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Guiding Philosophies for Probation in the 21st Century ...... " Richard D. Sluder Allen D. Supp Denny C. Langston

Identifying and Supervising Offenders Affiliated With Community Threat Groups ...... Victor A. Casillas

Community Service: A Good Idea That Works ...... Richard J. Maher

Community-Based Drug Treatment in the Federal Bureau of Prisons ...... , ...... Sharon D. Stewart

The Patch: ANew Alternative for Drug Testing in the Criminal Justice System ...... James D. Baer Jon Booher Fines and Restitution Orders: Probationers' Perceptions ...... G. Frederick Allen Harvey Treger

What Do Offenders Say About Supervision and Going Straight? ...... " Julie Leibrich

Golden Years Behind Bars: Special Programs and Facilities for Elderly Inmates...... Ronald H. Aday

Improving the Educational Skills of Jail Inmates: Preliminary Program Findings ...... •...... Richard A. Tewksbury Gennaro F. Vito

"Up to Speed"-Results of a Multisite Study of Boot Camp Prisons ...... Doris Layton MacKenzie

"Looking at the Law"-Recent Cases on Probation and Supervised Release ...... David N. Adair, Jr.

JUNE 1994 150492- U.S. Department of Justice 150501 National Institute of Justice

This document nas been reproduced exactly as received from the person or organization originating It. Points of view or opinions stated in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the National Institute of Justice. Permission to reproduce thisqz"g' I material has been Jlranted by .J:<'ederal Probation

to the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), Further reproduction outside of the NCJRS system requires permission of the __ owner. Federal Probation A JOURNAL OF CORRECTIONAL PHILOSOPHY AND PRACTICE i Published by the Administrative Office of the ~te flJatff{S@purts

VOLUME LVIII JUNE 1994 NUMBER 2 OCT 14 1994

Guiding Philosophies for Probation in the 21st community-based Transitional Services Program, in­ Century.-What does the future hold in store for cluding the relationship between the Federal Bureau probation? Authors Richard D. Sluder, Allen D. Sapp, of Prisons, the United States Probation System, and and Denny C. Langston identify and discuss philoso­ community treatment providers. phies and goals that will emerge to guide probation in The Patch: A New Alternative for Drug Testing the 21st century. They predict that offender rehabili­ in the Criminal Justice System.-Authors James tation will become a dominant theme in probation but D. Baer and Jon Booher describe a new drug testing that it will be tempered by concern about controlling device-a patch which collects sweat for analysis. offenders to ensure community protection. They present the results of a product evaluation study Identifying and Supervising Offenders Affili­ conducted in the U.S. probation and U.S. pretrial ated With Community Threat Groups.-Gangs and community threat groups have placed a new breed CONTENTS of offender under the supervision of U.S. probation officers. Are the officers adequately trained in special Guiding Philosophies for Probation in the offender risk-management techniques to provide ef­ 21st Century ... / '.<"'l0·• 'rl9 ., .. . .. Richard D. Sluder .:J ITO'- Allen D. Sapp A. fective supervision? Author Victor Casillas analyzes Denny C. Langston 3 gang and community threat group issues from a dis­ Identifying and Supervising Offenders trict perspective-that of the Western District of Affiliated With Community T4\eat Texas. He defines and classifies community threat Group,; ...... j. :j-:D.i.f.7.3J ...... Victor A. Casillas 11

groups generally, relates the history of gangs in San Community Service: A Good I~a. 'fhat Antonio, and recommends organizational strategies Works ...... ';::S7 ().t..J'7''f ...... Richard J. Maher 20 for identifying, tracking, and supervising offenders Community-Based Drug Treatment Ir-l) '-J 'I S- affiliated with community threat groups. in the Federal Bureau of Prisons .... '.~. SharonD. Stewart 24 Community Service: A GoodIdea That Works.­ The Patch; ANew Alternative for Drug /.:S7) 191J For more than a decade the community service pro­ Testing in the Criminal Justice System .... James D. Baer gram initiated by the probation office in the Northern Jon Booher 29 District of Georgia has brought offenders and commu­ Fines and Restitution Orders: P;.pbationers' Perceptions ... t S'(J)·tf·'1· 7· .. . .. G. Frederick Allen nity together, often with dramatic positive results. Harvey Treger 34 Author Richard J. Maher present3 several of the dis­ What Do Offenders Say About Supervisi~ trict's "success stories" and describes how the program and Going Straight? .... . /.S-o ljry.8 .. Julie Leibrich 41 has built a bridge of trust between offenders and the Golden Years Behind Bars: Special Programs I.s-O df79 community, has provided valuable services to the com­ and Facilities for Elderly Inmates ...... , Ronald H.lday 47 munity, and has saved millions of dollars in prison Improving the Education Skills of Jail costs. He also notes that the "get tough on crime" Inmates: Preliminary Program movement threatens proven and effective community Findings ...... /l .-l"""6.r.-D'O" Ric~ardA, Tewksbury service programs and decreases the probability that I t..> ~ :.,.) <: Gennaro F. Vito 55 new programs will be encouraged or accepted. Community-Based Drug Treatment in the Fed­ Departments eral Bureau ofPrisons.-Author Sharon D. Stewart I '5'"() Sz) I Up to Speed ...... 60 provides a brief overview of the history of substance Looking at the Law ...... , ...... 67 abuse treatment in the Federal Bureau of Prisons and Reviews of Professional Periodicals ...... 73 discusses residential treatment programming within Your Bookshelf on Review •...... , ...... 82 Bureau institutions. She describes in det~il the It Has Come to Our Attention ...... " 87

1 Vol. 58. No. 2 /s-o~C;3 Identifying and Supervising Offenders Mfiliated With Community Threat Groups*

By VICTOR A. CASILLAS Supervising United States Probation Officer, Western District of Texas

Introduction sion, to reduce the risk the offender poses to the community, and to provide correctional treatment. In RGANIZED CRIMINAL groups and gangs fulfilling the role of protecting the community, Mono­ have become a major problem for communi­ Oties, justice professionals, and the public at graph 109, Supervision ofFederal Offenders, notes that both the national and local levels. At the local level the probation officer should, among other things: the random and often deadly violence associated with • establish a plan of supervision consistent with the youth and street gangs receives considerable atten­ level of risk posed by the offender to the community; tion in both the written and electronic media. The activities of more sophisticated gangs such as the • utilize varied and appropriate risk control activities; MEXIKANEMI, also known as the Mexican Mafia, o request modification of the conditions, if necessary, receive similar media attention. Other lesser known to reduce risks; organizations, some well structured and others more loosely organized, such as Cuban, Colombian, and • systematically review the conduct and condition of Nicaraguan organized crime, garner no media public­ offenders and revise supervision plans in accordance ity but receive significant law enforcement attention. with changes in risk levels. The tragic circumstances regarding the Branch Davidians, a cultic religious group in Waco, Texas, The Federal Probation System has always recognized received considerable national attention in 1993. its role in regard to enforcing supervision conditions During the 1980's the Federal law enforcement because it is a statutory function. Similarly, the Federal establishment began targeting conspiratorial crimi­ Probation System has always maintained an awareness nal drug organizations and violent armed offenders ofits responsibilities in regard to offender rehabilitation as a matter of policy. Federal law enforcement initia­ and the importance of correctional treatment. tives such as Triggerlock and Weed and Seed and the The question emerges, however, whether probation activities of the various Federal Organized Crime officers are adequately trained in specialized offender Drug Enforcement Task Forces (OCDETF) as well risk-management techniques to provide effective risk as numerous other state and local multiagency task control for the new breed of offender entering the forces, resulted in a dramatic change in the type of system. Specifically, should Federal probation officers offender entering the Federal justice system. In­ be doing anything beyond traditional practices to iden­ creasingly, these offenders were more prone to be tify, track, and supervise offenders affiliated with com­ violent and more prone to be members or associates munity threat groups? This article will attempt to of criminal groups. This trend became readily evi­ answer these questions by analyzing gang and com­ dent in the late 1980's as many of these offenders munity threat group issues from a district perspective, began to be released to the community for supervi­ that of the Western District of Texas. The district is sion. Changing sentencing procedures also served to geographically large, is a metropolitan district, and focus attention on the issue as probation officers includes several divisional probation offices with large gave closer attention to offenders' criminal histories supervision caseloads, including the Austin Division, in the application of the sentencing guidelines. the EI Paso Division, and the Waco Division. The With the development of the enhanced supervisicn largest offender population is located in the San Anto­ model at the Federal level, the responsibilities of U.S. nio Division which is also the headquarters office. A :probation officers regarding the supervision function key assumption is that offender demographics are were clearly articulated. The probation officer has the basically homogeneous acr,. 3S the district and that a responsibilities to enforce the conditions of supervi- study of the San Antonio Division will adequately reflect the whole. juter defining and classifying com­ *This article is based on the author's in-district project munity threat groups generally, the article will relate report prepared as part of the Federal Judicial Center's Leadership Development Program. Fol' information about the history of gangs in San Antonio and recommend the program, cl.'ntact Michael Siegel at (202) 2*t.:4100. organizational strategies for identifying, tracking, and

11 Vol. 58,No. 2 12 FEDERAL PROBATION June 1994 supervIsmg offenders affiliated with community percentage of prison violence, and their influence often threat groups. transcends the prison walls. The supergangs in par­ ticular have evolved into major criminal enterprises Classifying Community Threat Groups in their respective free-world communities. Major na­ For our purposes, a community threat group will be tional prison supergangs include the Mexican Mafia defined as: (California), the Nuestra Familia, the Aryan Brother­ hood, the Texas Syndicate, the Latin Kings, the MEXI­ A group of individull.ls who gather together on a continuing basis to engage in antisocial and illegal behavior and whose behavior KANEMI, and the Black Guerilla Family. Major Texas poses a danger to safety and welfare of criminal justice personnel prison gangs include the Texas Syndicate, the MEXI­ and/or the general public. KANEMI, also known as the Mexican Mafia, the Texas Mafia, the Aryan Brotherhood of Texas, La Herman­ Community threat groups can generally be classi­ dad de Pistoleros Latinos, Nuestros Carnales, and La fied into four primary groups, with several subcate­ Raza Unida. Prison gangs are a major law enforce­ gories. These groups are: (1) street and youth gangs; ment concern in the San Antonio area. (2) prison gangs; (3) drug and organized crime organi­ zations; and (4) cults and aberrant social movements. Drug and Organized Crime Groups Many groups share characteristics common to several categories. For example, some street gangs have defi­ This grouping can be quite expansive. There are nite satanic overtones and some prison gangs espouse traditional and nontraditional groups with perhaps a white supremacist ideology. The following taxonomy the besG known being La Cosa Nostra (American Ma­ should not, by any means, be considered definitive. fia). Other organized crime groups include the Colum­ bian cocaine cartels, the Mexican drug syndicates, and Street and Youth Gangs traditional and nontraditional oriental organized The 1980's and 1990's have seen an exponential rise crime groups such as the Yakuza, Triads, Chinese in criminally oriented gangs in cities throughout the street gangs, and numerous Indo-Chinese groups. Be­ United States. Ayouth gang can generally be described cause dTlig traffickers and persons engaged in pat­ as a loose-knit organization of persons ranging in age terned income-producing criminal behavior tend to from early teens to mid-twenties who associate for the want to deal with persons with whom they feel com­ purpose of engaging in antisocial behavior or commit­ fortable, many organized crime groups tend to be ting criminal activity. Generally, a street gang is more based on ethnic, racial, or national lines. Jamaican complex and organized than a youth gang. Youth and Posses, Cuban organized crime groups, and Central street gangs tend to be structured along ethnic or American organized crime groups are heavily involved racial lines or along some distinct ideology. They are in domestic cocaine distribution. Emerging organized as diverse as the neighborhoods and communities crime groups include Nigerian Organized Crime, from which they emanate. whose activities include heroin trafficking, credit card fraud, and production of false documents, and Pales­ Prison Gangs tinian groups who traffic in stolen merchandise. Out­ The tendency of inmates in correctional institutions law motorcycle groups such as the Banditos, the to form formal and informal groups has long been a Pagans, the Outlaws, and the Hells Angels are another fact of prison life. The first known prison gang was the group of well-known criminal organizations. These Gypsy Jokers, a gang which emerged from a peniten­ biker groups have long been involved in producing and tiary in Washington State in the early 1950's. Since distributing methamphetamine, in trafficking fire­ then, numerous small gangs and several supergangs arms, in operating prostitution rings, and in operating have developed in many state correctional facilities "protection" rackets primarily involving exotic dance and in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The first of the clubs. They also have been known to subcontract to national supergangs was the Mexican Mafia which traditional organized crime organizations. surfaced in the California prison system in 1957. The late 1960's saw the development of numerous prison Cults and Aberrant Social Movements gangs, a trend which has continued at both the na­ These groups are defined by their behavior rather tional and state levels. than their beliefs. Generally, a cultic group is one that Generally prison gangs bogin ns mutual protection is "manipulative and deceptive, exclusive, psychologi­ groups but develop into sophisticated priRon gang cally or finan~ially exploitative, totalitaria!1, and/or criminal organizations attempting to control institu­ psychologically damaging to its members or families" tional criminal activities such as gambling, contra­ (definition by American Family Foundation). Cults band, narcotic trafficking, prostitution, and contract can further be grouped into six types: religious cults, murders. Prison gangs account for an overwhelming psychotherapy cults, political cults, economic cults, COMMUNITY THREAT GROUPS 13 new age cults, and satanic cults. Religious cults like sonal and cognitive psychology. In this type of cult, the the Branch Davidians and the Peoples Temple are the leader has found the correct way to "feel" or "think." most welllu"lown; however, there are numerous emerg~ Most quasi-therapeutic cults have emerged from the ing cultic type groups who utilize the same group larger Human Potential Movement which evolved control techniques but whose theologies are secular from the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow rather than religious. Most cults arise from legitimate and his writings on "self~ac.tualization" as well as vehicles of social change including the environmental numerOU$ other "self-help" gurus. Examples of these movement, the human potential movement, the recov~ groups are: Esalen Institute, Foundation of Human ery movement, the women's movement, and the neo~ Understanding, Synanon, est, Center for Feeling pentecostal movement. Cults, like gangs, are a Therapy, Lifespring, and Scientology. Another! group, permanent phenomenon of Western culture which will Life Training, is based on the rational-emotive tech­ continue to grow. What causes cults to form is complex niques developed by Albert Ellis. In some research, and cannot be explained easily. Suffice it to say that psychotherapy cults are classified under the broader Western culture is undergoing a long-term social proc­ New Age category. ess where one dominant belief system., the Judaeo­ Political Cults. These groups are customarily built Christian, is being replaced by numerous other belief around an individual who has developed the perfect systems. Humans have a spiritual instinct, that is, a political ideology. The most purely political group is led drive for a personal unifying belief system, be it of by Lyndon Larouche. Many of these organizations are secular or theological nature. AI:; individuals continue of the radical right and espouse neo-nazi, white su­ to search for unifying belief systems in the now highly premacist, anti-government, anti-tax, anti-semitic po­ fragmented marketplace of belief systems, some will litical ideologies. Among these groups are the various undoubtedly fall into cultism. Ku Klux Klan factions including the Invisible Empire, Be they secular or religious, cults generally have the the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, and the United Klans same theme. A leader or group of leaders have discov­ of America. The Posse Comitatus is a militant, armed, ered the secret to total physical or mental health, anti-tax organization. Many groups belong to the Iden­ expanded consciousness, material success, or holy liv­ tity Church Movement, a/confederation of para-military ing. Failure to adhere to the cult's specific belief sys­ survivalist groups whose theology teaches that only tem means a person is destined for a life of sin, mental whites are human and that all other ethnic groups are or emotional maladjustment, dysfunction, or personal, subhuman. The Identity Churches preach a "white social, or material failure. Cults, regardless of their only" brand of pseudo-Christianity that exhorts the classification, tend to fall into two types, authoritarian reclamation of the white identity, professes virulent and anti-authoritarian. Cults, however, are not a con­ anti-Semitism, and encourages its members to pre­ cern for the criminal justice system unless their mem­ pare for a final cataclysmic race war. Among these bers commit acts of criminal behavior. Some do. What groups are the Christian-Patriots Defense League; the follows is a synopsis of the various categories of cults Covenant; the Sword and the Arm of the Lord; the and aberrant social movements. Church of Jesus Christ Christian; and the Basic Bible Religious Cults. Religious cults are the ones that and Life Science Churches. Neo-nazi organizations have received the most attention. They can range from. include the National Socialist Liberation Front, the large, well-organized groups like the Unification National Socialist Party of America, the New Or­ Church and the Way International to myria.d smaller derINational Socialists White Peoples Party, and vari­ groups. Cults such as the Branch Davidians and the ous Skinhead organizations. Another major white Peoples Temple were small and relatively unknown supremacist organization is the Silent Brotherhood. until tragedy propelled them into the national head­ Economic Cults. These cults are sometimes indis­ lines. Other religious cults include: the Assemblies of tinguishable from the psychotherapy cults in that both Yahweh, the Children of God; the Church of Armaged­ have a distinct psychorientology, based on the psycho­ don; the Church of Bible Understanding; the Church logical concepts of Abraham Maslow and the self­ of the Living Word; the Foundation Faith of God; Holy improvement techniques of Napoleon Hill. An Alamo Christian Church, Consecrated; the Holy Order example is the Forum. Another group of economic cults ofMans; and Reverend Ike. Almost all pseudo-Christian includes various self-styled "ministries" emanating religious cults are authoritarian. Most anti­ from the "Faith" branch of the nea-pentecostal move­ authoritarian religious cults fall into the New Age ment which emphasizes a "prosperity gospel." category. New Age Cults. This category ranges from numer­ Psychotherapy Cults. These cults can have a ous neo-oriental, neo-gnostic, and neo-pagan cults to secular or religious base or both. The secular psycho­ UFO cults like the Aetherius Society and various therapy cults have emerged from the fields of transper- spiritist trance channeling cults. Neo-oriental cults 14 FEDERAL PROBATION June 1994

emphasize various Eastern philosophies, primarily increased as gangs became more prevalent. At the reincarnation. N eo-orieIital cults include the Arica close of the decade of the 1950's, gang warfare ac­ Institute, Inc., ECKANAR, Kirpal Light Satsang, Inc., counted for five or six victims per month. The gangs the Ananda Marga Yoga Society, Self-realization Fel­ of this period were lacking in formal structure or lowship, the 3HO Foundation, ISKON, the Divine leadership roles. They were usually led by those Light Mission, Da Free John, and numerous others. within the group that best exhibited those attitudes Neo-gnostic cults emphasize the acquisition of secret and traits associated with the gang's value system. knowledge. These cults strongly appeal to persons The most street-cnnscious and most aggressive mem­ with atheistic and agnostic worldviews. These grO'lPS bers of the group often become the gang's informal include the Ascended Masters, the I AM Institute of leaders. Like the predecessors of the previous decade, Applied Metaphysics, the International Community of most of the first wave of street gangs were Hispanic Christ, Urantia, and the Church Universal and Trium­ and highly territorial. For the most part these gangs phant. N eo-pagan cults emphasize nature and goddess were an underclass phenomenon confined primarily to worship and include such groups as the Asatru Free the city's west and south sides. Neighborhood-cen­ Assembly and the Findhorn Foundation, in addition tered, the gangs often bore colorful and distinctive to numero' s Wiccan (witchcraft) groups. names often associated with their locations such as El SataniclRitualistic Abuse Cults. Next to relig­ Circle, the Dot, Ghost Thwn, the Austin Street Gang, ious cults, these types of cults are probably the best La Tripa, El Charco, La Fiesta, Riverside, Alazan­ known. Generally, Satanist groups fall into three sub­ Apache, and Los Palo Altos, among otp.ers. Members categories: religious, cultic, and self-styled, and range of these early gangs spoke in a unique street slang and from transgenerational Satanists who purportedly affected a mode of dress referred to as "pachuco" practice human sacrifice and ritual sexual abuse to (lowrider). teenage satanic rock advocates. Satanic groups gener­ The initial wave of gangs began to fade by the ally derive their beliefs from the esoteric occultism and mid-1960's and practically disappeared by the close of hedonistic philosophies of the late British writer Aleis­ the decade. Several social factors contributed to their ter Crowley. demise including an epidemic of heroin use, the Viet­ The next section traces the history of gangs in San nam conflict, and institutional racism in the criminal Antonio. justice system which many times meted out excessive prison sentences to Hispanic offenders. Another major History of Gangs in San Antonio factor was the massive cultural change of the decade. The 1980's saw an escalation of local youth and Many young persons who otherwise might have been street gang activity and crime. The 1980's also saw the inclined to join a gang became engaged in the counter­ local emergence of prison gangs and organized crime culture movement, preferring long hair, bellbottom groups fueled largely by the expanding drug market. pants, and beads over khaki pants, Stacy tangerine The phenomenon of youth gangs in the San Antonio shoes, and quartersleeve shirts. There was to be no area can be traced to the post-World War II period significant youth and street gang activity for the fol­ when, in the mid-1940's, the "shoe shine" gangs lowing 10 years. emerged as a factor in street corner culture. These Nineteen seventy-eight saw the materialization of early gangs were primarily Hispanic and tended to a new type of youth gang emerging from the rock congregate at shoe shine stands, chiefly in the down­ concert subculture. Rock music, particularly its town area. Gradually a pattern of intergang conflict heavy metal component, had produced a variation of evolved and gave birth to the pattern of violence now musical strains such as ''blood" rock, "punk," and associated with gangs and gang activity. Conflict over "death" rock. Arising from this cultural context were "turf' or retaliation ovar real or perceived wrongs were new gangs which were no longer essentially defined often aggravated by the cultural trait of "machismo," by socioeconomic class, neighborhood, or ethnicity an exaggerated sense of masculinity which placed but by their music of choice. Among these new great importance on respect, honor, and aggression as groups were Stoner, Punker, Satanic, and Skinhead important masculine qualities. The results were out­ youth groups. Unlike their first wave predecessors, bursts of periodic youth gang violence. By the early the new gangs were quite diverse. Nu longer were 1950's, San Antonio was facing the same increase in these gangs comprised almost exclmdvely of minor­ delinquency and violence that was being manifested ity underclass youth. Many of the new groups were in cities throughout the Nation. from middle-class and blue-collar neighborhoods. Al­ During the 1950's, the "first wave" of major youth though loosely knit, many of the new gangs also had gangs came into existence. From about 1953 through well-defined ideologies, a common value being a the early 1960's concern by authorities over gangs nihilistic philosophy. Drug-driven, assaultive, and COMMUNITY THREAT GROUPS 15

prone to vandalism, they wore their antisocial values commercial areas were their arp-as of influence. Sev­ as a badge ofhonor as shown by their names: the Law eral other gangs formed as a protective response to the Breakers, the Vandals, the HeavyMetal Maniacs, the Klan, including the Klick, which also developed into Stompers, and Damage, Inc. one of the major local gangs. Later, both the Klan and From 1983 to 1987 one particular street gang, the the Klick were to establish connections with the major Town Freaks, gained particular notoriety. This gang, local prison gangs, the MEXIKANEMI and the Texas which police estimated had approximately 150 mem­ Syndicate, involving firearms and narcotics. bers including about 35 female members, was drawn This period also saw the proliferation ofnumerous "sets" from youth from throughout the city and tended to of the Blood and Crip gangs developing in the African­ congregate in the downtown area, particularly at the American neighborhoods of San Antonio's eastside. Simi­ intersection of St. Mary's and Commerce Street. The lar to their California counterparts, the local Bloods and gang quickly gained a reputation for chronic and of­ Crips were involved in extended violent intergang conflict tentimes violent criminal activity with one of their that oftentimes involved firearm violence as they vied for criminal specialties being auto theft. By 1987 the Town control over the lucrative crack cocaine trade and as they Freaks had amassed an extensive record with local attempted to establish gang dominance over various hous­ police authorities including approximately a dozen ing projects and apartment complexes. Blood "sets" in­ murders as well as countless numbers of other charges cluded the Piru Bloods, the Purple Kings, the Big Time including sexual assault, robbery, and aggravated as­ Players, the Bloodstone Villains, the Bay Bay Bay Bloods, sault. The Town Freaks were highly mobile and were and numerous others. Crip "Rets" included the East Ter­ known in other cities as far as Corpus Christi and race Gangsters (ETG), the Apostles Crips Gangsters, the Austin, Texas. By 1987 the 'lbwn Freaks were fre­ Insane Crip Gangsters, the Untouchable Posse, and oth­ quently in the local newspapers, many times for their ers. Crip "sets" outnumbered Blood "sets" and were suc­ random acts of violence, which included a particularly cessful in establishing dominance over several public vicious beating murder and the brutal murders of housing projects including the East 'Thrrace and Wheatly several transients, including one who was robbed of Courts in the eastside and the Lincoln Heights Homes in 58¢. Pressure by police authorities, driven by commu­ the westside. Windsor Park Mall, an area of co-influence, nity concern over the gang's impact on the tourist became the scene ofa series ofincidents involving firearm trade, forced the gang to migrate from its downtown violence between various Blood and Crip factions which haunts to the southside, mainly the South Military included the shootings of innocent bystanders, including Street strip. By the late 1980's, the Town Freaks had one death. all but disappeared from the local scene. The 'lbwn By 1992 no section of the San Antonio metropolitan Freaks had been a pivitol gang, providing a transition area was untouched by street and youth gang activity, from the earlier smaller stoner, punker gangs to a new with over 70 gangs operating throughout the area. type of gang, more complex, more violent, and more There were suburban gangs in outlying municipalities prone to systematic and specialized criminal behavior. such as the multiracial Kirby Kings and their neigh­ One such gang was the Klan. bors, the Converse Crusaders. The Westside Posse and The Klan first surfaced in northwest San Antonio in other Hispanic gangs operated in the San Juan and 1986 and was one of the first of <{second wave" gangs Cassiano housing projects of the shallow westside. The of the late 1980's and early 1990's. In large part the :Fellas, the Chicago Gangsters, and the Puro Ocho new gangs modeled themselves on the California were multiracial inner city gangs operating near gangs. The new gangs wore distinctive clothing, either downtown. The Fellas in particular held sway in the designer wear or sportswear, and had particular "col­ Victoria housing project on East Durango Boulevard ors." Additionally, they used hand gestures, the one block away from the U. S. Courthouse and Federal "throwing of signs," to acknowledge their particular Building. Predominantly Anglo gangs, such as Killing gang or challenge other gangs. They also used graffiti All Problems and the Northside Rollers, developed in to mark their areas of influence. Numbering over 100 the city's northside. Anglo Skinhead "sets" such as members, the Klan was comprised of Hispanic youth SHARP (Skins Against Racial Prejudice) and SHARD ranging in ages from 14 to early or mid-20's. Initially, (Skins Against Racial Discrimination) arose in the they wore jeans, Redwing boots, and baseball caps central northside, the southeast side, and southeast with the University of Texas logo but later discarded rural Bexar County. Los Cycos lived in the city's most this attire for designer clothes. Extremely violent, affiuentnorthern suburbs. Numerous gangs with such initially they used baseball bats and axehandles but colorful names as the Midnight Callers, the Staff, the ultimately turned to firearms as their weapons of Kin, the Boyz in Blue, the Bad Attitudes, the Kenwood choice. The Klan specialized in auto theft, burglary, Killers, the Billionaire Boyz, the Powerheads, the Sui­ and robberies. Ingram Park Mall and the surrounding cidal Locos, the Legion of Doom, the Lords of Death, 16 FEDERAL PROBATION June 1994

the Eight-Ball Posse, and Characters, Inc., roamed drug trade. One cru.cial development in the local drug various local neighborhoods. But by far the largest traffic in the late 1960's was the emergence, from one gang was the LA au.d SA Kings. With well over 900 of San Antonio's drug families, of the Fred Gomez members, the Kings established "sets" in almost every Carrasco organization. area of the city and county. A Federal parolee from the San Antonio area, Fred The influx of gang activity has resulted in an in­ Gomez Carr asco was the first drug trafficker to receive crease in firearm violence. Today's youth and gangs considerable public notoriety due to the violent ten.­ are often armed with sophisticated weaponary includ­ dencies of his narcotic organization. The activities of ing Uzis, 9mm handguns, and Chinese SKS andAK-47 his organization were detailed in a regionally publish­ assault rifles. Several times a week, the media report ed book of the period, The Heroin Merchant. The another incident involving gang violence including organization was responsible for dozens of homicides drive-by shootings, shootouts at malls, schools, restau­ on both sides of the border as it consolidated its power. rants, and other public places, innocent bystanders By 1971 the organization had acquired sources in caught in gang crossfire, and unaffiliated teenagers Mexico and Europe who were able to supply multi­ shot and sometimes killed at random. Nineteen kilogram quantities of heroin, allowing the organiza­ ninety-two established a record of 220 San Antonio tion to dominate the South Texas narcotic trade. The homicides. Juveniles between ages 10 and 17 ac­ organization had approximately a dozen key lieuten­ counted for a large percentage of these murders. San ants along with numerous mid-level and lower echelon Antonio indeed has a serious and escalating street and members. By 1972 and 1973 the organization became youth gang problem. the focus of local and Federal narcotic investigations. But street and youth gangs are not the only commu­ Fred Gomez Carrasco was captured in July 1973 fol­ nity threat group problem confronting the San Antonio lowing a shootout with San Antonio police officers in a community. Organized crime groups, drug trafficking southside hotel. He was subsequently killed in August organizations, and prison gangs also pose a significant 1974 in a highly publicized attempt to escape from the problem for criminal justice p,ersonnel. Because of its Texas Department of Corrections in which several proximity to the Mexican border, San Antonio is, and inmates and prison staff hostages were also killed. for several decades has been, a major hub for drug Many members of the organization were ultimately trafficking activity. With its central location, the city convicted in various Federal and state narcotic cases is a major distribution location for marijuana, heroin, and were incarcerated in the late 1970's and early and cocaine and a chief point of transition for illegal 1~80's. drugs smuggled through the border by Mexican and Most of the key lieutenants in the Carrasco organi­ Colombian organizations and headed for the North­ zation were prosecuted federally. Many remain under central United States. Several well-established drug local Federal jurisdiction and are well known to the routes pass through San Antonio, routes which were U.S. probation office. Other mid-level members be­ initially established during the formative phase of the came established traffickers in their own right in the Mexican heroin traffic and now are used by the Colom­ 1980's. Several important lieutenants were absorbed bian cartels. into the emerging Hispanic prison gangs of the mid- The genesis of the local drug trade can be traced to 1980's. From the fragments of the Carrasco organiza­ the late 1940's and the decade of the 1950's when local tion developed several drug organizations, some of individuals began to smuggle marijuana and later which remain operative today. As Federal law enforce­ heroin across the TexaslMexico border. Many times ment authorities began to shift their investigative these early smugglers had family connections to the efforts to the Colombian and Central American cocaine sources in Mexico. Quantities and profits were small, traffickers moving into the area in the mid-1980's, the and these early operations tended to be Hispanic Hispanic heroin organizations continued to grow and "mom and pop" type family affairs, a distinction wUch to expand into other markets in the Midwest and the to 80me extent remains true with some modern organi­ Northeast. They also began to expand into the lucra­ zations. Gradually drug routes begun to develop to tive domestic cocaine distribution trade. They were to Midwest states such as Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indi­ remain relatively untouched until the 1990's when the ana and to urban centers such as Chicago and Detroit. nexus between them and the Hispanic prison gangs These routes generally followed the seasonal patterns was to become evident and local Federal enforcement established by migrant farm workers. Later, as de­ interest in heroin trafficking was renewed. mand for marijuana and heroin escalated in the The mid-1970's saw the beginning of what was to United States in the 1960's and as the Mexican drug become the international cocaine trade as the major syndicates began to develop in Mexico, these routes cocaine organizations began to develop in South Amer­ were to become an important factor in international ica, primarily Colombia and later Central America. By COMMUNITY THREAT GROUPS 17

the late 1970's the structure was in place, and there Florida seeking political asylum. Among this group of was a strong link between the Colombian cartels and mostly law-abiding immigrants were a large number various domestic organized crime groups, chiefly in of Cuban criminals (from 2,000 to 40,000 according to the Miami, Florida, are?" which saw the development law enforcement estimates). Federal immigration pol­ of the "cocaine cowboy' era popularized by the televi­ icy resulted in many of these criminal individuals, sion show Mia,mi Vh,. DotMstic demand for cocaine sometimes derisively referred to as "Mal'ielitos," being grew, and by the early 1990's Central and South relocated to cities with large Hispanic populations American organized crime groups were major global throughout the United States. Ultimately some were wholesale retailers of cocaine and marijuana. It is absorbed into the existing Cuban organized crime estimated that at least 80 percent of the cocaine sent structures while others formed their own groups. One to the United States today is controlled by the Medel­ such group was formed in the San Antonio area. lin and Cali drug cartels of Colombia. The 1980's also Arriving in San Antonio, Texas, in the early 1980's, saw an increase in cocaine trafficking by nontradi­ several Mariel Cubans attempted to establish them­ tional organized crime groups including Cuban, Ja­ selves in drug distribution structures of the predomi­ maican, and Dominican organizations. Crack cocaine nantly Mexican-American westside. However, began to appear in American urban centers in 1985. although Spanish-speaking, they were ethnically Not long after that, law enforcement began to observe black, were not readily accepted, and ultimately were an involvement by street and youth gangs, most nota­ forced to relocate to the eastside and northeast side bly such gangs as the Bloods and the Crips, in the due to cultural and drug market dynHmics. The or­ street crack distribution market. ganization was successful in establishing itself and by From the early to mid-1980's, the Federal govern­ the mid-1980's was trafficking in kilogram quantities ment undertook a serious enforcement approach, de­ and ounce quantities, as well as smaller street-level scribed generally as the "war on drugs." Policy and sales of crack cocaine. The organization was actually legislative initiatives included authorization for lim­ comprised of two informal groups, both with its own ited use of the military in narcotics enforcement ef­ "kingpin" but both working together. The organization forts, the passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Acts of 1986 had several businesses, chiefly nightclubs, bars, and and 1988, the establishment of the National Drug restaurants, which it used for its illegal activities. In Policy Board, the formation of the regional Organized 1989 a series of Federal indictments resulted in the Crime Drug Enforcement 'rask Forces (OCDETF), the imprisoI'ment of many of the local upper level mem­ National Narcotics Border Interdiction System, and bers of the organization including the two kingpins. the various amendments to the drug laws codified by Nonetheless, the organization remains an active force the Comprehensive Crime Control Act of 1984 and the in the local cocaine trade to this day. Crime Control Act of 1990. An initiative that signifi­ But by far the primary community threat groups cantly affected the San Antonio area was the 1982 operating in the San Antonio area are the Hispanic creation of the South Florida Task Force. As regional prison gangs. The Texas Syndicate was founded in the drug enforcement intensified in South Florida, Colom­ early 1970's in the California Department of Correc­ bian and Cuban trafficking interests began to shift tions by Hispanic Texans as a protection group against their activities to the South Texas area. A series of other prison gangs. The gang eventually spread to the major Federal prosecutions in the San Antonio area Bureau of Prisons and the Texas Department of Cor­ left no doubt that Colombian drug interests had estab­ rections where it operated quietly for years. The Texas lished a significant presence locally. Cuban and Nica­ Syndicate has a strong local presence, and many of its raguan f'rganizations began to appear locally in the members are under local Federal jurisdiction. In 1984 mid-1980's. several ex-Federal parolees from the San Antonio area Prior to the 1980's, Cuban crime organizations had serving time in the Texas Department of Corrections primarily operated out of Miami, Florida; Los Angeles, created the MEXIKANEMI, also known as the Texas California; and Panama and other South American Mexican Mafia and La Eme. Initially established as a locations. Fueled by the cocaine epidemic of the mid to self-protection and pseudo-religious group, the MEXI­ late 1970's and with solid buyer-supplier relationships KANEMI evolved into a criminal enterprise with a established with the emerging Colombian cartels, Cu­ formal 12-article organization and is now arguably one ban crime groups expanded their activitieJ into other of the largest prison-spawned groups in the United nondrug enterprises including contract. murder, or­ States. Since its inception, the MEXIKANEMI has ganized auto theft activities, insurance fraud, and been in conflict with the older Texas Syndicate. During fencing operations. Amajor event transforming Cuban the mid·1980's, numerous homicides occurred in the organized crime was the 1980 migration of Cuban Texas Department of Corrections due to the ongoing nationals from the Mariel Harbor in Cuba to South gang conflict. By the late 1980's, much of this violence 18 FEDERAL PROBATION June 1994

had been refocused on the communities where the ment of Criminal Justice-Institution Division (for­ Texas Syndicate retains strong contingents, such as in merly known as the Texas Department of Corrections) San Antonio, now the headquarters of the MEXI­ has one of the Nation's better gang monitoring sys­ KANEMI. Although other prison gangs operate locally, tems. The Federal Bureau of Prisons also has a well­ the MEXIKANEMI and Texas Syndicate remain the organized intelligence section involved in the most influential local prison gangs. Both are deeply monitoring of national community threat groups. involved in narcot.ic t.rafficking among other criminal Overall, there is a local network of criminal justice activities. The MEXIKANEMI alone is believed to be personnel in various agencies involved in investigat­ responsible for approximately 70 local homicides since ing, prosecuting, monitoring, and tracking community 1989. threat groups. During the 1990's, there has been a large increase in prosecutions of prison gang members under Federal Establishing a Comunity Threat narcotic, firearm, and organized crime statutes by the Group Program local U.S. Attorney's office. There have been several This section of the article establishes an organiza­ multidefendant OCDETF type conspiracy cases as tional framework for developing a specialized commu­ well as numerous smaller or single defendant cases. nity threat group identification and supervision As a result, numerous gang members will be under the program. This program would allow the U.S. proba­ jurisdiction of the U.S. probation office for years to tion office to develop focused, proactive techniques to come. identify and supervise offenders affiliated with com­ Local criminal justice agencies have responded to munity threat groups. This objective can be accom­ community threat groups. The San Antonio Police plished through reallocating and maximizing existing Department has trained officers in its Criminal Inves­ resources. The two primary activities would be the tigation Division and its Patrol Division. The depart­ assignment of probation office personnel to specialized ment has considerable expertise in regard to both work with community threat group offenders and an street find youth gangs and prison gangs. The Bexar intensive training curriculum for the general staff. County Sheriff's Office also has expertise for dealing The program would be keyed on the development of with both street and prison gangs. The Patrol Division two district resources, the community threat group has an anti-gang unit. Its Intelligence Division has coordinator and the district community threat group considerable expertise in dealing with prison gangs. network. The Sheriff's Office also has a trained Classification Establishing a district community threat group co­ Department that addresses gang issues for the Bexar ordinator position is an innovation for probation and County Jail. parole agencies, although such positions have been The Bexar County Juvenile Probation Department, developed in institutional correctional systems. In like most juvenile agencies, has also accrued signifl­ such systems, this type of position is generally de­ cant expertise in dealing with the juvenile and street scribed as "gang intelligence officer." This position gangs. It administers a range of programs geared to could be drawn from existing senior specialist posi­ at-risk youth. Several local school districts have youth tions or from a general line position. The Western gang tracking mechanisms within their organizations. District of Texas has a bifurcated organization. The The San Antonio Indepen.:lent School District, the coordinator would be assigned to the supervision unit largest school district in the area, has a special opera­ but would also be involved in general investigative tions unit within its police department that specializes work related to the collection and analysis of opera­ in youth gang monitoring activities. The Texas Depart­ tional intelligence. The coordinator would have re­ ment of Criminal Justice-Parole Division handles a sponsibility to make recommendations to the chief large volume of prison gang members and has accrued probation officer in regard to general policies and extensive knowledge on prison gangs and works procedures involving community threat groups. In closely with related criminal justice agencies. The addition, the community threat group coordinator Bexar County Adult Probation Department does not would have the following duties and responsibilities: have a formal gang unit but uses traditional intensive (1) Serve as the in-house authority for the staff and supervision caseloads and electronic monitoring pro­ the court regarding the investigation, tracking, grams to supervise its hardcore offenders. and supervision of offenders affiliated with com­ Local Federal law enforcement agencies, including munity threat groups. Coordinate the activities the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Drug En­ of the community threat group network. forcement Administration, and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms, have been involved in several (2) Assist the presentence guideline specialists in multi agency gang investigations. The Texas Depart- coordinating security threat group investiga- COMMUNITY THREAT GROUPS 19

tions, including serving as liaison to obtain op­ offenders affiliated with street and youth gangs, or­ erational information from other than general ganized crime groups, and prison gangs. The presence sources. Conduct other special investigati.ons as of these groups grew significantly in the 1980's and required. shows no signs of abating. The climate is favorable for establishing a specialized community threat group (3) Establish the appropriate administrative sys­ program. Implementing the recommendations set tems to aid in the collection, maintenance, and forth in this article will enable the probation office to analysis of community threat group operational supervise these high-risk offenders more effectively. information. (4) Supervise a majority of the gang offender REFERENCES caseload. Develop supervision techniques and Baugh, D.G. (1992, July). ACA gang survey examines national control measures adapted to the high-risk behav­ control strategies. Corrections 7bday, p. 82. iors associated with community threat groups. Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1992, December). Drugs, crime, and the justice system: A national report. (5) Assist the training officers in the development of Buentello, S. (1992, July). Combatting gangs in Texas. Corrections 7bday, pp. 58-60. in-service training on community threat group Donegan, C. (1993, June 13). Blood in the streets. The San Antonio issues. Attend formal and informal gang intelli­ Express-News, pp. 1-L, 5-L. gence meetings. Maintain liaison with the appro­ Edwards, T. (1989, August 27). San Antonio skinheads seeking ;;:>riate Federal, state, and local enforcement and foothold, stir police concern. The Express-News, pp. 20A. Edwards, T. (1990, September 30). Police move to step up war on correctional community agencies involved in the gangs. The Sunday Express-News, pp. 14A, 15A. monitoring and tracking of community threat Ferraro, T. (1992, October 5). The FBI takes aim at gangs. Insight groups. on the News, pp. 7-35. Fong, R.S. (1990, March). The organizational structure of prison The establishment of a district community threat gangs: A Texas study. Federal Probation, pp. 36-43. Hutton, J. (1993, May 23). Gangs and guns. The Sunday Express­ group network is also recommended. Probation offi­ News, pp lA, 9A. cers from each division may be assigned from existing Knox, C.W. (1991). An introduction to gangs. Berrien Springs, MI: senior specialist positions in the divisional office or Vande Vere Publishing, Ltd. Larson, B. (1989). Larson's new book of cults. Wheaton, lL: Tyndale from a general line position. The network probation House Publishers, Inc. officers would essentially perform many of the specific National Institute of Corrections. (1991, October). Managing strate­ duties and responsibilities performed by the district gies in disturbances and with gangs / disruptive groups. coordinator but do so at the divisional level. Once the NIDA. (1990). Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates, and conse­ quences (Research Monograph 103). personnel network is in place, the district would initi­ Pearson, M. (1986, December 7). Cuban drug gangs leave trail of ate a training curriculum to inform the general staff dead. The San Antonio Light, p. A24. on community threat group issues. Rudin, M.R. (Ed.) (1991). Cults on campus: Continuing challenge. New York: American Family Foundation. As has been described here, the problem with com­ Trout, C. (July, 1992). Gangs: Taking a new look at an old problem. munity threat groups in the San Antonio area is sig­ Corrections Thday, pp. 62-66. nificant. The U.S. probation office currently handles