring in this area of political authority.
• Foster a spirit of creativity among young people to exploit their diverse abilities rather than develop a wait-and-see attitude.
FISHERMEN AND LAKE OPERATORS • Ensure that fishermen and shipowners comply with the regulations governing fishing and navigation.
• Revive collaboration between lake services, the naval force, fishermen and shipowners to resolve certain disputes that may affect effective communication.
• Improve lake transportation by providing good quality motorized canoes that can provide the community with decent services.
CONCLUSION This research, focused on identifying and analyzing the different conflicts, as well as their underlying factors and causes. During the research we identified a certain amount of community participation in conflict analysis. Involving both women and OMG in the process of identifying solutions to the main causes of conflict would strengthen social cohesion and peacebuilding in these groupements.
All parties to conflicts that we identified, including women and OMG, should mobilize to combat the underlying factors behind the conflicts that affect their community. For this reason, we have made some recommendations, particularly aimed at central government, local authorities, International Alert/SPR, community leaders and civil society, public services, lake military and police services, the local population, fishermen and lake operators, as well as some perspectives for peacebuilding and sustainable social cohesion in the Lugendo and Ishungu groupements in particular and in Kabare territory in general.
40 | THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANONYMOUS, Committee on World Food Security, Coming to terms with terminology, CFS, 39th session, October 15-20, 2012.
ANU-RDC, L’État africain et les mécanismes culturels traditionnels de transformation des conflits, Bukavu, October 2012.
BOENINGER, E., “Governance and Development: Issues of Governance” in Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development, Banque mondiale, Washington, D.C, 1992.
BOUVY, A., Beyond stabilization: Understanding the conflict dynamics in North and South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo, International Alert, February 2015.
CIHUNDA, J., ”Acteurs de bonne gouvernance en RD Congo post-électorale” in Congo-Afrique, No.423, 2008, p. 204-216.
De BARBIEUX, B., “Le territoire: histoires en deux langues. A bilingual (his-) story of territory”, in Discours scientifique et contextes culturels. Géographies françaises à l'épreuve postmoderne, C. Chivallon, P. Ragouet, M. Samers (dir.), Bordeaux: Maison des sciences de l'homme d’Aquitaine, 1999, p. 36-37.
DI MEO, Guy, Les territoires du quotidien, Paris, Harmattan, 1996. http://www.psycho-ressources.com/bibli/conflits-et-origines.html; consulted March 16, 2019 at 8:18.
IFDP, Terres et conflits dans le Kivu montagneux. Enjeux et perspectives dans les territoires de Kabare et Walungu, Bukavu, unpublished, October 2012.
C. KAYSER & F. DJATENG, Les acteurs civils face à la prévention des conflits. Construire la Paix [Translated from German into French by Guerlin], Berlin, 2018.
Cf. J. MURHEGA, Dynamique des conflits et construction de la paix durable au Nord-Kivu et au Sud-Kivu en République démocratique du Congo [Dir.], Editions du CERUKI, 2009.
PITTAELS, S. et F. HILGERT, F., Beyond stabilisation: Understanding the conflict dynamics in North and South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo, Anvers, Unpublished, February 2015.
POTIN, Y., La gestion des conflits dans les organisations, Editions du CREG, 200-2008.
SHANYUNGU MPENDA WATU, A., “La RD Congo sur la braise chaude. La paix et la sécurité encore hypothétiques à l’Est” in Congo-Afrique, no. 418 (October 2007), p. 621-632.
B. UGEUX [Dir.], Laissez-nous vivre! Essai de réflexion et de propositions chrétiennes à propos des violences dans les conflits armés, COE-WCC, Geneva, 2012.
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 41 ANNEX A. INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR COLLECTING ADDITIONAL DATA
ISDR and SYNIGL staff What are the main conflicts found today in Ishungu and Lugendo and what are their different levers?
Do you have any statistical data on the participation of gender and OMG in conflict dynamics in your study area?
Describe some examples of participatory analysis activities in the field.
Are there any persistent conflicts in Ishungu/Lugendo following on from the conflict resolution and social cohesion activities organized by the SPR?
Can you confirm the existence of peacebuilding after the PAR organized on “the fragile cohabitation between Lugendo and Ishungu”? Yes No
Do you have any examples of the peaceful coexistence between the people of Ishungu and Lugendo?
How do you see the issue of land within the context of the conflict between farmers and livestock breeders?
How do you assess the current capacity of conflict stakeholders, especially women and OMG, to influence decisions or resolve conflicts in Ishungu/Lugendo?
Would you say that there is social cohesion following the results/conclusions of the PAR? Yes No Group/village leaders/CLDP/NDP/police What are the main conflicts found today in Ishungu/Lugendo?
What are the different causes?
Do you have any interesting examples/facts about social cohesion or the peaceful resolution of conflicts in the community?
Are you aware of any other conflicts after the SPR's awareness-raising activities on peaceful conflict resolution? Yes No
After the signing of the social agreements relating to the drinking water supply conflict, would you say that there is now social cohesion?
After the awareness raised by the SPR project, how do you rate the ability of conflict stakeholders, especially women and OMG, to influence decisions?
THE ROLE OF IMAGERY IN CONFLICT DYNAMICS IN KABARE TERRITORY | 43 ANNEX B. MAP OF THE KABARE CHIEFDOM