INTEGRATED CONTROL OF PLANT - PARASITIC NEMATODES
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f ABSTRACT
THESIS ^*? SUBMITTED TO THE ALrGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS m i' -' i f^OR THE DEGREE OF \ jlottor of ^l)iIo2!opJ)p
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ABDUL HAMID WANI
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 1996 / ... No. -f ABSTRACT
Plant-parasitic nematodes cause severe losses to economic crops. These pests are traditionally controlled by physical, chemical, cultural, regulatory and biological methods. However, each has its own merits and demerits. Therefore, in the present study attempts have been made to use integrated strategies for the control of nematodes. The focal theme of the present study is to use several control strategies in as compatible manner as possible, in order to maintain the nematode population below the threshold level so that economic damage is avoided and pollution risks to environment and human health is averted. Summary of results of different experiments is presented hereunder:
I. Integrated control of nematodes with intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing (field study).
Investigations were undertaken to study the combined effect of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor/ carbofuran, intercropping of wheat and barley with mustard and rocket- salad and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. There was found significant reduction in the population of all the nematodes and improvement in yield of all the test crops, viz. wheat, barley,mustard and rocket-salad. Among different treatments, carbofuran proved to be highly effective in reducing the population of plant-parasitic nematodes followed by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer in both normal and deep ploughed field. Deep ploughing proved to be highly efficacious than normal ploughing
Likewise, highest reduction in nematode population was observed in beds where mustard and rocket-salad was grown singly followed by mix- crops, viz. wheat+mustard or wheat+rocket-salad, barley+ mustard or barley+rocket-salad. Similarly, yield of all the test crops improved greatly due to combined effect of organic amendment/nematicide, intercropping and deep ploughing. Highest yield was observed in neem cake treated beds followed by beds treated with castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. Maximum yield was observed in crops grown singly than those grown in different combinations.
The residual effect of treatments of the preceding experiments also persisted in the following season when okra cv. Prvani Kranti was grown. Here again neem cake of the preceding crops remained most efficacious both with respect to nematode control and improvement in plant growth and pod yield in both normal and deep ploughed fields. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. Deep ploughing proved to be more effective than normal ploughing. Highest reduction in nematode population was noted in beds where mustard and rocket-salad was grown alone in the preceding season followed bywheat+mustard or wheat+rocket-salad, barley+ mustard or barley+rocket-salad. II. Integrated control of nematodes with cropping sequences and ploughing (field study).
In this study, combined effect of cropping sequences and ploughing was studied on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth under field conditions. There was significant reduction in the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and improvement in the plant growth of all the test crops involved in the cropping sequence. Highest reduction in the total population of the nematodes was observed in the cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow. It was followed in order of efficiency by cropping sequences lentil-cowpea-mung, chickpea-okra- chilli. mustard-mung-tomato and tomato-fallow-okra in both normal and deep ploughed field. However, deep ploughing proved to be most effective than normal ploughing. Likewise, highest reduction in the population of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita was observed in the cropping sequence wheai-chilli-fallow. It was followed by cropping ssquenctslentil-cowpea-mung, mustard-mung-tomato, chickpea-okra- chilli and tomato-fallow-okra. Similarly, population of stunt nematode,
Tylenchorhynchus brassicae was suppressed greatly in the cropping sequence lentil-cowpea-mung followed by sequences wheat-chilli-falloM', chickpea-okra-chilli and tomato-fallow-okra. In a similar way different cropping sequences have a similar effect on the other nematodes. Fallowing after susceptible crops like tomato and chilli in the 2nd and 3rd season of cropping also played important role in the reduction of nematode population. III. Integrated control of nematodes with plant resistance and organic amendment (pot study).
Investigations were undertaken to evaluate resistance in 12 cultnars/accessions of lentil alone and in presence of soil treatment with neem cake against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Two cultivars/accessions (DPL-34, DPL-25) were highly resistant and three cultivars/accessions (DPL-26, DPL-23 and DPL-29) were moderately resistant. Rest of the cultivars showed varying degree of susceptibility depending upon the reduction in the degree of root-galling, increased root-nodulation and better plant growth. Further reduction in root-gallng and improvement in root-nodulation and plant growth was observed in all the cultivars/accessions when they were grown in pots amended with neem cake. The uninoculated plants showed more improvement in plants than inoculated ones.
IV. Integrated control of nematodes with organic nmendments in different combinations (pot study).
It was also observed from the present study that soil amendment with oil cakes of neem, castor and leaves of neem, castor and Persian lilac/bakain alone and in different combinations caused significant reduction in the population of root-knot nematode and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyl content
of okra and lentil. Combined application of organic amendment proved to be most efficacious than individual application. Highest improvement vsas observed in necm cake * caslor cake treated plants followed by plants treated with neem cake+neem leaf, neem cake+Persian lilac leaf.neem cake+castor leaf, castor cake+neem leaf.castor cake+Persian lilac leaf, castor cake +castor leaf, neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem leaf+castor leaf, castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf.
Persian lilac leaf and castor leaf. Similarly, soil amendment with dry crop residues of mustard, rocket- salad and marigold in different combinations and at different doses brought about significant inhibition in the root-knot development caused bvM ///cog/z/^o and improvement in root-nodulation
(in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyl content of okra and lentil.
Maximum improvement was observed in plants treated with dry crop residues of marigold+rocket-salad at higher doses followed by plants treated with dry crop residues of marigold+mustard, mustard+rocket- salad, marigold, rocket-salad and mustard respectively. Lower doses also caused reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root- nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyl content of okra and lentil but to a lesser extent.
V. Intregrated control of nematodes with seedtreatment and soil amendment (pot study).
Studies were also undertaken to evaluate the effect of seed treatment with extract of mustard, rocket-salad, rice polish and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Vitamin B^) alone and alongwith soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by theiool-knot nematode. Mcloidogyiw iiico^^inia and loot- nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil. There was found significant reduction in the root-knot
development due to seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf
extract of mustard and rocket-salad for different durations. Highest
reduction was observed in 'S' concentrations of the extracts after 24h
duration of seed soaking followed by S/2 and S/10 concentrations. Root-
uodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content also increased with an
increase in the concentration of extracts and seed soaking duration.
Highest improvement was observed in 'S' concentrations after 24h
duration of seed soaking followed by S/2 and S/10 concentrations of leaf
extract of mustard and rocket-salad.
It was observed from the present study that seed soaking in
different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine
hydrochloride solution (Vitamin B^) caused suppression in the root-knot
development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloic/ogyne incognita and
improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and
chlorophyll content of the okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75,
Highest reduction in root-knot nematode population and improvement in
root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content
was observed in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5%
concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) solution
after 12h duration of seed soaking. It was followed by seed treatment witli other concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride for different durations.
Furthermore, when the treated seeds of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv, K-75 with different concentrations of leaf extract of mustard,rocket-salad, rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride
(Vit. B ) solution were sown in pots amended with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor, a significant reduction in root-knot nematode population and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content was observed. Highest reduction in root- knot nematode population was found in neem cake treated plants grown
from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of extract of mustard, rocket-
salad, rice polish and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride
(Vit. B^) solution followed by plants treated with castor cake, neem leaf,
and castor leaf respectively. Likewise, maximum improvement in root-
nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content was
observed in neem cake treated plants grown from seeds soaked in 'S"
concentration of extract of mustard, rocket-salad, rice polish and 0.5%
concentration of pyridoxine hydorchloride (Vit. B^) solution. It was
followed by plants treated with castor cake, neem leaf and castor leaf
respectively. The seed soaking in other concentrations of the above
treatment alongwith soil amendment with different organic amendments
also caused reduction in root-knot development and improvement in
root-nodulation. plant growth and chlorophyll content but to a lesser
extent. VI. Integrated control of nematodes nith urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils (pot study).
It was revealed from the present study that soil amendment with urea coated with different doses of 'Nirain' (a triterpene rich neem product) and oils ofneem, castor and rocket-salad brought about greatest suppression in the root-knot development and improvement in root- nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil compared to plants treated with urea only. Higher doses (triple strength) proved to be most effective than lower doses (double and single strengths). 'Nimin'- treated urea caused highest reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content. It was followed by neem oil, castor oil and rocket-salad oil treated urea. INTEGRATED CONTROL OF PLANT - PARASITIC NEMATODES
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#'r- THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY, ALIGARH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS k " FOR THE DEGREE OF * JBottor of ^iiiIo£(op{)p IN ^ BOTANY •^.-' ^x z^Jp .
ABDUL HAMID WANI
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 1996 'y4M'^5'W?t^;- r. '•.'••Avt;',NoV
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PHONE: (0571) 401016 (Bot ) (0571 ) 40051 6 (Agr ) (0571) 400030 (Res ) (0571 )400920-23 Ext. 314 (Bot ) TELEX : 564230 AMU IN Ph.D.. D.Sc. PG Nomatol.. FPSI. FBS. FBRS FAX : (0571) 400528, 4001C5 Professor of Plant Nematology Department of Botany ExDeputy Director, Institute of Agriculture Aligarh Wtislim University Aligarh-202002 (India) Editor : Afro-Asian Journal of Namatology Afro-Asian Namatology Network
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P/^ro/. QM. Q/fiaAA/co^o^ic (^lant, '^'e/>aytmcnt oj rAo/a/^,y, OW/taa?^n Q'tlas/im, f/niitenity, C^'^tiigar/f /of /iroin,
C/ a/m AiqAcy arateful to zy'rop. G/aeeu C^. nfiaataui. ^JfAi-irfna/n, iJ <'Jt '^.4€'u jf?i,cer'€ tfutrvKA ar^e ulio to oAt^. Q/aterr Cf^nmtia Q^^loaa-j^ cfMAi all lao. c Q/O^ (^rate/itl to W'K. Q5^. oMaitd oKad O/^.r. Lit, QMT^. oAai^eT^ Q>L(/^alAt:, ^//r. C^lul (S/x^alam &^x «y/CiIIuftiAe/y-i for tAter yunvfat/i^y, alei^in^i ana asstst '7'4€y iinr-ere ar-atituAie ti also to my/iarentj ana /a nit I if me?nlers fvurti-rMlarly to Q/fC^. C^ti Q/(to/i.cl. Hani, 0,itr. Oyfia,nx,o- (Abdul Mamid Want) CONTENTS 1. INTRODICTION 1 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 15 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 54 4. RESULTS 68 I. Integrated control of nematodes with intercropping, organic amendment/ nematicide and ploughing in 68 field. Effect of intercropping of wheat with mustard, soil 68 amendment/nematicide and ploughing in field. Residual effect of different treatments of the above 77 experiment. Effect of intercropping of barley with mustard, soil 86 amendment/nematicide and ploughing in field. Residual effect of different treatments of the above 95 experiment. Effect of intercropping of wheat with rocket-salad, soil ]^05 amendment/nematicide and ploughing in field. Residual effect of different treatments of the above 114 experiment. Effect of intercropping of barley with rocket-salad soil 124 amendment/nematicide and ploughing in field. Residual effect of different treatments of the above experiment 13 3 Summary of results (Section I). ^.Al II. Integrated control of nematodes with cropping 144 sequences and ploughing in field. Effect of cropping sequences and ploughing on the 144 population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth of field crops. Summary of results (Sectioin II). 159 III. Integrated control of nematodes with plant resistance 160 and organic amendment (pot study). Response of cultivars/accessions of lentil alone and in 160 presence of soil amendment with oil cake of neem on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Summary of results (Section III) 163 IV. Integrated control of nematodes with organic lg4 amendments in different combinations (pot study). Effect of organic amendment with oil cakes and leases 164 alone and in different combinations on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognitaand plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Effect of organic amendment with dry crop residues 171 alone and in different combinations on the root-knot nematode. Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Suimnary of results (Section IV) 178 V. Intergrated control of nematodes with seed 179 treatment and soil amendment (pot study). Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard on 179 the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard and 183 soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves on the root knot-development caused hy Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad i83 on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad 190 and soil amendment with soil cakes and leaxes on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogync incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract on the 194 root-knot development c&usedbyMeloidogyne incognito and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and soil 200 amendment with oil cakes and leaves on the root-knot development czxxstihy Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil c\. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride 207 (Vitamin B^) on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride 217 (Vitamin B^) and soil amendment with soil cakes and leaves on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Summary of results (Section V). 221 VI. Integrated control of nematodes with urea coated 225 with 'Nimin' and different plant oils (pot study). Effect of soil amendment with urea coated with 'Niniin' 225 and plant oils on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75. Summary of results (Section VI). 231 5. DISCUSSION 233 6. LITERATURE CITED 262 INTRODUCTION 1. INTRODUCTION Plant-parasitic nematodes are invertebrate parasites of plants. They are considered worst enemies of mankind because of devastations they cause to the crops. They are distributed all over the world in different kinds of habitates. There is hardly any crop or plant which is not affected by phytonematodes They cause severe losses to economically important crops, e.g. pulses, vegetables, cereals, etc. Crop loss is defined as the difference between the attainable yield and the actual yield (Chiarapa, 1971). Because of their microscopic nature, crop damages caused by them have not been fiillyformulated. The losses depend upon the population density of the nematode, texa present, susceptibility of the crop, the prevailing environmental conditions and the presence of other pathogenic organisms in the soil which may interact with the nematodes. There are some reports of crop losses in terms of money. A loss of 5 million kroners was estimated due to cereal cyst nematode, Heterodera avenae in Denmark (Stapel, 1953). USDA estimated an annual crop loss of 372, 335000 dollars to 16 crops (Taylor, 1967). In other estimates, Hutchinson e/a/. (1961) and Cairns (1955) reported loss of $ 250 million and $500 million due to nematodes. Southey & Samuel (1954) reported a crop loss to the extent of 200,000 tonnes to potato annually by Globodera rostochiensis in England and Wales The estimated annual losses due to nematodes in USA was of the order of $ 1,038, 374,300 in 16 field crops, $ 225, 145, 900 in fruit and nut crops, $266, 28Q,100 in vegetable crops and $ 59.817,634 in ornamental crops (Feldniessei et al.. 1Q71). Mc Gregor (1978) from USA attributed a yield loss ot $ 320 million due to Heterodera zeae on wheat. Yield losses of 20-59% have been reported to cowpea (Ogunfowora, 1987). Recently Sasser & Frechman (1987) have indicated an annual crop losses due to plant-parasitic nematodes on world wide basis to the tune of $ 100 billion They estimated loss of 3.7% in chickpea, 10.9% in field bean, 13.2% in pigeon pea, 10.6% in soybean and 15.1% in cow^pea due to nematodes. On the worldwide basis the average annual loss of all the crops has also been estimated to be about 10%dueto nematodes (Sasser, 1989). Similarly, committee of SON led by McSorely et al. (1987) has also reviewed the crop loss on account of nematodes in the US and has given the grim picture of agricultural economy (Anon, 1987). There are also some reports of crop losses from India. Srivastava (1969) reported 75% loss of eggplant and tomato due to root-knot nematode. Van Berkum & Seshadri (1978) estimated a loss of 10 million dollars due to "Earcockle" disease on wheat, 8 million dollars due to "Molya disease" in barley in Rajasthan alone and 3 million dollars to coffee due to lesion nematode. Pratylenchus coffeae. Bhatti & Jain (1977) and Jain & Bhatti (1978) estimated a loss of 99.0. 46.2 and 27.3% in okra, tomato and brinjal respectively in a field infested with Meloidogyne incognita. The loss in dry matter and grain yield of mungbean respectively were 25.7 and 67.5% due to cyst nematode, Heterodera cajani. The losses in yield of wheat was up to 42.2% in sandy soil of Rajasthan due to // avenae (Malhur et al.. 1986). Because of the serious losses caused by the nematodes, efficient control measures were undertaken to minimise the crop losses caused by the nematodes Principal management strategies are. Physical, Chemical, Cultural, Biological and Regulatory. Physical Method. In physical means of control, nematodes are basically eradicated by heat treatment, steam sterilizatioin, pasteurization of soil, hot water treatment, electrical soil heating, radiation treatments, washing processes, seed cleaning, etc. These aspects were reviewed by Jenkins (1960), Southey(1965, 1978a) and Maas (1987). Oostenbrink (1960) and Jones (1978) also reported the role of physical factors in the soil for regulating nematode populations. Christie (1959) has pointed out that plant-parasitic nematodes can be killed at 44-48°C. These methods can be used for the management of plant-parasitic nematodes but on small scale. Soil solarization is most recent method for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. The nematodes are efifectively controlled but the method is restricted to summer seasons and that too only in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It has also been observed that beneficial flora and fauna of the soil is also harmed. Seeds and other propogating materials are subjected to hot water treatment but this kind of nematode control is sometimes risky as it reducesthe \iability of seeds. Radiation and electrical lieating are also used for nematode management but they may be hazardous or risky to the operator. Chemical Method: During past few decades or so great improvements have been brought about in the use of chemicals for nematode control (Peachy, 1965; Hague & Gowen, 1987). Two types of nematicides are used for the nematode control Fumigants and Non fumigants. Kuhn (1881) reported first nematicide^carbondisulphide and used it for the control of beet nematode, Heterodera schachtii. Similarly, Mathews (1920) and Carter (1943) discovered the nematicidal properties of chloropicrin and D- D mixture respectively. Thereafter EDB, DBCP and methyle bromide were formulated as soil fumigants. Although use of chemicals is considered as an outstanding method for nematode control but in some cases nematicidal treatment give short term effect. If nematicidal treatment is not repeated, there is many fold increase in nematode population. The nematicides are also reported to cause environmental pollution. Because of the hazardous effects most of the chemicals have been baimed. In U.S.A. and other countries D-D and DBCP are not used for pest control. These chemicals are harmful to live-stock, plants and beneficial fauna and flora of the soil. According to W.H.O. report there are about 375,000 cases of agrochemical poisoning in the third world countries. Thus, due to threats caused by the chemicals and removal of key nematicides from the market, the non-chemical management technologies are now increasingly been advocated for the control of plant- parasitic nematodes. Regulatory Method To prevent the spread of nematodes from one place to other place and from one area to another area through infested material, regulatory methods are used. There are many reports indicating the spread of nematodes from one area to another area through infested material. Globodera roslochiences was introduced into Europe from South America through infested tubers, soon it found its way to Asia, North America. Similarly, Radopholus similis was introduced into Australia from Fiji through infested plant material. This type of dessimination can be checked by regulatory methods (Southey, 1978; Maas, 1987). Regulatory method involves the strict imposition of plant quarantine laws. Plant quarantine may be defined as a measure to prevent the spread or introduction of dangerous disease or disease causing organisms into the country or within the country. It can be implemented by imposing restrictions on the movement of infested plants, fruits, seeds and other propogating materials. Every country has its own regulations for checking the spread of pests and pathogens. In India 'Destructive Insects and Pests Act' was passed in 1914 to prevent the spread of pests and pathogens. Although regulatory method is useful for checking the introduction of pests and pathogen but it can not check the activity of nematode species already well established in an area or country. It is also ineffective when nematodes are spread by wind, water, insects, etc. Biological Method Biological control method includes the use of predaceous and parasitic organisms such as fungi, bacteria, protozoans, viruses, nematodes, tardigrades. collembolans. mites, etc. and by antagonistic higher plants (Sayer, 1971; Mankau. 1980; Jatala, 1986; Gommers, 1981). Sewell (1965) defined biological control as "the introduced or natural, direct or indirect limitation of harmful organisms and its effects by another organism or group of organisms". Garret (1965) defined biological control as •'any condition or practice whereby survival or activity of pathogens is reduced through the agency of any other living organism except man himself with the result there is reduction in incidence of disease caused by the pathogens"" Mostly pathologists follows the definition of Garret. For achieving maximum benefits biological control appears as skillful manupulation of biosphere. However, it is difficult to raise or introduce nematode antagonists but it is easy to create conditions which will increase resistance in the environment. If biological agents have been used commercially there seems little likelihood of rapid progress, chiefly because of the high percentage needed to give more than a temporary benefit. Organic amendments play an important role because they create conditions in soil for nematode control. Antagonistic plants also give good control of plant-parasitic nematodes (Sayre, 1971; Siddiqui, 1986; Alam& Jairajpuri, 1990). Some ofthe antagonistic plants are Togetcs spp. (Tyler. ]038); mustard, Brassica s,x>\^. {Morgan. 1P25): Asparagus spp. (Rohde & Jenkins. 1958); Crotolana spp. (McBeth & Taylor. 1949) and Alam et al.. 1979); neem. Azadirachta indica (Alam el al.. 1977); Persian lilac, Melia azedarach (Siddiqui & Saxena, 1987a,b). Biologically active chemcials such as, thiophenes, azadirachtin, etc. in these antagnostic plants play an important role in nematode control (Goimners, 1971). Cultural Method Cultural method includes fallowing, flooding, ploughing, preventio7n of spread, sanitation, eradication, use of resistant cultivars, crop rotation, selection of healthy propogating material and manuring/organic matter amendment Fallowing: In fallowing nematodes are deprived of food and killed by the solar heat and soil desiccation. Most of the plant parasitic nematodes do not survive in upper layers of soil. However, there are some problems with fallowing. It is a poor conservative practice ai>d also cause monetary loss to the farmers Crop rotation: Crop rotation deprives the nematodes from food and thus the nematodes are killed because of starvation. But monoculture of the crops favours high population build-up of nematodes and results in breaking of resistance in crops and loss in yield. Therefore, crop rotation between susceptible and antagonistic crops is a good applicable method for nematode management. Sanitation: The term covers a wide range of cultural practices including weed/ crop residue destruction and disinfection of farm implements. These practices are however, time consuming. Besides these important cultural methods, ploughing, intercropping and organic amendment (Muller & Gooch, 1982; Alam et al., 1975. 1976) are commonly used methods which are being reviewed in detail in the latter part of the thesis. Ploughing: Ploughing is considered as good control measure against nematode pests. It can be used with other cultural practices like crop rotation, green manuring, intercropping, as well as withnematicides, etc. (Mathur et al., 1987) Organic amendment: Use of organic amendment is an ageold practice. Farmers are using organic amendments since the advent of agriculture but beneficial effects of organic amendment with respect to nematode control became known only recently. Plant and animal wastes in the form of compost and farmyard manure, crop residues, oilcakes and meals, municipal refuse and industrial wastes have been used by farmers as they provide better media for plants to grow, result in better soil texture, increase water holding capacity. supply the nutrients to deficient soil and stimulate microbial population of actinomycetes, bacteria, fungi and elements of which might be antagonistic to nematodes (Badra e/fl/., \979, Godoy et al., 1983a; Rodriguez-kabana, 1986) Root-dip and seed treatment: Recently root-dip and seed treatments were used for the control of plant- parasitic nematodes (Siddiqui & Alam , 1989a; Siddiqui & Alam, 1990d; Wani. 1992). Root-dip and seed treatments with chemicals and plant extracts alongwith other control methods served as good measures for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. The above treatments have been found to minimize the efficacy oi nematicides and also create favourable conditions which might be helpful for nematode management. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT: It has been shown that each of the above mentioned methods have their own limitations. However, one thing is fully established that non-chemical methods are better than chemical ones in the context of present day awareness about environmental and health problems. Therefore, the integrated management of nematode pests with or without the involvement of chemicals has been gi\ en a new direction to combat with nematode menace (Oostenbrink. 1972). The integration of different strategies for nematode management is not a new concept. In 1881 Kuhn used crop rotation and fallowing for the control of nematodes. Tyler (1933) proposed that the combination of two or more control strategies into an overall management programme is the only sound and sustainable approach to the effective control of root-knot nematode. She stated that "well plaimed combination of practices will go fiirther towards control of nematodes than any of the treatments alone. The value and permanence of any chemical or cultural method is increased if it is followed by a wet fallow, or by a resistant crop,etc. The rational for combining two or more strategies is two fold: (i) most present and future strategies are partially effective and must be combined with additional strategies to be fully acceptable and effective (ii) the 10 most present and future strategies vvitli close to lOO^o efTicacy have poor longivitN. Thislossma> arise through unrelated problems such as environmental imbalance or risk Therefore, need to preserve and protect the highly effecti\e protocols through combining and integrating control treatments and procedures". Kerry (1975) applied the integrated approach to rational combination of crop rotation, resistant cultivars, nematicides and fertilizers for nematode control. Integrated pest management (IPM) concerns the combining of two or more control strategies to manage one or more species in the same pest group (Bird, 1980). It has evolved as a philosophy and technique to correct the problems associated with the chemicals pests. In 1979 Presidential Environmental Message to Congress (CEQ, 1980b) defined integrated pest management as "system approach to reduce pest damage to tolerance levels through a variety of techniques including predators and parasites, genetically resistant hosts, natural environmental modifications and, if necessary, appropriate chemical pesticides". It is an old method however, new methods which are added to it are its application in scientific experimentation and research for evoking integrated and economically easy approach. For this, clear understanding of biology of crops, pests and their nature is essential. Integrated nematode management (INM) also seeks to stabilise population of target nematodes at acceptable levels resulting in long term socioeconomic and environmental consequences. Bessey (1911) outlined the exclusion, population reduction and tolerance procedure available for integrated nematode management. ] 1 Integrated pest management includes researcli development technolog> transfer and implementation needed to integrate two or more control measures to manage one or more nematode species. INM must be imposed in conjuction with broader objectives of integarted pest management. All available nematode management must be considered while devising INM system. The main aim of the integrated approach should be: 1. To maintain the nematode population below the threshold level. 2. Utilizing several compatible and useful cpjjrol techniques in combination^ which might have economical and social level. 3. Maximising natural environmental resistance against plant-parasitic nematodes. 4. Applying specific and drastic control measures only as and when necessary. 5. Providing maximum profits to growers with location and resource specific recommendation. Various INM systems have been suggested in both developed and developing countries. In India attempts has also been made to control nematodes by INM systems (Sundresh et al., \911; Kuriyan & Sheela, 1981: Gaur & Mishra, 1983; Nand & Gill, 1984; Ravichandra & Krishnappa, 1985; Gaur & Prasad, 1986; Jayaraj el a/., 1993; Mahmood & Siddiqui, 1993a; Siddiqui & Mahmood, 1993; Gautam et a/.,1995). Geier & Clark (1961) proposed that in the integarted pest management all the available techniques should be considered to evaluate and consolidate into a unified progranmie to manage pest population so that economic damage is 12 avoided and adverse side effects on the environment are minimised. Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) Experts (1966-1972) defined IPM as "pest management system to utilize all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible manner as possible where they may not cause injury". Raff & Guthrie (1970) and Luckman & Metcalf (1975) suggested that single factor approaches are inadequate, hence should be discarded and replaced by universally accepted method,i.e. Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Brader (1988) suggested that future development of agriculture will depend largely on IPM. The concept of IPM is dynamic, it may change with the development of our knowledge of crops, their pests and control. Barker & Lucas (1984) suggested the integrated control of nematodes on tobacco. It included destruction of roots and debris from previous crop, nematode free transplant, resistant cultivars, crop rotation and availability of effective chemical treatment. The United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED) recognised the need for integrated pest management in the context of sustainable agriculture (UNCED, 1993). When nematode population is low the monoculture of non-host with resistant variety alongwith non-chemical methods like alteration in sowing or planting schedules, proper weed control, summer ploughing and sanitation may be sufficient. In transplanting crops, the nursery can be grown in nematode fi^ee soil followed by nematicidal application and other methods. Seed dressing prior to sowing also reduce the early infection. In case of heavily infested field the 13 nemalicides arc used lo reduce the population of nematode below the threshold level followed by other methods like crop rotation and other non-chemical methods While considerable basic and applied research has been directed to examine the efficacy of single isolated control strategy, only few examples exist about combination of two or more strategies (Rhoades.1984; Roberts & May,1986; Trudgill, 1987; Trudgill et al., 1987; Roberts, 1987; Alphey et al.. 1988; Ferris g/a/., 1984;; Barker, 1991; Sasser & Uzzell, 1991; Schmitt, 1991; Whitehead,!986, 1991; Philip, 1993). Integrated management strategies can be applied sequentially or simultaneously. The first approach includes the season to season or year to year integration of strategies and is particularly relevant to annual cropping cycles. The second major approach to INM involves simultaneous application of two or more strategies. This approach may be utilised for both annual and perenial crop production (Rhodes, 1984; GraflSn, 1987; Alphey er a/., 1988). However, this approach requirs extensive research, because of the unique issues that requires resolution such as compatibibty and degree of efficacy. It must be considered that prior to sowing or transplanting nematode population dynamics must be checked before or during the peak phase of nematode. Therefore,before taking-up any control measure, like nematicidal application,field must be watered so as to cause eggs to mass hatching. Hot water treatment of infested seed or root stock can be used wherever possible. Solar 14 heating of soil and addition of organic amendment or systemic nematicides ma\ be useful for potted ornamentals. Chemical treatment and organic amendment in planting pits followed by periodic application of systemic nematicides may be most feasible approach for orchard crops. Therefore, once various INM programmes are developed, it is necessary that they should be put to practice Thusjit is clear from above that integrated nematode control is one of the most feasible and reliable approach for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 15 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In the present study organic amendment, intercropping and ploughing with or without nematicides were used as components of integrated approach for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. An overview on these aspects is given separately as under: ORGANIC AMENDMENT: Farmers have been using organic matter for improving soil fertility since the advent of agriculture, without knowing its significance in nematode management. Linford and co-workers were first to notice the nematode potential of some organic amendments (Linford et a]., 1938). This discovery triggered some interest amongst scientists concerned with plant health care. But the very discovery of highly efficient nematicidal compounds during the 1940's and 1950's hampered the research on nematode control with organic amendments. Their importance, however, was re-discovered during the late sixties and got impetus during the 1970's after it was confirmed that the promising nematicides were highly injurious to health and sources of pollution. Much work has been carried out since then on this aspect which has been reviewed fi'om time to time (Oostenbrink, 1960;Alam, 1976;Muller&Gooch, 1982;Akhtar&Alam, 1993). Oil Cakes: Many workeiyhave used oil cakes for the control of plant- parasitic nematodes (Table 1). Oil cakes used for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes 16 Table 1 Survey of literature for the efficacy of soil amendment with oil cakes against plant-parasitic nematodes. Nematode Host Treatment' Reference Meloidogyne Tomato Nc,Cc,Ma,Mu Goswami & Swarup, 1971; Gowda, incognita 1972; Gowda &Sethy, 1973,1978; Singh et al,1980c; Rao etal., 1987;Bhattacharya& Goswami, 1987,1988a,b;Darekaretal., 1990 Eggplant Nc,Cc,Ma,Mu Husain e/a/., 1984; Singh & Singh, 1988 Okra Nc,Cc,Ma,Mu, Alam, 1989; Reddy & Khan, 1991; Reddy & GcKc Khan, 1993 Okra,Wheat Nc Sharmae/a/., 1985; Khan e/o/., 1991 Blackgram Nc,Cc Ahmad e/o/., 1990 Chickpea Nc Pandey & Singh, 1990 Greengram Nc,Ma,Lc,Mu Dwivedi & Pandey, 1992; Borah & Phukan, 1992 Frenchbean Nc Srivastava etal., 1971 Papaya Nc Routary&Das, 1988 Betelvine Nc,Cc,Gc,Cu Acharya&Padhi, 1988,Murthy&Rao, 1992 Tobacco Nc,Ma,Coc Desai e/a/.,1979;Gule/a/., 1991 Davana Nc Haseeb & Butool, 1991 Basil Nc Haseebe/o/., 1988 Meloidogyne Tomato Nc,Cc,Coc,Lc Singhe/a/., 1979; Saifullahe/a/., 1990 javanica Eggplant Nc.Cc, Singbetal., 1971; Abid&Maqbool, 1991 Okra Nc.Cc Singh & Sitaramaiah, 1971; Abid & Maqbool, 1991 Tomato, Nc Khan e/a/., 1966. Okra Meloidogyne Tomato Nc.Cc,Coc.Lc Lear, 1959; Sen «fe Dasgupta, 1989; SaifuUah sp. et^.,1990 1~ Table I Coiitd Nematode Host Treatment' Reference Eggplant, Nc Sen & Dasgupta, 1989 Okra Betelvine Nc JagdaleWfl/.. 1985a.b Hcterodera Arhar.Urad Nc. Gc Gupta e/a/., 1993 Cajani H avenae Wheat Nc Sharma Rotylenchvls Okra Nc Raoera/., 1987; Krishna Rao c/o/., 1987 reniformis Frenchbean Nc Padhi «S: Mishra, 1987 Gardenbean Nc Sundaram& Velayuthani, 1988 Radopholvs Banana Nc Ravichandra&Krishnapa. lf)85. 1993 similis Tylenchulus Acidlime Nc,Cc Reddye/a/., 1991 semipenetrans Tylenchorhyn- Cabbage, Nc,Cc,Ma,Mu Alam,1989 chusbrassicae Cauliflower Pc Hirschmanniella Rice Nc Jonathan & Pandiarajan, 1992 orv:ae Hoplolaimus Greengram Nc Vijayalakshmi & Prasad, 1988 mdicus //e/;ro/v/e«c/ji//w*Gardenbean Nc,Cc Sundaram & Velayutham, 1 988 dihystra Mixed nematode Tomato Nc,Cc,Ma,Mu Ismail et_al., 1976; Alam, f/^;/ , 1977. population Haqe/a/., 1986; Singh cf a/ . 1987; Siddiqui& Alam. 1991; Siddiqui&Alam. 1992 Eggplant, Nc,Cc,Ma,Gc Alam, 1989; Alam, 1991a.b; Cabbage,Okra Siddiqui&Alam, 1991 Cauliflower, Knol-knol.Onion, Chilli Radish Nc Alam e/o/., 1977 lb Table 1 Contd Nematode Host Treatment' Reference Lentil Nc Gaur&Mishra, 1989 Mung Nc,Cc Mishra & Gaur, 1989: Akhtar etal ,1990 Wheat Nc,Cc Alam&Ashraf, 1986 Grapevine Nc Darekar & Mhase, 1990 Plum Nc Sharma, 1991 Sugarcane Nc Jonathan e/o/ , 1991 Berseem Nc Hasan & Jain, 1984 Soybean Nc,Cc,Ma, Mishra & Gupta, 1992 Mu,Mc Acidlime NcCc.Kc Parvathac(a/.,1991 Mango, Nc.Cc.Ma Alam e/a/., 1977,1978; apricot, Mu Khan etal., 1976; Alam, 1989 lemon,pear, peach,Walnut, and ornamental plants Okra Nc Khan e/a/,, 1979 Oats,cowpea Nc Jain & Hasan, 1986 Spinach Nc Alam & Khan, 1994 Tobacco Nc,Cc,Ma, Krishnamurthy, 1993 Gc,Coc,Kc Potato Nc,Cc Akhtar & Alam, 1991 * Nc = Neem cake; Cc = Castor cake; Mu = Mustard cake; Ma=Mahua cake; Coc = Cotton cake, Gc = Groundnut cake; Lc = Linseed cake; Kc = Karanj cake. 19 iiKludc tho!«c oi necm (Azadirachtn nidica A Jiiss). castor (Ricimis communis L.), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). cotton seed (Ctossypium hmbaceum L.). mustard {Brassicajuncea (L.) CZQXW 8i Coss). mahua (Madhuca nidico Gmel.), sesame {Sesamum indicum L.), linseed {Liuum usitatissimum L.) and kranj (Pongamia pinnata L). These oil cakes when used as soil amendments against plant-parasitic nematodes invariably gave good results on a variety of crops (Table 1). In these studies the oil cakes were applied to the soil singly but some workers also attempted to evaluate nematicidal potential of mixture of oil cakes (Alam, 1990, 1991). In few studies oil cakes were also applied with other materials like wheat straw (Prasad et al., 1972), sawdust (Singh et a].. 1983. Reddy et a]., 1991),NPKfetrilizers(Prasad etal., 1972)and foundgood results It waspointedout that mixing with cheaper cakes such as mahua cake, which was otherwise phytotoxic, gave better results not only in terms of nematode control but also improvement in plant growth (Alam, 1991). Neem cake mixed with other oil seed cakes, e.g. mahua, castor and groundnut remained as efficacious as neem cake alone (Alam, 1990). Ravichandra & Krishnappa (1985) and Krishnappa & Reddy (1993) observed that neem cake together with hot water treatment and carbofuran caused the highest decrease in nematode population of Radopholus simihs infesting banana. The oil cakes were found to be highly effective in varied soil conditions such as sandy as well as in organic soils (Alam, 1991) having pH range of 7.7 to 8.4. They were found equally efficacious in winter as well as summer crops (Alam, 1991). 2 0 It has been confirmed in various field studies that efficacy of oil cakes persists for long durations as it remained effective against plant-parasitic nematodes even in the subsequent crop (Alam et a]., 1977; Gaur & Mishra, 1989;Akhtar& Alam, 1991; Siddiqui& Alam, 1992; Tiyagi & Alam, 1995). This is because the oil cakes decomposed rather slowly. In vitro studies revealed that the water soluble fractions (WSF) of oil cakes were highly toxic to plant-parasitic nematodes (Gowda & Sethy, 1979; Hasan & Jain, 1984; Goswami & Vijayalakshmi, 1987). They also inhibited larval hatching (Khan eta]., 1974; Alam etal., 1982;Rao et al., 1986;Mahmood & Saxena, 1987; Mishra et al., 1989). With an increase in the decomposition period, the toxicity of WSF of oil cakes also increased (Alam et a]., 1982). Sitaramaiah et al. (1974) revealed that activity of 2nd sta^e juveniles of M incognita was adversely affected by neem cake and soil extract. Green Manuring: Green manuring is an age old practice used by farmers where green plants usually leguminous ones are ploughed into the soil and are allowed to decompose resulting in an improvement in the ensuing crop. Sometimes waste green plants are also incorporated to the soil. Many workers have recorded beneficial effects of green manuring in crop improvement not only by way of increased soil fertility but also by effective nematode control. The subject has been discussed from time to time by many workers. 21 Linford et al. (1938) used chopped leaves of pine apple for the control of root-knot nematodes attacking cowpea. Duddington et a]. (1961) noted reduction in the population of//, avenae on oat with the incorporation of chopped leaves of cabbage into infested soil. A noticeable reduction was found in the population of some plant-parasitic nematodes, e.g. Hoplolaimus, Tylenchorhynchus, Tylenchus and Pratylenchus spp. in the soil where pieces of pumpkin were allowed to rot (Hutchinson et a]., 1960). Singh (1965) also obtained reduction in root gall intensity by the addition of chopped leaves of karanj {Pongamia glabra vent.). Leaves and different plant parts of neem {Azadirachta indica) were found to be effective in reducing several plant-parasitic nematodes (Egunjobi & Afolami, 1976; Ram & Gupta, 1982; Ahmad & Koppel, 1986; Jain & Bhatti, 1988a; Rossner&Zebitz, 1987;Akhtar, 1993b). Akhtar & Alam (1990) suggested that incorporation of chopped leaves of Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus citridora, Lantana indica, Melia azedarach, Ricinus communis. Thuja orientalis significantly suppresed the build up of Hoplolaimus indicus, Helicotylenchus indicus, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae and Tylenchus filiformis on Capsicum annuum. Neem leaves, when used as organic amendment, proved to be quite efficacious against M incognitaon tomato, eggplant, chilli (Pathak eta]., 1988; Akhtar & Alam 1990); M. javanica on tomato, chickpea (Ram & Gupta, 1981, 1982; Jain & Bhatti, 1988); M arenaria on tomato (Rossner&Zebitz, 1987); Meloidogyne sp. on tomato, eggplant and okra (Sen & Dasgupta, 1989); 2Z Pratylenchus penetrans on tomato (Rossner & Zebitz. 1987); P. zea on chilli (Khan, 1990); Rotylenchus reniformis on eggplant (Lai et a]., 1977); Aphelenchoides compositicola on mushroom (Grewal, 1989) and mixed population on grapevine, eggplant, tomato,chilli, potato and mungbean (Saxena et a]., 1977; Haseeb et al., 1978a; Alam, 1987; Akhtar & Alam, 1989, 1990; Akhtaretai., 1990). Haseeb et a]. (1978) reported decline in the population of Hoplolaimus indicus, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae, Tylenchusfiliformis by Addition of chopped leaves of 35 plant species. The addition of chopped leaves of Mentha viridis and Cordia myxa caused reduction in the population of Tylenchids to a varying degree (Haseeb et a]., 1984). Paruthi et al. (1987) revealed that chopped and ground leaves of su-babool significantly reduced the population of root-knot nematode in okra. Leaf powder of 9 plant species including Tagetes and Xanthium were effective against root-knot nematode (Sharma & Tiagi, 1989). Siddiqui & Alam (1988) reported that plant wastes of Tflge/ej/wc; minuta and T. tenuifolia resulted in significant reduction in the population of Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae Hoplolaimus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis on tomato and eggplant. Soil amendment with chopped leaves of plants belonging to family Compositae was noted to be good suppressant of root-knot, reniform nematodes and stunt nematode (Tiyagi et a]., 1988; Tiyagi & Wani, 1992) thereby improved the plant growth of cabbage and cauliflower. Siddiqui & Alam (1990) reported that chopped leaves and flower parts of water hycinth gave satisfactory control of Tylenchorhynchus and improved plant growth of cabbage and cauliflower. Akhtar et al. (1990) revealed that chopped leaves of different plants, e.g. Meliaazedarach, Calotropis procera, Rfcinus communis, Eichchornia crassipes and Azadirachta indica caused suppression in nematode reproduction. Chopped leaves and stems of rape seed proved to be effective against Meloidogyne chitwoodi ( Mojtahedi et a]., 1992, 1993a,b). Mulching of soil with green leaves were effective against root-knot nematodes (Govindiah et al., 1989). Chopped leaves of some weeds when applied to soil infested with plant-parasitic nematodes showed significant reduction in nematode population and improved growth of tomato (Alam, 1987) Zaki & Bhatti (1989) used castor leaves as organic amendment against Meloidogyne javanica. Maqbool et al. (1987) revealed that green tops of many cultivated and v^d plants were found effective in suppressing the nematode population. Khan (1990) reported nematicidal potential of some growing medicinal plants against Pratylenchus zea. Plant Products and Extracts: The efficacy of soil amendment with 6 plant extracts was investigated for the control of Meloidogyne incognita on aubergine. All the plant extracts reduced Meloidogyne-miQsiSiiion and multiplication with Tephrosinapurpurea extract being the most effective (Bansoda & Kurundkar, 1989). 24 Sharma & Trivedi (19Q0) investigated that leaf powders ofAegle marmelos, Withania sommfer. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Murraya koeiiigi and stem of Cuscuta reflexa caused significant reduction in root galling caused by M. incognita and enhanced plant growth. Singh et a]. (1990) observed that chopped leaves of neem, castor and mustard individually and concomitantly were effective against M. incognita on tomato. Water extracts of leaves of Vinca rosea (Catharanthus roseus) reduced M incognita population on cowpea (Alagumalai et al , 1991). Khan (1992) and Rao &Reddy (1992) reported the comparative efficacy of dry neem leaves and leaves of Brassica compestris, Catharanthus roseus, Pedilanthus tithymaloides, Boughainvillea spectabilis, Azadirachta indica, Pongamiapinnata, Calotropisprocera and Ricinus Communis with carboftiran against P. thornei on wheat and M. incognita on tomato and found reduction in nematode population and increase in plant growth similar to that of carbofuran. Dried ground leaves of Persian lilac (Melia azedaracf^,Asparagus sprengeri (A densiflorus), Eucalyptus sp., Psidium guajava caused reduction in the eggmass and population densities of R. reniformis and increased plant growth of sunflower (El-Nagar et a]., 1993). Singh et a]. (1983) reported that neem leaf mold alongwith sawdust was better than either of the treatments alone in suppressing the population of plant- parasitic nematodes on tomato. Incorporation of neem leaves in nursery beds of tomato also gave satisfactory control of M yavaw/cfl (Jain & Bhatti, 1988). 2S Neem leaf extract as soil amendment was found effective against P. brachyurus and other plant-parasitic nematodes (Egunjobi & Afolami, 1976; Egunjobi & Onayemi, 1981). Qamar et al.(1989) used leaf extract of neem and other plants against control of Anguina tritici. Successful control of M javanica was found on sugarcane by applying neem leaf extract mixed with ethoprop (Salawu, 1992). There was highly successful control of M javanica on tomato by giving root-dip treatment with phosphamidon before transplanting it in the soil amended with neem leaf (Jain & Bhatti, 1988). In vitro studies extracts of different derivaties of neem, viz. seed kernel, seed coat, shoot, leaf, flower, firuit, bark, root and gum have been reported highly toxic to a large number of nematodes, e.g. M. incognita, R. reniformis, P. brachyurus, T. brassicae, Hel. indicus. Hop. indicus, T. filiformis and C. litoralis. These extracts also inhibited larval hatching of M incognita, M. javanica, H. avenae, H. mothi and R. reniformis (Husain & Masood, 1975; Egunjobi & Afolami, 1977; Husain, 1977;Haseeb et »!, 1978;Devakumer et a]., 1985; Siddiqui & Alam, 1985a, Siddiqui & Alam, 1985b, Chabra et al., 1988; Qamar et a]., 1989; Mojumder & Mishra, 1991a, Mojumder & Mishra, 1991b; Hasan, 1992 and Gupta & Sharma, 1993). Leaf and seed extract of chinaberry/bakain {Melia azedarach) have also been reported toxic to M incognita (hee, 1987). Similarly high mortality rate of M incognita, R. reniformis, T. brassicae. Hop. indicus, Hel. indicus and T. filiformis was observed in extracts of leaf, flower, firuit, bark, root and gum of 2 6 chinaberr\' (Siddiqui & Alam, 1985, 1987). These extracts also arrested larval hatching of M. incognita (Siddiqui & Alam, 1987). Tanda (1992) reported that Cruciferous media suppressed the penetration of wheat roots by juvenile of//, avenae. Leaf, stem, flower and root extracts of some members of family Compositae were found to cause greatest juvenile mortality and inhibition in egg hatching (Bano et al., 1986). Water and methanolic extracts ofdifFerent plant parts of 7a^e/e.s sp. have been found to cause inhibition in egg hatching and juvenile mortality (Siddiqui & Alam, 1988e, Sweelam, 1989 and Caswell et a]., 1991). Haseeb & Batool (1990) reported that root and shoot extracts of some members of family Lamiacae, viz. Coleus aromaticus, Mellisa officinalis, Ocimum basilicum, O. americanum, O. sanctum caused highest larval mortality of M. incognita and inhibition in egg hatching. Bark extract of some angiosperms like Albizzia lebbeck, Delonix regia, Lawsonia inermis, Syzygium cunni, etc. caused suppression in the hatching of M incognita (Rafiq et al., 1991). Krishnamurthy &Murthy (1993) reported that out of 44 plant species belonging to millets, pulses, oil seeds, narcotics, horticultural and omametnal plants only tested against M. incognita 14 plant species showed nematicidal potential at 1:10 dilution. It has been revealed by many workers that toxicity of different plant products of neem and other plant species increased with an increased concentrations of extracts as well as exposure period. Nematode hatching also 27 increased with an increasing concentration (Khan _et al., 1974; Egunjobi & Afolami, 1976;Husain, 1977; Siddiqui & Alam, 1990, Sesanelli, 1992; Akhtar, 1993a; Korayem et al., 1993; Wani & Alam, 1995). Dry Crop Residues; Dry crop residues, which otherwise go waste, have been found good suppressants of plant-parasitic nematodes. Johnson (1959, 1971) reported that dried crop residues when incorporated into soil resulted in the suppression of root-knot population. Similarly, mature dry residues of lespedeza, alfaalfa, oats and flax resulted in reduction of Meloidogyne population in the infested field (Johnson et a]., 1967). Goswami & Vijayalakshmi (1985) revealed that dry products of Andrographispaniculata, Calendulla officinalis andEnhydrafluctans andSolanum Khasianum reduced galls and nematode population. Shahina & Maqbool (1991) used dry tea twings as soil amendment against M. javanica and foimd that dry twigs resulted in reduction in M javanica gall formation and improvement in plant growth of simflower. Sharma & Trivedi (1992) observed that dried root powder of Ocimum sanctum, Tagetes erecta, Artemisa absinthium orAegle marmelosbrought about reduction in J^ of Meloidogyne development and multiplication on aubergine and the greatest reduction being fotmd with T. erecta. 2b Rice hull, sawdust, leaf litter, maize straw, ramie hays, spent cofTee grinds, pecan shells, coco pod husks, bean husks, paddy husk, bajra husk, tobacco broken stalks and seedlings, wheat residue, shrimp shells,etc. have been found to reduce the population of different plant-parasitic nematodes (Sayre et a]., 1964; Bhatti & Dhawan, 1980; Recuenco, 1980; Vlk & Holubcova, 1982; Mian & Rodriguez-kabana, 1982; Haseeb & Alam, 1984; Haq et a], 1985; Salawu, 1988b; Heshman & Bachi, 1992; Martez & Acosta, 1992). Patel et a]. (1993) observed that the leaf powder of Clerodendron inerme, pink and white flowered periwdnkle {Catharanthus roseus) and Azolla pinnata caused signiflcant reduction in M. incognita andM.javanica poupulations and resulted in improved plant growth of okra. The incorporation of harvest crop residues of mango, mustard and sunflower into soil proved to be highly effective suppressing root-knot disease caused by M. incognita and population of plant-parasitic nematodes resulting in improved plant growth of chilli (Akhtar & Alam, 1992). Sawdust: Sawdust is an important byproduct of sawmills. It has high C:N ratio due to which it is not favoured for manuring. It may be applied to the field supplemented with some nitrogen source. Singhet aL (1967) used sawdust as organic matter for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Several reports confirmed the use of sawdust alone or in combination wdth organic amendment for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes (Singh et a]. 1967; Singh & 2y Sitaramaiah 1967, 1971; Muller & Gooch, 1982; Singh et al., 1980f. 1983; Jagdale et a] 1985; Acharya, 1985; Singh et a]., 1986; Morale & Kurundkar, 1987;Dahaylongsod, 1988; Stirling, 1989; Alam, 1991d; Pandey et al. ,1991 and Patel_et aj., 1993). A]am(1991) reported that sawdust of mango and ammonium sulphate significantly reduced population of plant-parasitic nematodes on carrot, radish, table beet, turnip, wheat and barley, thereby increasing the yield. He also emphasised that beneficial effects of the residues of the different treatments persisted in the linseed and okra crops which were sown in the following period. The decrease in population of nematodes was enhanced with the increase in the dose of carbon. Siddiqui & Alam (1990b) demonstrated that the sawdust of neem {Azadirachta indicd) and mango {Mangifera indica) reduced populations of Rotylenchulus reniformis on tomatoes and aubergin and Tylenchorhynchus brassicae on cabbage. However, neem saw dust was more effective than mango sawdust. Mian & Rodriguez-Kabana (1982) suggested that nematode control properties of soil amendments are directly related to the N content or invariably related to C.N ratio. But, Alam (1976) revealed that in case of sawdust it is not C:N ratio but the C content, or m otherwords the amount of sawdust which has direct correlation with the extent of nematode control. In other studies Rodriguez- kabana et al. (1987) and Siddiqui & Alam (1990) emphasised that effectiveness of sawdust depends on its chemical composition and the other types of microorganisms develop during its decomposition. 30 Cellulosic Products: Hemicellulosic wastes obtained from paper industries were also reported to influence nematode population (Huebneret al., 1983;Khuswaha et al., 1983). Culbreath et a]. (1985) reported that addition of ligno-hemicellulosic materials to soil amended with chitin can increase its efTectiveness against nematodes and also avoid some of the deleterious effect of chitin when applied at high levels. Renninger et a]. (1958) observed that when sugarcane bagasse were applied to soil before planting tomatoes it resulted in reduction ofMeloidogyne sp. (Sikora et a]., 1973). Rodriguez-kabana & King (1980) used mixture of urea and black strap molasses for the control of root-knot nematodes. Chitin Amendment. Chitin amendment has been reported to be highly effective control measure against plant-parasitic nematodes (Miller & Wihrheim, 1966; Miller, et al., 1968; Rodriguez-kabana eta]., 1984). Chitin amendment were effective for the control of M. incognita on tomato (Mankau & Das, 1969), and Tylencorhynchus semipenetrans on orange (Mankau & Das, 1974) and brought about reduction on population oiPratylenchus penetrans and Tylenchorhynchus dubius (Miller et al., 1973); Heterodera glycines (Rodriguez-kabana et al., 1984) and Meloidogyne arenaria (Godoy et al., 1983). Rodriguez-Kabana et al. (1987) observed that the effect of chitin amendment lasted for several months and sufficient time must be allowed after 31 the addition of chitin amendment for the population of beneficial organisms to reach at levels adequate for effective nematode control. Gupta (1988, 1990) revealed that chitin and cellulose amendment caused significant reduction in Mononchus sp.,Dorylaimus sp., Meloidogyne sp. andPratylenchus sp. affecting sugarcane. Organic Manures: The organic manures alsoserved as good control measures for plant- parasitic nematodes when used as organic amendment either alone or m combination with other organic products. Mankau & Minteer (1982) observed that steer manure and chicken manure reduced the population of citrus nematodes, Tylenchulus semipenetrans. Similarly^ther types of manures used by different workers against nematode pests are: poultry manure, cattle manure, horse manure, fruit canning factory waste, fresh chicken droppings, cow dung, horse dung and different types of composts, silk worm faeces (Ruelo, 1983 ; Chindo &Khan, 1986, 1990;Verma, 1986;Babatola, 1988; Toida eta]., 1991; Jonathan & Pandiarajan, 1991). Oostenbrink (1954) found reduction in the population oiPratylenchus sp. by adding farmyard manure to the soil. Desai et il (1969) used farmyard manure for the control of root-knot nematode, M />ico^/i/7a affecting tomato plants. Reyes (1988) reported that nematicides and 4 organic amendments (chicken manure, molasses, pressmud) showed good nematode suppressant properties and increased the yield. Organic manures such as cattle, pigeon. 32 poullr>', quail and sheep manure suppressed population of nematode caused by M. incognita and increased plant growth (Montasser, 1991). Babatola & Oyedunmade (1992) reported that five organic manures, cattle manure,poultry manure, horse manure, burntownship refuse and citrus wastes alone and in combination with urea reduced the nematode infestation caused by M. incognita, Pratylenchtis brachyurus, Helicotylenchus spp. andX/zj/i/He/waspp. andincreased the green leaf yield of Celosia argentea. However, citrus waste reduced nematode infestation but adversely affected crop establishment. Combination of poultry and cattle manure were found to be equally effective as when applied singly. Applicaiton of carbofuran on jute alone and in combination with paddy and poultry manure on jute rotated with paddy manure caused suppressionof nematodes on jute (Corchorus capsularis L.) under natural field infestation (Senapati & Ghosh, 1992). Kaplan & Neo (1993) observed that chicken excrement used alone and in combination with NPK fertilizer and constituents of chicken litter (manure and pine shaving pedding) suppressed the M are/jor/a population and enhanced the plant growth of tomato as compared to non-excrement treatments. Thus it may provide practical control of root-knot nematode as part of an integrated management system. Sewage Sludge: Use of sewage sludge as organic amendment turned out to be effective 33 control method against plant-parasitic nematodes in infested fields (Heald & Burton, 1968;Homicket a]., 1984;A1-Yahyaetal., 1988;CastagnoneSeroeta] , 1988). D'Errico & Di Maio (1980) reported that composted municipal refuse together with organic matters were added to the infested field it resulted in the significant reduction in M incognita populations. Oils: Various types of oils obtained from different plants were used as organic amendment for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes which ultimately brought about improvement in plant growth (Ellenby, 1945 a,b,c, 1951; Walker et a]., 1967; MiUer, 1979; Saxena et al., 1987). Renninger et al. (1958) observed the reduction in the population of Radopholus similis in citrus roots by fish oil. The mustard oil, gingelly oil, sunflower oU and extracts of Eclipta alba were found effective against M ^ram/mco/a (Prasad et a]., 1984). Similarly, oil fi^omseed s of Argemone maxicana and mace oil from M fragrans, neem oil, karanj oil, chalmongra oil, polango oil were found nematicidal in nature (Das & Sakul, 1988; Pradhan et al., 1989 and Gokte et al., 1990). Soil amendment with neem based product "Nimin" and different oils as urea coating agent have shown significant nematicidal potential againsf sevCTa] plant-parasitic nematodes attacking tomato and chilli (Akhtar & Mahmood, 1993). Similarly direct amendment ofneem oil has inhibited Toot-ku^t^^^ato^g 34 A/ incognita on tomato (Pradhan et al . 1989). Some essential oils have been extracted from the plants of Labiatae which were shown to possess nematicidal properties (Sangwan et a]., 1990) Saxena et al. (1990) reported nematicidal properties of some oils from 4-plants, viz. Eucalyptus citridorus, Cymbopogon martinii, Nardstachys jatamansi and Anethum soMa. Singh et al. (1990, 1991) studied the efficacy of essential oils from various plant parts of 31 species against M. incognitalarvae. The oil from^coru5 canum ( O. americanum)heTh&ge, O. santum herbage, Nicotiana tabacum leaves and Tribulus terrestris seeds proved very effective. Quarles (1992) reported that essential oils, sapronins and flavoids obtained from Chenopodium genus showed nematoxicity. Leela et al. (1992) observed the nematicidal activity of essential oil of Pelargonium graveolans geranium against root-knot development caused by M. incognita and found that oil of P. graveolans and its constituent namely citronellol, gemoil and linalol were effective against M. incognita. SEED TREATMENT: The seed treatment with plant products is a cheap and effective control measure of plant-parasitic nematodes. Siddiqui &Alam (1988b,c) observed the effect of latex seed dressing of Calotropis gigantea, C. procera, Euphorbia milli, E. nerifolia and E. tirucalli and found significant reduction in multiplication of Tylenchorhynchus brassicae, Rotylenchulus reniformis with the result plant growth of cabbage, cauliflower and other vegetables improved. Similarly, number of reports confirmed the control of plant-parasitic nematodes by seed treatment with plant products (Table 2). Seed dressing of pigeonpea and chickpea with latex oi Calotropis procera resulted in significant control of Meloidogyne incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis with a corresponding increase in plant growth, chlorophyll, water absorption capacity of roots and root nodulation of pigeonpea and chickpea (Mojumder & Mishra, 1991c). Tomato seeds treated with neem products like neem bitter, neem seed kamel extract, 'Repelin'and 'Wellgro' significantly reduced nematode populations and increased plant growth (Dash & Padhi, 1990). Similar results were also obtained with neem cake extract and neem oil against the nematodes on mungbean (Vijayalakshmi & Goswami, 1986) and with neem oil on tomato (Pradhan et al., 1989). Seed application of neem oil on rice efficiently controlled Pratylenchus indicus (Prasad etal., 1988) and neem cake extract on tomato seed was effective on mixed population of nematodes (Singh et al., 1980). 36 Table 2. Survey of literature for the efficacy of seed treatment with plant products against plant-parasitic nematodes. Nematode Plant Plant Product Host Reference Meloidogyne Azadirachta Leaf extract Cowpea Khan & Husain, 1988. incognita jndica Warn, 1992 A mdica, Plant parts and Tomato, eggplant Siddiqui & Alam, 1987a Mel I a products okra azedarach Nimbin, Tomato,eggplant Siddiqui & Alam, AzadirachtiD okra 1988d,g,1990d A tndica, Oil, Kamel extract Okra Kathirval et al , 1992 Eruca sativa Calotropis, Latex Okra Wanj et al , 1994 Euphorbia Rotylenchulus Calotropis, Latex Cabbage, cauli- Siddiqui & Alam, 1986 remformis Euphorbia flower & other Siddiqui & Alam, 1990 vegetables A indica Leaf Okra, cowpea Egunjobi & Onayemi, 1981 A mdica Plant parts and Tomato.eggplant, Siddiqui & Alam, 1987a products Okra Nimbin, - do - Siddiqui & Alam, Azadirachtin 1989e,1990d Tylenchorhyn- Calotropis Latex Cabbage, Siddiqui & Alam, 198S chus brassicae Euphorbia Cauliflower Nimbin, Cabbage, Azadirachtm - do- Siddiqui & Alam, I989d, 1990d Pratylenchus A mdica Oil, leaf Rice,Maize Prasad et al , 1988, indica Egunjobi & Onayemi, 1981 Mixed nematode A mdica Neem product Tomato Dash & Padhi, 1990 population Cake product Tomato,Urd Smgh et al , 1980a,e, Gupta et al , 1993 Neem oil Tomato,mungbean Pradhan et al , 1989. Vijayalakshmi & Goswami, 1986 3 / Seed treatment of maize with neem leaf extract was good against Pratyleuchus brachyurus (Engunjobi & Onayemi, 1981). While similar treatment of cowpea seed not only controlled M. incognita and R. reniformis but also the disease complexes involving these nematodes and root-rot fungus, Rhizoctonia solani (Khan & Husain, 1988). Siddiqui & Alam (1987) used extracts of different plant parts and products of neem and Chinaberry, e.g. leaf, flower, fruit, bark and gum for treating the seeds of tomato, eggplant, okra and obtained statisfactory control of M. incognita. Seed treatment with botanicals such as neem oil, mahua oil, pinnai oil {Calophyllum inophyllum), neem kamel extract and chemicals such as carbosulfan, fenamiphos and monocrotophos caused reduction in M. incognita population on okra (Kathirvale/a/.,1992). Neem leaf and mahua oils were most effective. Siddiqui & Alam (1988d, 1989 b,c) suggested that the application of nimbin (triterpenoid from Azadirachta indica) and azadirachtin as seed dressing reduced the root-knot development/nematode multiplication and caused improvement in plant growth at all levels of nematode inoculum on tomato, eggplant and okra attacked by M. incognita, R. reniformis and on cabbage and cauliflower attacked by Tylenchorhynchus brassicae (Siddiqui & Alam, 1989, 1990). 38 Waiii (1QQ2) reponed that seed dressing with leaf extracts oiAzadirochta indica brought about significant control of root-knot nematode. Meloidogyne incognita which in turn improved plant growth of okra. Wani ct al. (1994) revealed that seed dressing with latex of Calotropis procera and Euphonbo caducifolia brought about significant reduction in root-knot development caused by M. incognita, thereby improved plant growth of okra. The efifect of various plant products discussed above as seed treatment might be due to the direct nematode toxicity of the seed coatings causing unfavourable environment for nematode activity or possibly the plants grown from coated seeds acquiring resistance or tolerance to the nematode (Siddiqui & Alam, 1989d,e; Wani, 1992). These might have influencd the metabolism of the germinating seeds rendering the seedlings unfavourable for nematode multiplication as well as stimulating plant growth fSiddiqui & Alam 1988a,d). ANTAGONISTIC PLANTS: The interculture of crops between the rows of other crops is an age old practice. In many cases it has been proved to be beneficial in nematode control. However, the scientific explanation for all these practices vis-a-vis nematodes became known only recently. Large number of plants are used ias intercrops with other susceptible plants against plant-parasitic nematodes and are considered to have good suppressant properties (Gommers, 1973; Siddiqui, 1986;Idowu, 1989;Idowu& Fawole, 1991). These plants are called enemy plants or antagonistic plants. 39 Triffit (1930) and Franklin (1937) found that meadow grasses {Poapratensis and P. irivals) decreased the cyst contents compared with controls. Other plants which were used as intercrops with susceptible plants to control nematodes are marigold, mustard. Asparagus, Crotolaria, etc. In India intercropping of mustard and Brassica spp. in between the rows of wheat and barley is an old practice. Likewise in southern Persia, neem trees were planted on the periphery of cotton fields. Earlier Tyler (1938) and Steiner (1941) observed the resistance of Tagetes to Meloidogyne. Berg-Smit (1953) successfully used Tagetes spp. as preceding crop to narcissus for reducing root-rot caused by Pratylenchus penetrans. Oostenbrink er al. (1957) showed that by growing Tagetes spp. in the field, Pratylenchus populations could be reduced by 90%. This efifect has been shown to be due to nematicidal action of growing Tagetes plants (Uhlenbroek &Byloo, 1958). By growing \6\SintX\esoiTagetes patulaand Tagetes erecta for a period of 3-4 months, population of Pratylenchus, Tylenchorhynchus and Rotylenchus could be considerably reduced (Meijineka & Oostenbrink, 1958). Omidvar (1962) suggested that by growing Tagetes for four months in soil infested with Globodera sp. a slight reduction in potato cyst nematode population was observed. Oostenbrink (1960) showed that reduction in population of P. penetrans, P. cranatus and Tylenchorhynchus dubius occured by growing T. patula as intercrop. Several studies have confirmed that usefulness of marigold as suppressant of nematode population when used as proceeding crop with susceptible crop or when included in the cropping sequences (Daulton & Curtis, 1963; Alam et al., 1976a,b 1977b, 1981, 1990; Kumari ^/a/. 1987; Nakajime e/a/., 1987). 4 0 There were also found significant reduction in nematode populations when marigold (Tage^e^ spp.) and margosa/neem were used with some vegetable crops (AlameM/., 1977a, Siddiqui & Alam, 1987c, 1988c). However, insignificant reduction in nematode population was observed when marigold {Tagetes spp.) was grown with tomato (Hachney & Dickerson, 1975). Antinemic action of marigold is due to diflusates which kill nematodes (Alam era/., 1975; Siddiqui & Alam, 1987b,c, 1988f). Marigold roots contains terthienyl (2,2'-5-2"-terthienyl) and other chemicals that exhibit high nematicidal activity against several plant-parasitic nematodes. (Zechmeister & Sease, 1947). Kyo et al. (1990) reported that marigold roots contain alpha-terthienyl and related compounds which are nematicidal against Caenorhabditis elegans and Pratylenchus penetrans. Intercropping of marigold {Tagetes spp.) with okra, tomato, eggplant and chilli have proved very successful for reducing propulation of nematodes (Khan etal., 1971; Alam e/fl/., 1977a). Mousa e/a/. (1977) reported that with tomato potted in soil artificially infested with M. incognita, Tagetespatula or Asparagus officinalis seedlings caused reduction in nematode infection and plant yield. Davide (1979) also reported reduced nematode infection and increased plant yield when Tagetes erecta was used as intercrops with tomato. However, he found nematicide more effective than Tagetes erecta. There are number of reportes where Tagetes spp. were used as intercrops with other plant species in order to control plant-parasitic nematodes (Sen & Dasgupta, 1982; Haung, 1984; Tacconi & Olimpiera, 1983; Medhane et al.. 41 1985;Nakajimeera/., 1987; Parweze/o/., 1988; Alamg^a/., 1988; Siddiqui & /lam, 1988;Idowe, 1989; Caswell e/a/., 1991; Subramaniyan & Selveraj, 1990; Toida etal., 1990, 1991). Castro et al. (1990) reported that cropping of Tagetes erecta and the incorporation of its residues to the soil resulted in significant reduction of M incognita popultions in tomato which increased the fruit yield by 88-96%. El- Hamawi & Mohamed (1990) revealed that when Tagetes erecta were grown with five tomato cultivars, green bean and cowpea cultivars, slight reduction in number of galls was observed. When T. erecta was concomitantly planted, no effect was observed on M. incognita by Tagetes. Panchaude-Mattei (1990) reveiwed the use of catch crops and green manures for the control of Heteroderidae and obtained good results with Tagetes and Crotalaria against Meloidogyne; and Avena strigosa, Styzolobium deeringianum, and Crotalaria used as green mianures have produced good results. Nematicidal activity of the plants is due to hypersensitivity of certain plants to nematodes and to the production of inhibiting substances by these plant. Pre-plant cover crops of ryegrass {Lolium sp.), buckwheat and marigold {Tagetes sp.) and sudan grass {Sorghum sudanense) suppressed the biomass of weeds and nematodes in strawberries (Pritts, 1992). Verma (1991) reported the interculture of mustard and rapeseed for the management of earcockle disease of wheat and observed repressive effect on ear gall formation and beneficial effect on grain yield over control. 42 A suppressive effect was obtained against M. incognita development, when Henna plant (Lawsonia inermis) was grown with tomato and when tomato plant were grown in soil containing root exudates of henna plant as compared to tomato plant grown alone (Korayem & Osman, 1992). Rotation of soybean and peanut with jointvetch, castor, hairy indigo, partrig pea, sesame, velvet bean resulted in good control of nematodes and increased yield of peanut and soybean. Sesame and castor are considered active as they produce substances that are nematicidal (Rodriguez-Kabana & CanuUo, 1992). Facknath & Jadunundun (1990) observed the potential of neem and Tagetes plants as nematicides against M incognita infesting tomato. Rohde & Jenkins (1958) showed that Asparagus officinalis did not support population of Paratrichodorus christei for more than 40-50 days. Tomato, good host of the nematode supported only a low populations. When Asparagus was grown in the same plot in which tomato was grown. The juice from Asparagus were found to be toxic to P. christei and to several other species. Aspargic acid, an active nematicidal principle was purified from Asparagus (Schotte & Stom, 1956 and Takagusi era/., 1975). The acid inhibited completely emergence from cysts of G. rostochiensis and Heterodera glycines. Suppressive effect of Crotalaria on Meloidogyne have been known for long time (McBeth & Taylor, 1944). This was due to toxic substance monocrotoline from C. 5pec/flf6//z.s (Fassuliotis & Skucas, 1969). C.juncea was found to suppress plant-parasitic nematodes when used in different cropping sequences (Alam et al., 1976a; Panchaude-Mettei, 1990; Subramaniyan & Selvaraj, 1990). 43 Banana, Crotalanajuncea, Asparagus recemosus, groundnut, sorghum, watermelon, Crotalanaretusa, Aspitialatifolia, Cajatiscajan, Vignaunguiculata, Pepper, cabbages, Alliumfililosum, Arachis hypogaea, Eupatoratum, tomatoes and maize were used as intercrops with each other and with Tagetes spp. for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes (Chicaoka et al., 1982; Atu, 1984; Charles et al., 1987; Mortowo & Rohana, 1987, 1988; Haroon & Abadir, 1989; Dudash & Barker, 1992). Tanda & Atwal, (1989) and Tanda et al. (1989) reported the effect of intercropping of sesame against root-knot nematode in okra. Organic amendment together with antagonistic crops were found to cause reduction in root-knot nematode infesting betelvine, Piper betel L. (Jagdale et al., 1985). Siddiqui & Alam (1988b) reported that T. minuta significantly inhibited the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita on tomato and eggplant and Tylenchorhynchus brassicae on tomato, eggplant, cabbage and cauliflower. Morgan (1925) discovered that potatoes grown with mustard in a plot of infested soil were less heavily attacked by cyst nematode than potato grown alone. This work was later confirmed by Triffitt (1929, 1930) and EUenby (1945a). Interculture of marigold and mustard with acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia) markedly reduced the rate of multiplication of Tylenchorhynchus semipenetrans with no beneficial efifect on host growth (Mani, 1988). 44 Barrens (1940) demonstrated that Meloidogyne larvae freely entered roots of Crotalaria but failed to survive. This might be due to toxic action or main effect is that of non host crop (McBeth & Taylor, 1944), Tagetes, lucerne, sunhemp or coriander when used as intercrops with banana significantly reduced the population of Radopholus similis and Pratylenchus coffeae (Naganathan et al., 1988). Netscher (1985) reported that when vegetables were used in rotation with Panicum maximum for the control of Meloidogyne spp., a little evidence of Meloidogyne were observed in infested field. MuUer (1986) has revealed that growing manure crops in sugarbeet cereal rotation has produced promising results in controlling Heterodera schachtii. Indian lilac (Azadirachta indica A. Juss; syn. Melia azadirachta and M indica) popularly known as neem, has many pesticidal uses. It is widely distributed in both tropical and subtropical regions and is highly medicinal and nematicidal. Alam et al. (1977) reported that when neem seedlings were planted along with seedlings of tomato and eggplant in soil infested with Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae and other plant-parasitic nematodes, there was great reduction in population of all nematodes. As a consequence of suppression in nematode population plant growth of the vegetables improved significantly. Siddiqui & Saxena (1957a,b) reported a high degree of suppression in multiplication of M. incognita and R. reniformis on tomato and eggplant and T. brassicae on cabbage and cauliflower in the presence of neem and related species, Persian lilac {Melia azedarach L). The antagonistic nature is due to the presence of chemicals such as nimbidin. 45 nimbin, azadirachtin, kaemferol, thionemone, nimbidic acid, quercelin, margosan and smcocin (Khan et al., 1974; Siddiqui & Alam, 1988; Siddiqui et al., 1988; Farahate/a/., 1993). Because of the enormous size of the neem and bakain/Chinaberry it is not feasible to cultivate them between field crops. Alam (1990a,b) suggested that seedlings of these plants are grown in field during rainy season untill the onset of rabi season (winter crop) and then ploughed into the soil while field is being prepared for the rabi crops, significant reduction in population is expected. The ensuring crops are additionally benefitted by the manural value of the amendment. Sharma & Khana (1991) in a preliminary report on antagonism in some plants against nematode suggested that Pisum sativum, Trigonella foenum- graecum and Cicer arietinum showed no symptoms of demage and thus can be used intercrops against Macroposthonia xenoplax, Tylenchorhynchus mashhoodi and Pratylenchus /jrumj|collected fi^om soil sample of plum orchard. Yasin & Ismail (1993) observed the effect oiZinnia elegans with tomato against M. incognita,R. reniformis and found significant reduction in root-gall index and nematode population. Alam & Jairajpuri (1990) reported that antagonistic plants served as effective control against plant-parasitic nematodes. Akhtar & Alam (1991) revealed the integrated control of plant-parasitic nematodes on potato with organic amendment, nematicides and mix-cropping 46 with mustard. Intercropping of pea-mustard and radish-mustard were considered suitable to reduce the population oiRotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus spp. and Heterodera schachtii (Haque & Gaur, 1988). Lazzeri et al. (1993) reported that glucosinolates from seeds and plant organs of Crucifers, Q.g.Brassica napus, Lepidium sativum, Raphinus sativum, B. carinata and Sinalpisalba andtheirhydrolysisproducts were tested against Heterodera showed nematicidal activity. Products of enzymatic hydrolysis essentially isothiocyanates were more effective than glucosinolates. Conclusion: The foregoing account highlights the antagonistic nature of many plants against the nematotde pests. However, the effect of these plants on the other soil biodata is still obscure. Therefore, it is desirable to know the better understanding of the crop and its proper utilization. Antagonistic plants provides us basis for finding and developiog new nematicides but special attention is however required for finding systemic action of these natural products and their effect on natural biota. Many of the antagonistic plants are not accepted by the farmers because they are un economical. Therefore, for an ideal antagonistic plant used for nematode control there are several atributes (Alam & Jairajpuri, 1990). They are as follows. 1. It should be compatible to the main crop in mixcultures in respect to its sowing, harvesting, nutritional requirements,etc. It should not be fast growing than the main crops. 47 2. It could be easily fitted in various cropping sequences. 3. It should be highly antagonistic to the target nematode species but should not have adverse effect on beneficial flora and fauna particularly natural enemies of nematodes. 4. It should be able to reduce nematode populations below economic threshold level. 5. It should be highly deleterious to other crop pests (non target). 6. It should also contribute towards farm revenue. It would be much better if the antagonistic plant also have other complimentary uses. PLOUGHING: Ploughing alongwith other cultural practices like crop rotation, green manuring and intercropping, etc. has been found to be an efficient control measure against nematode pests. Lai e/a/. (1983) and Bergeson& Ferris (1986) investigated the effect of various land development practices, burning of vegetables, cover crops, ploughing, leveling, green manuring, summer fallowing and cropping sequences (monocroppng, mixcropping and crop rotation) on the population dynamics of plant-parasitic nematodes and found that all land development practices decreased the number of most of the nematode species Ploughing+levelling followed by summer fallowing and then green manuring eliminated the nematodes conq)letely. Summer pIougMng together with other control measures were found to be most effective against plant-parasitic nematodes, because nematodes are killed by the solar heat (Jain & Bhatti, 1985, 1990). 48 Mathur^ra/. (1987)reportedthat 1-5 deep summer ploughing given at 7- 10 days intervals in May-June reduced the population of cereal cyst nematode, Heierodera avenae and increased the yield of wheat crop which is directly proportional to the number of ploughings. Ploughing together with rotatory cultivation reduced the population of migratory plant-parasitic nematodes (Boag, 1988). Manget etal. (1988)andMiaoe/a/. (1988) reported that deep ploughing either singly or together with nematicides served as effective control against Heterodera avenae. Dunn (1990) reported that ploughing together with crop rotation, winter crop, field choice crop destruction also served as efficient control measure against plant-parasitic nematodes M. incognita, P. brachyurus and Criconemella spp. infesting peanut. It is well known that depth of ploughing has great influence on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes. Jain & Gupta (1990) reported the integrated management of root-knot nematode with deep ploughing (40cm), normal ploughing (20 cm), nursery bed treatment with aldicarb (on tomato) and seed treatment with carbofuran (on okra) gave a maximum yield of tomato and okra and minimum root44iot index and final soil population. Jain & Gupta (1991) revealed that integrated control of M javanica infecting aubergines {Solanum melongena), a maximum reduction in population of nematodes was recorded when infested field was ploughed, covered with transparant polythene sheet and exposed to sun. 49 Siddiqui & Alam (1991) observed that deep ploughing (40 cm deep) brought about significant reduction in nematode population over normal ploughing (20 cm deep) treatment. They also observed the combined effect of neem cake and deep ploughing was more than that of the cake applied in normal ploughed soil. Similar results were observed by Alam (1991c). He used deep ploughing and normal ploughing alone and in combination with nematicide for the control of ectoparasitic nematodes such as, Hoplolaimus indicus, Tylenchorhynchus mirzai infesting wheat, barley, linseed and tomato and found good results. Highest reduction in nematode population was found when deep ploughing was used with nematicide followed by normal ploughing+nematicide and deep ploughing alone. The efficacy of nematicide was enhanced by deep ploughing treatment (Jain & Gupta, 1990, 1991). Integrated control of root-knot nematode (M javanica) through summer ploughing and nematicide revealed non-significant difference both in terms of yield per pot and final root-knot index. However, yield of okra increased in treated pots than in untreated pots (Jain & Gupta, 1993). Mathur et al. (1991) studied the effect of summer ploughing and nitrogenous fertilizers on the cereal cyst nematode and yield of wheat and indicated that deep summer ploughing plus application of fertilizers (80/90 kgN /ha) to wheat crop resulted in increased yield in infested fields. Sharma (1991) discussed the problems with reference to nematode management system. The management options include crop rotation, summer ploughing, organic amendment/manuring, hot water treatment, cleaning of infested seed, grovmg resistant cultivars and biological control. 50 PLAN OF WORK The foregoing survey of literature reveals that great deal of work has been done on the individual use of organic amendments, intercropping and ploughing for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. These methods of control have shown potential for use in integrated nematode management strategies. Therefore, an attempt has been made to evaluate the feasibility of use of these control strategies of nematodes in a compatible manner. The main aim of the proposed study is to develop more effective and economically feasible approach for getting better crop production without causing any harm to the environment and health. The following is the plan of work: I. Integrated control of nematodes with intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing (field study): 1. Effect of intercropping of wheat (Triticum aestivum) with mustard (Brassicajuncea ) and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and carbofuran on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and yield of wheat cv. WC-711 and mustard cv. RH-30 in relation to ploughing. 2. Residual effect of treatments of the preceding experiment (Exp. No.l) on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth and yield of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti in relation to ploughing. 3. Effect of intercropping of wheat {Triticum aestivum) with rocket- salad (Eruca sativa) and, soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and carbofuran on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes, and yield of wheat cv. WC-711 and rocket- salad cv. local in relation to ploughing. 51 4 Residual effect of treatments of the preceding experiment (Exp. No.3) on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and yield of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti in relation to ploughing. 5. Effect of intercropping of barley {Hordeum vulgare) With vaxxsiix A (Brassicajuncea) and, soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and carbofuran on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes and yield of barley cv. RD-2052 and mustard cv. RH-30 in relation to ploughing. 6. Residual effect of treatments of the preceding experiment (Exp.No.5) on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, plant growth and yield of okra^Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti in relation to ploughing. 7. Effect of intercropping of barley (Hordeum vulgare) with rocket- salad (Eruca sativa) and, soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and carbofuran on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes and yield of barley cv. RH-2052 and rocket- salad cv. Local in relation to ploughing. 8. Residual effect of treatments of the preceding experiment (Exp. No.7) on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, plant growth and yield of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti in relation to ploughing. II. Integrated control of nematodes with cropping sequences and ploughing (field study): 9. Effect of cropping sequences and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth of field crops. III. Integrated control of nematodes with plant resistance and organic amendment (pot study): 10. Response of cultivars/accessions of lentil {Lens culinaris) alone and in combination with soil amendment with oil cake of neem to root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil. 52 IV. Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendments indifferent combinations (pot study): 11 Effect of organic amendment with oil cakes andleaxes alone and ill different combinations on the root-knot nematode. Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) c\ Prvani Kranti and lentil {Lens culinaris) cv. K-75. 12. Effect of organic amendment with dry crop residues alone and in combinations on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognito and plant growth of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvaui Kranti and lentil (Lens culinaris) cv. K-75. V. Integrated control of nematodes with seed treatment and soil amendment (pot study): 13. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard on the root- knot development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil. Lens culinaris cv. K-75. 14 Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil. Lens culinaris cv K-75. 15. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. k-75. 16. Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil. Lens culinaris cv. K-75. 17. Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne 53 incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. 18. Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. 19. Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin Bg) solution on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil. Lens culinaris cv. K-75. 20. Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil. Lens culinaris cv. K-75. VI. Integrated control of nematodes with urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils (pot study): 21. Effect of soil amendment with urea coated with 'Nimin' (a triterpene rich product) and plant oils on the root-knot development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil. Lens culinaris cv. K-75. MATERIALS AND METHODS 54 3. MATERIAL AND METHODS 3.1 Maintenance of nematode culture: Nematode culture was maintained in concrete microplots/big pots on susceptible crops, e.g. tomato or eggplant. A single eggmass was collected from an infected root of eggplant with the help of fine foreceps and placed on a small course sieve ( 1 mm pore size) fitted with moist tissue paper and placed in petridish of 10 cm diameter containing distilled water. The 2nd stage juveniles which were hatched out from the eggmass were collected alongwith water from the petridishes after 24 hrs. After withdrawing suspension from the petridishes fresh water was added to the petridishes each time. This process was repeated for 5-7 days. These 2nd stage juveniles (J^) served as the primary or initial inoculum of the root-knot nematode. These were used to inoculate the seedlings of eggplant {Solarium melongena L.) grown in concrete microplots/big pots containing autoclaved soil manure mixture in the ratio of 3:1. Two months after inoculation, these plants were uprooted, washed with water and eggmasses were picked from infected roots and allowed to hatch as before. The process was continuously repeated for raising the culture. Every time eggmasses were collected and allowed to hatch as before and inoculated to eggplant or tomato as before. Species of the nematode was determined by close examination of the perenial pattern of the females. 55 Before inoculation, separate water suspensions of Juveniles (J^) were gently stired for making homogenous distribution of nematodes and then 5 ml of nematode suspension was transferred to counting dish (Southey, 1986). The number of nematodes was counted with the help of steroscopic microscope. An average of five counts were made in each case to determine the density of nematode per unit volume of suspension. Thus this nematode suspension served as primary inoculum for use in different experiments. 3.2 To study the effect of organic amendments on plant- parasitic nematodes and plant growth of okra and lentil in pot. 3.2.1 Nematode control with chopped plant leaves and oil cakes: Sandy loan soil was collected and passed through course sieve (1 mm pore size) to remove stone particles and debris. One kg of soil was filled in 15 cm clay pots. The pots were then autoclaved. Chopped leaves of neem {Azadirachta indica) and castor {Ricinus communis) @ 50g/pot and their oil cakes @ IgN/pot were added separately to each pot. Different combinations of leaf and cake were also included. In these cases the additives were applied at half of the above dose. There were three replicates for each treatment. For ensuring proper decomposition of the additives, water was givento the pots. After a waiting period of one week, seeds of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench.) cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil {Lens culinaris Medik.) cv. K-75 were sown in these pots. After 56 germination thinning was done so that only one seedling remains per pot These seedling were inoculated with 2000 juveniles (J^) of the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita obtained as in 3.1. Untreated- inoculated plants served as control. The experiment was terminated three months after treatments. The plants were taken out and washed carefully. Plant growth parameters, chlorophyll content and root-knot index were recorded as in 3.5. 3.2.2 Nematode control with urea coated with 'Nimin' and plant oils For this study pots were filled as in 3.2.1. Different strengths of the treatments, viz. single strength (SS), double strength (DS) and triple strength (TS) were prepared by mixing 1,2 or 3g of'Nimin' (a neem based product of Godrej Soaps Ltd., Bombay, India, rich in triterpenoids) and oils of neem, castor and rocket-salad with lOOg of urea respectively. The urea coated with different treatments as above was added to each pot @ Ig N/pot. There were three replicates for each treatment including the control. Seeds of okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani kranti and lentil (Lens culinaris) cv. K-75 were sown in these pots as in 3.2.1 and inoculated with 2000 juveniles oiMeloidogyne incognita as obtained in 3.1. The experiment was terminated 3 months after treatment. The plants were carefully taken out and gently washed to remove any adhering 5 7 soil panicles. Plant growth parameters were determined. The root-knot index (RKl) was assessed on a 0-5 scale of Taylor «& Sasser (Sasser et aj . 1984) as in 3.5. Chlorophyll content was determined by the method described by Hiscox & Israelstam (1979) as in 3.5. 3.2.3 Nematode control with dry crop residues: To study the effect of dry crop residues of mustard (Brassicajuncea (L.) Czern et Coss.) rocket-salad {Erucasativa Mill.) and marigold (Tagetes erecra L). the leaves of plants were oven dried at 60°C, ground to powder and then added to 15cm clay pots containing 1 kg autoclaved soil @ 20, 30 and 50 g/kg soil. Untreated pots served as control. There were three replicatesfor each treatment including the control. The pots were regularly watered for ensuring proper decomposition of the additives The seeds of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil {Lens culinans) cv. K-75 were sown in these pots as in 3.2.1. Inoculation was done with 2000 juveniles (J^) of A/, incognita as in 3.1. Three months after treatment experiment was terminated. The plants were taken out and washed carefully to remove any adhering soil particles. Plant growth parameters, chlorophyll content and root-knot index were recorded as in 3.5. 3.2.4 Nematode control with resistance and organic amendment To study the resistance in 12 cultivars/ accessions of lentil in presence of soil amendment with oil cake of neem against root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, 4-5 surface-sterilized seeds of each cultivar/accesson were sown in 1 5 cm clay pots containing 1 kg autoclaved soil-manure mixture and amended with oil cake of neem as in 3.2. Prior to sowing seeds were bacterized with Rhizobium using 5 per cent sucrose as the sticker. There were two sets of plants for each treatment, uninoculated and inoculated. Each treatment was replicated three times The experiment was terminated three months after inoculation and different plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length of shoot and root), root-nodule index were recorded as in 3.5. The root-knot index was also noted according to the secale of Taylor and Sasser (Sasser et al., 1984). Each cultivar/accession were categorised as: highly resistant, moderately resistant, susceptible, moderately susceptible and highly susceptible on the basis of improvement in plant growth and root- nodulation, and reduction in root-gall intensity. 3.3 To study the effect of seed soaking and organic amendments on plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth of okra and lentil. 3.3.1 Seed soaking in extracts of rocket-salad, mustard, rice polish and solution of pvridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin For obtaining rice polish extract, 20g of rice polish was soaked in 250 ml of distilled water. It was then filtered through cheese cloth and then through Whatman filter paper no.l, and termed as standard concentration 'S\ Further dilutions, viz. S/2, S/4 and S/10 were prepared by adding appropriate quantities of water to the standard concentration. 59 Similarly, different concentrations of mustard and rocket-salad extract were prepared by grinding fresh leaves (20g) of mustard and rocket-salad in mortar and pestle with distilled water as described above It was filtered through cheese cloth and then through Whatman filter paper no.l., and termed as standard concentration 'S'. Further concentrations, viz. S/2, S/10,etc. were obtained by adding appropriate quantities of distilled water to the standard concentration. Appropriate quantities of pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) were dissolved in 100 ml of distilled water for obtaining required dilutions, viz. 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.5 percent. The seeds of okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil {Lens culinaris) cv. K-75 were soaked in the above solutions for different durations (6h and 12h) separately. Th ereafter, the seeds were dried and sown in 15 cm clay pots containing 1 kg autoclaved soil-manure mixture. For ensuring combined effect of seed treatment and organic amended, the treated seeds were sown in clay pots amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor as in 3.2.1. There were three replicates for each treatment. After germination, thinning was done so that one seedling remained per pot. These seedlings were inoculated with 2000 juveniles (J^) of A/, incognita as in 3.1. 60 The experiment was terminated three months after treatment. The plants were carefully uprooted, washed gently with waterto remove adhering soil particles. Plant growth parameters, root-knot index, root- nodule index and chlorophyll content were determined as in 3.5. 3.5 Recording of data in pot experiments: The experiments were terminated three months after sowing. The recording of data were done as under. 3.5.1 Plant weight and length: Plants were uprooted, washed gently with running water. Excess amount of water was removed by putting the roots and shoots between blotting sheets. The length (cm), weight (g) of shoots and roots were taken separately. For recording dry weight, the shoots and roots were dried in an oven running at 68°C for 48h. 3.5.2 Nematode population: Final population of the nematodes were counted by the procedure given in 3.1 by using Cobb's sieving and decanting method followed by modified Baermann's funnel technique (Southey, 1986). The nematodes were counted by using counting dish (Doncaster, 1962) and the total population per unit volume determined. 61 3.5.3 Root-knot index: Root-knot index for assessing infestation caused by root-knot nematode was recorded following the rating scale of Taylor & Sasser (Sasser ef a/., 1984). Root-knot Index Number of galls or (RKI) egg masses per plant 0 0 1 1-2 2 3-10 3 11-30 4 31-100 5 >100 3.5.4 Root-nodule index: Root- nodule index was also assessed according to the following rating scale: 0=no nodules, 1 = 1-10 nodules, 2=11-30 nodules, 3 = 31-50 nodules, 4=51-100 nodules and 5= >100 nodules per root system. 3.5.5 Chlorophyll: Chlorophyll content was calculated by the method described by Hiscox & Israelstam (1979). One hundred milligram of leaf pieces were placed in 62 vial containing 7 ml DMSO (Dimelhyl sulphoxidc) and ihc chlorophyll was extracted into the fluid at 65"C by incubating it for 60 minutes. The extract was transferred to a graduated tube made up to 10 ml with DMSO (Dtmethyl sulphoxide) and assayed immediately. A sample of 3.0 ml chlorophyll extract was transferred in covette and the OD values at 645 and 663 were calculated in spectronic - 100ml spectophotometer against DMSO blank. V Chi a = [12.7 (D 663]-2.69 (D 643)] x lOOOxW V Chlb= [22.9(D645)]-[4.68(D663)] x —- lOOOxW whereas V = Volume of the leaf extract in ml. W = Fresh wt. of the sample. 3.5.6 Statistical analysis: Statistical analysis of the data for critical difference (CD.) at P=0.05 and P=0.01 was done as per procedure described by Pansey & Sukhatme (1978). 3.6 Integrated control of plant-parasitic nematodes with organic amendment/nematicide, ploughing and intercropping (Field study). 63 3.6.1 To study the combined effect of organic amendments/ nematicide, ploughing and intercropping on plant-parasitic nematodes in field: The test crops were grown inthe following combination: Expt.l: Wheat (Tnticum aestivum L.) with Mustard {Brassicajuncea {L) Czern.fet Coss). Expt.2: Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) with rocket-salad {(Eruca saliva L). Expt.3: Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) with Mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. et Coss). Expt.4: Barley (//orc/ewm vw/ga/-^ L.) with rocket-salad (Eruco sativa{L.). A field was selected harbouring moderate to high populations of plant-parasitic nematodes, viz. root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood, lance nematode, Hoplolaimus indicus Sher, spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus indicus Siddiqi, filiform nematode, Tylenchus filiformis Butschli, stunt nematode. Tylenchorhynchus brassicae Siddiqi, reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford & Oliveira. The field was divided into two parts, one part received normal ploughing (20cm deep) and other part deep ploughing (40cm deep). These parts were then divided into beds of 3mx3m size with a buffer zone of one meter left between the beds. Different beds received the following treatments which were replicated three times and arranged in random manner (Pansey & Sukhatme, 1978). 64 (i) Untreated (control) (ii) Inorganic fertilizers, urea @ 1 10 kg N/ha, superphosphate @ 55 kg P/ha and murate of potash @ 55 kg K/ha. (iii) Nematicide (carbofuran 3%) @ 3 kg a.i./ha. (iv) Chopped leaves of castor @ 1 10 kg N/ha. (v) Chopped leaves of neem @ 110 kg N/ha (vi) Oil cake of castor @ 110 kg N/ha. (\ii) Oil cake of neem @ 110 kg N/ha. After the application of different materials, watering was done for ensuring proper decomposition of the additives. After waiting period of 10 days, seeds of wheat and barley were sown in each bed. For exp. 1,2.3 and ^he seeds of mustard and rocket-salad were also sown in alternate rows in between the rows of wheat and barley. For control, the seeds of wheat, barley, mustard and rocket-salad were sown individually in the beds. Necessary weeding and watering were done when required. The experiments were terminated three months after sowing when the crops attains maturity. The final recording of the data with respect to yield of grain, pods and plant growth and nematode population were assessed as in 3.8. 3.6.2 Residua] effect of different treatments: After termination in all the above experiment of 3.6.1the different beds were maintained as such and were thoroughly prepared for the next 65 growing season. Seeds of okra {Abelmoschus csculcntus Moench) c\ Prvani Kranti were sown without giving any treatment to the beds as given in preceding experiment. For ensuring proper growth of the crop inorganic fertilisers were added to soil. Final data including nematode population and plant growth were determined as in 3.8. Nematode populations were assessed prior to sowing and at the time of termination of the experiments. 3.7 To study the effect of cropping sequences and ploughing in field. The selected field harbouring high population of plant-parasitic nematodes was divided into two parts, one part received normal ploughing (20 cm deep) and other part received deep ploughing (40 cm deep), and then further divided into 3mx3m beds as in 3.6. Crops were grown in different beds consecutively for three growing seasons as per the following schedule: Sequence Winter/Rabi Summer/Kharif Winter/Rabi No. 1. Wheat cv. WC-711 Chilli cv. P-5 Fallow 2. Mustard cv. RD-2052 Mung cv. Local Tomato cv. PED 3. Lentil cv. K-75 Cowpea cv. Local Mung cv. Local 4. Chickpea cv. Iwrodi Okra cv. Prvani Kranti Chilli cv. P-5 5. Tomato cv. PED Fallow Okra cv. Prvani Kranti 66 Nematode populations were assessed prior to sowing and after termination of experiment in each growing season by using Cobb's sieving and decanting method followed by Baermann's funnel technique (Southey, 1986). The nematodes were counted by using counting dish (Doncaster, 1962) and final populations per unit volume were determined as in 3.8. Plant growth parameters/yield of the crops were also determined as in 3.8. 3.8 Recording of data in the field experiments: Three months after sowing, the experiments were terminated and recording of the data was done as under: 3.8.1 Plant growth and yield: Plants were uprooted, washed with water, then plant growth (weight and length of plants) were recorded. In case of wheat, barley mustard and rocket-salad total yield of the seeds per bed was determined and then total yield per hactare was calculated. 3.8.2 Nematode population: The populations of nematodes were recorded prior to sowing and after the termination of experiment. The composite soil samples were 67 taken at the time of harvest of crop from each bed. These were thoroughh mixed and 200g sub-sample was processed by using Cobb's sieving and decanting method followed by Baermann's funnel technique (Southey. 1986). The nematodes were counted by using counting dish (Doncaster. 1962) with the help of steroscopic microscope. •^ESTUITS 68 4. RESULTS 4.1 Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendments/nematicide, intercropping and ploughing (field study). 4.1.1.1 Effect of intercropping of wheat with mustard, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes and crop yield. Growing of mustard as mix-crop with vegetables is an old practice used by Indian farmers.Similarly, organic amendments have been used by farmers since the advent of agriculture. The present study was undertaken to explore scientifically the combined effects of intercropping ofmustard, (Brassicajuncea) cv. RH-30 with wheat (Triticum aestivum) cv WC-711 in relation to organic amendment with oil cakes and Jjeaves of neem {Azadirachta indica) and castor (Ricinus communis)! carbofuran (2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl methyl carbamate) and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. Nematode population: Population of all the plant-parasitic nematodes present in the field, viz. Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus brassicae, Hoplolaimus indicus, Helicotylenchus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis increased in untreated wheat beds (1719/200 g soil) in normal ploughed fields (Table 1, Fig. 1), whereas in deep ploughed field 69 sz c « > •> w o ^ r> ro «» ^ »- »- o lO o> n a> Tt <0 '.- in T" in " Norrnel ploughing -Initial population •H o to Deep Piougning - Initial population Treatment Ea Wheat CZIl WhBat*Mu8t«r(J ^Mustard U-UntfBStsA A-lnorg.fert. 6-Neem cake O-Castof cate, D-Neom Loaf, E-Osstor leaf. F-Oarbofiran Fig. 1 combined effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH 30 with wheat cv- WC-711, soil treatment with org anic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes (Ref.-Table 1) nematode population showed some decline in the untreated control (1363/200 g soil). Mustard was found to be inhibitory to the multiplication of nematodes when grown alone or alongwith wheat in both normal and deep ploughed fields. However, number of nematodes reduced greatly when mustard was grown singly as compared to the initial population (1408). Application of oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor/carbofuran led to a significant decline in nematode population in both normal and deep ploughed fields, but deep ploughing was more effective than normal ploughing. Among all the treatments carbofuran was found to be most effective in reducing the nematode population followed by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf and inorganic fertilizer (Table 1, Fig. 1). In normal ploughed field the total population of nematodes in wheat in different treatments ranged between 1021-1120/200 g soil as compared to 1719 and 1368 nematodes in untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas due to deep ploughing the total nematode population in all the above treatments ranged between 775-826/200 g soil compared to 1363 in untreated and 962 in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 1, Fig. 1). Further stress on nematode population was noted when wheat was grown alongwith mustard. In this case in normal ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 755-900/200g soil compared to 1400 in untreated beds and 1107 in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the 72 range of nematode population in different treatments was 6l9-679/200g soil compared to 1248 in untreated beds and 832 in beds treated with inorganic fertilizer (Table 1, Fig. 1). The nematode population levels in both normal and deep ploughed fields were found to be lowest when mustard was grown singly. The range of nematode population due to normal ploughing in different treatments was 704-823/200 g soil compared to 1328 in untreated beds and 1014 in beds treated with inorganic fertilizer, whereas in deep ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 545-594/200 g soil compared to 1146 in untreated beds and 738 in beds treated with inorganic fertilizer (Table 1, Fig. 1). Thus, it is abundantly clear from the foregoing results that integration of ploughing, organic amendment and intercropping was highly beneficial in reducing the nematode population. Yield As a consequence of reduction in the population of nematodes there was an increase in the yield of wheat and mustard when grown alone or in combination (Table 2, Fig. 2-3). Due to different treatments with organic amendments/nematicide the yield of wheat and mustard improved greatly. However, deep ploughing caused more improvement in yield than normal ploughing. In normal ploughed field neem cake (74.2%) brought about greatest increase in the yield of wheat, followed by castor cake (42.8%), neem leaf 73 Table 2. Combined effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30withwheatcv.WC-71, organic amendment/ nematicide and ploughing on the crop yield in field. Crop Treatment Crop yield in normal and deap* plouighe d beds(q/ha) Wheat Increase Mustard Increase over over control (%) control (%) Wheat Untreated 3.5(06.9V Inorg.fert 4.3(09.0) 22.8(30.4) Neemcake 6.1(12.6) 74.2(82.6) Castor cake 5.0(11.0) 42.8(59.4) Neemleaf 4.8(10.5) 37.1(52.1) Castor leaf 4.6(10.0) 31.4(44.9) Carbofuran 4.5(09.6) 28.5(39.1) C.D.(P=0.05) 0.65(0.54) CD, (P=0.01) 0.91(0.81) Wheat+ Untreated 3.4(06.6) 5.0(07.0) mustard Inorg.fert. 4.0(08.4) 17.6(27.2) 5.7(08.3) 14.0(18.5) Neem cake 5.8(11.5) 70.5(74.2) 7.4(12.4) 48.0(77.1) Castor cake 4.7(10.5) 38.2(59.0) 6.5(11.2) 30.0(60.0) Neemleaf 4.5(09.9) 32.3(50.0) 6.2(10.4) 24.0(48.5) Castor leaf 4.3(09.5) 26.4(43.9) 6.0(10.0) 20.0(42.8) Carbofuran 4.2(09.0) 23.5(36.6) 5.9(09.4) 18.0(34.2) CD (P=0.05) CD. (P=0.01) Mustard Untreated 5.4(7.5) Inorg.fert. 6.3(9.3) 16.6(24.0) Neemcake 8.3(13.5) 53.7(80.0) Castor cake 8.0(12.2) 48.1(62.6) Neemleaf 7.2(11.2) 333(49.3) Castor leaf 6.9(10.8) 27.7(44.0) Carbofuran 6.6(10.2) 22.2(36.0) CD. (P=0.05) 0.62(0.75) CD. (P=0.01) 0.88(1.06) Each value is mean of three replicates * In parentheses are given the figures for deep ploughed beds. 74 Normel Plougnlng In s: f| (X 4 m ^ m fl 1^3 I 0) s: r 0 ^: 1 - ^ T3 ^ ^ ^ •H 0 K s D E F Deep Ploughing 14-rt 12 i. £ 10- 14 \ CT m m 6- m E3 Wheat ED Wheat with mustera U-UntnBBtBd.AHnons.fert..B-NBem CBI Normei Ploughing 10 8- a i i ^ 6- \\ ^ u (0 +) (A 3a 0 it^L Deep Ploughing 14 a. ^ 12 i. a. ^ 10 ^ §^ -0 6 ^i M 6- m (0 s g 4- o rH 0) •H ABODE Treatment Mustaro l__lMustard witn wheat U-UntrsBfea.A-tnorg.fert.. B-Nesm cote, C-0«stor oaks.D-Neem leaf.E-Oaator leaf. F-Oarbofur«n Fig. 3 Combined effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with wheat cv. WC-711, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of mustard (Ref.-Table 2). 76 (37.1 %). castor leaf (3 1.4%), carbofuran (28.5%) and inorganic fertilizer (22.8%) The corresponding figures for increase in the yield due to deep ploughing in the above treatments were 30.4%, 39.1%, 44.9%, 52.1%. 59.4% and 82.6% respectively (Table 2). Similar results were also found when mustard was grown singly The corresponding figures for increase in yield due to normal ploughing in the above treatments were 16.6%, 22.2%, 27.7%. 33.3%, 48.1% and 53.7% respectively. The corresponding figures for increase in yield due to deep ploughing in the above treatments were 24.0%, 36.0%, 44.0°o, 49.3%, 62.6% and 80.0% respectively (Table 2). When mustard was grown alongwith wheat there was also an increase in the yield of wheat and mustard but the yield of both the crops were lower than the yield of wheat and mustard grown alone. In case of normal ploughing the increase in the yield of wheat in different treatments were 17.6%, 23.5%, 26.4%, 32.3%, 38.2% and 70.5% respectively, whereas in deep ploughed field the corresponding figures for increase in yield of wheat in different treatments were 27.2%, 36.6%, 43.9%. 50.0%,59.0% and 74.2% respectively. Likewise, increase in yield of mustard in above treatments due to normal ploughing were 14.0%, 18.0%, 20.0%, 24.0%, 30.0% and 48.0% respectively whereas, in deep ploughed field the corresponding figures for increase In yield of mustard in above treatments were 18.5%, 34.2%, 42.8%, 60.0% and 77.1% respectively (Table 2). 77 Thus,It is clear from the above results that ploughing, organic amendmeut/nematicide and intercropping in integration broughtabout significant increase in the yield of wheat and mustard. 4.1.1.2 Residual effect of intercropping of wheat with mustard, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, plant growth and yield of okra. In this experiment residual effect of different treatments of the preceding experiment (4.1.1.1) was evaluated in the following season when okra was grown in different beds without repeating the treatments Nematode population: The final population of the plant-parasitic nematodes in the present experiment growing okra increased over the final population of the nematodes of the preceding crop. However, the rate of increase was significantly less in beds receiving different treatments (organic amendment/nematicde) in the preceding season. Preceding treatment with neem cake remained more efficacious against plant-parasitic nematodes during the subsequent okra crop followed h\ castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. The deep ploughing treatment caused more reduction in nematode population irrespective of the treatments of the preceding crop (Table 3, Fig. 4). In case of normal ploughing the final population of nematodes on okra ranged between 1856-2314/200 g soil in beds treated with organic '*^ -Aec No. ' -^\ 3 (0 r>4 r> lo w r> u 0 o n ^ ^ M o CM © N. V * lO * a> n to n le ^ o a> ^ a> 10 o> w> .c o •0 1^ »- CM « < lO (o (0 a> a> o e T- Ol O ^ CM CM ^- ^ ^ ^ ^r* T" ^ o O ^F" O O O ^- T* ^ o »- ^ ^ Q. U) ^» • ^ K. V ^ le lo n (O o e a> ^ o> M <0 lO CM CM ^ ^ O 0) o ^ O »- CM to ^ lO o> p> n lo «D K «e ^ CM M « n ^ lO "to oj o ^ CM CM CM CM (M N « M CM CM CM CM CM ^ CM CM CM CM CM CM c ^ CM ^ in r-. o> OO cTcM ^TT^CO'CO' to CD 0) r^ o r^ (D n a> a> U) lo o> 00 CO CM r« lO CM CM O CO CO 00 (0 «> o 10 a> «> e CD (D CO 1^ iO 0> Ok CO to «0 K (0 w 3 r^ n ^ n n n ^ h^ CO O CO CO CO CO C^O CO CO CO CO CO a K o o* oT oT ^ ?r o* uT cj> rXcTo o'cj) ST to fO CO 'V CO CM r^ a. T- CO in r^ 00 o CM flo CM CO •* in in CD h- o t- CM CO •*•• V OO •<)••*•* TT in in 1^ •*•*'«••*'«• •v r-~• * •V •V •* •V -* aj E o> C "O O ^ CM e r~ ^ e o F^ 90 O) CO CO O) CO lo o> CO CO a> CO CM o> K « w a» o in 0> — O CO «) .^ 3 O TJ (0 t> « Q. m « |2 s •- I. 79 Normel ploughing 3500 •H o o 3000 o CN 2600- c 0 •H 2000 •p (0 (H 1600 3 CU 0 ex 1000- •0o) o +> 500- m e Z •H 0 (0 Deep ploughing a> 3600-iT o o CM c o •H •P 10 iH 9 0 a; -o o +j (0 E 0) z B C D E Treatment ISSwhsat CZ2 Whear-tMustsrd S0 Mustard UHJntreated.A-Neem oakE.B-Castor oaks, G-NBBm ieaf.D-Costor loaf.E-Oarbofuran FHnorg.tert. Fig. 4 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with wheat cv. WC-7H, soil treatment with organic eunendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes (Ref.-Table 3). 80 amendmenls/ nematicide for the preceding wheat crop as compared to 3243 111 the untreated beds, whereas in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population was between 1604-1896/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding wheat crop as compared to 3088 in the untreated beds (Table 3, Fig. 4). Similar trend was also observed in beds where mustard was grown singly or alongwith wheat in the preceding season. In case of normal ploughing the nematode population on okra ranged from 1746-2115/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding mix-crops (wheat+mustard) compared to 3148 in untreated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the nematode population ranged from 1464-1705/200 g in beds treated with organic amendments/nematicide for the preceding crop as compared to 2908 in the untreated beds (Table 3, Fig. 4). Likewise,in beds where mustard was grown in the preceding season the range of nematode population on okra in normal ploughed field ranged between 1647 - 1974/200gsoil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide in the preceding season as compared to 3071 in untreated beds, whereas in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population was 1383-1603/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide in the preceding season compared to 2794 in untreated beds (Table 3, Fig. 4). 8] Plant growth The ploughing and other treatments of the preceding crops were also found to be highly beneficial in improving the plant growth (weight and length) of okra cv. Prvani kranti. The greatest improvement in plant growth was observed in okra plants grown in beds having mustard in the preceding season followed by beds having mix-crops of mustard+wheat and wheat in the preceding season. Amongst the organic amendments, neem cake treatment of the preceding season caused greatest improvement in plant growth of okra in the subsequent season followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer in that order (Table 4, Fig.5). Increase in plant weight of okra in beds having wheat as preceding crop ranged from 57.2% in neem cake treated beds to 6.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field. For deep ploughed field it ranged from 58.8% in neem cake treated beds to 8.0% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds(Table 4). Similarly, increase in plant weight of okra in beds having wheat+mustard as preceding crop ranged between 67.6% in neem cake treated beds to 11.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing^ whereas in deep ploughed field the increase in plant weight was from 68.8% in neem cake treated beds to 12.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds. Likewise, theincrease in plant weight of okra in beds having mustard alone as preceding crop ranged from 68.3% in neem cake treated beds to 18.3% in inorganic fertilizer 82 c •^ C>( ««) 00 lO h- •»- CM »- CM r~- CO p o r-; ir> CM o ^ w «i «> W h- N; «? r--' ^ r>-' d d o to ^ ri d m u •O * to M 00 h- 0> 0> O O 00 ^ ^ 't' »>- « »^ p o m CM to 00 ^ c? o ^^ 00 OO' CM co' N.' h-' CM o> d CM' CO u> 01 I CO CO CO CM ^- »- CO CO "• CO CM »- lO n CM N T- O 35" ?r FT o5^ 25" PT 8 o ?T (T ST S" ?T (JT r- Qj cN •; 0> "» n w »- * 00 •n CO CM CO r» CM T- o o o> 00 CO o> O ** ^* ^" •- O O • £ 8-88881. co' id K: 25lo " oS T aB>T 0 S0 ^t B- To ro^ O 35) " CM CO S" (T ro"iT T 25" 35" r- 't 'J^ to CO to CN t^ o t^ to d CO •>- f~- CM p o6 uj CO "^ •^ 50 8 0 5 S O a R - O (5 O o o S;=2888o fe^^o888 0) O) T ^ ^ o"«"S"o' p o> to p p> ^ CO p CM CD O CO CD p '2 u) o> t- (o ._ 5- _^ ^ CO CO CO CO 00 10 CO P P P p p '<-: p '- ^ 00 0 CM •»- '» CM CO d (M <^ K3 00 Cvi to' d d d d ^ d id l>> CO CM Normal Ploughing 140 ffi 120 i (0 100 u o 4 60 4-1 o 60- 11 tr> 40 •H c 20 (0 A B Deep Ploughing "••^ 140-1- cr fl 120- ^u 0 100- 4-4 0 80- 4-> 60- •H a; » 40- •p c 20- to r-i 04 0-" BCD Treatment E3 Wheat cm Wheat*Mu8tard ES Mustard U-Untr8BtBd,A-N88m oskB.B-Oastor caKs G-Nsem Isaf.O-OastDr laaf.E-Oarbofuran F-lnorg.tert. Fig. 5 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with wheat cv. WC—711, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the plant weight of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 4). 84 treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep ploughing the increase in plant weight of okra ranged from 69.1% in neem cake treated beds to 19.3% in inorganic fertilizer beds (Table 4). Yield There was also improvement in the pod yield of okra due to ploughing and different treatments of the preceding crops (Table 4, Fig. 6). The greatest improvement was observed in beds treated with neem cake in the precedingseason followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, inorganic fertilizer and carbofuran. The deep ploughing was more effective than normal ploughing. The yield of okra was high in beds having mustard in the preceding season followed by wheat+mustard and wheat in that order (Table 4, Fig.6). The pod yield of okra in the beds having wheat in the preceding season ranged from 50.0% in neem cake treated beds to 16.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas the yield of okra ranged from 51.1% in neem cake treated beds to 17.7% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in deep ploughed field (Table 4). Similar trend was also found in beds treated with mustard alone and wheat+mustard in the preceding season. The pod yield of okra in the beds growing wheat+mustard in the preceding season ranged from 54.0% in neem cake treated beds to 19.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds 8S Normal Ploughing 120 100 (8 U M O O fH 0) •H >i -o 0 Deep Ploughing 120-tr cr 100- -i (0 80- fl -g u 0 U-l 60-1 Q' sf Hi . 40- (U •H >i 20- I i o 04 .4J i .ay ^tl-t U A B C D E F Treatment Cni Wheat IZZl Wheat*Mustard JS Mustard U-Untreated,A-Neem oake.B-Costor cahs O-Neem ieaf.D-Oastor leaf.E-Carbofuran FHnorB.tart. Fig. 6 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with wheat cv. WC-711, soil treatment with organic cunendment/nematicide and ploughing on the pod yield of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 4). 8 6 in case of normal ploughing and for deep ploughed field the pod yield of okra ranged from 57.1% in neem cake treated beds to 20.6°o in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 4). Similarly, the pod yield of okra in the beds growing mustard alone in the preceding season ranged from 59.3% in neem cake treated beds to 28.1% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing, whereas pod yield of okra ranged from 60.0% in neem cake treated beds to 30.0% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in deep ploughed field (Table 4). 4.1.2.1 Effect of intercropping of barley with mustard, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes and crop yield. As has been mentioned earlier the intercropping of mustard with vegetables and cereals is an age old practice used by Indian farmers. Similarly, addition of organic matter into soil has been practised since remote past. Therefore, to explore the scientific basis of these practices in an integrated approach of nematode control, the present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem {Azadirachta indica) and castor {Ricinus communis) carbofuran (2,3-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-7-benzofuranyl methyl carbamate), intercropping of mustard {Brassica juncea) cv. RH-30 with barley {Hordeum vulgare) cv. RD-2052 and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. 87 Nematode population: On barley cv. RD-2052 the population of all the plant-parasitic nematodes increased in the untreated beds with normal ploughing (1436/ 200 g soil), whereas there was decline in the population of nematodes in deep ploughed field in the untreated beds (1227/200g soil). A significant reduction in the population of nematodes was also found when mustard was grown alone or alongwith barley over the initial population (Table 5, Fig 7). Combined effect of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor/carbofuran, inorganic fertilizer and ploughing led to a significant decline in nematode population. Among all the treatments carbofuran caused highest decrease in nematode population followed by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer Deep ploughing proved to be more effective than normal ploughing (Table 5, Fig. 7). In case of normal ploughing the total population of nematodes on barley in different treatments ranged between 839-940/200g soil as compared to 1436 in the untreated beds and 1162 nematodes in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the total number of nematodes in different treatments ranged between 665-70 l/200g soil as compared to 1227 and 863 nematodes in the untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively (Table 5, Fig. 7). 3 c > O o ^ c (O 0> O 0> V (0 K »- 0 ^ o> o> <0 ^^ 10 ^ in n l/> •— 0> N 0> 10 <0 U) CM •1-2 £ 0 0 CM W N r> CM e a> ^ 10 e CO 10 O <• * CO W lO CO •0 •H o Normal piougning 2000 CO CT> O o 1500 c Initial population 0 •H •P (0 iH 1000- 3 O a -o 500- o •p (0 E zQ ; •H o CO Deep ploughing 01 o o Initial population c 0 •H •P m iH s ex 0 a a; 0 •p (0 E 0) BCD Treatment EI3 Wheot El WhB«t*flOCkBt-9BlBd ^S Rocl U-Unt™alBd,AHncirQ.fBrt..B-N8om cal Further decline in nematode population was noted when barley was grown alongwith mustard in alternate rows. In normal ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 779-865/ 200g soil compared to 1361 and 1076 in untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively, whereas in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 596-64 1/200 g soil compared to 1191 and 801 in untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively (Table 5, Fig. 7). The nematode population was found to be least when mustard was grown alone. In case of normal ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 704-823/200g soil compared to 1328 and 1014 nematodes in untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively, whereas in case of deep ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 545-595/200g soil compared to 1146 and 738 nematodes in untreated and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively. Thus, the results clearly indicate that integration of ploughing, organic amendments and intercropping was highly beneficial in reducing the nematode population (Table 5, Fig. 7). Yield: As a consequence of reduction in the population of nematodes the yield of barley and mustard increased greatly due to combined application of organic amendments/nematicide, intercropping and ploughing (Table 91 6. Fig. 8-9). The deep ploughing was more efficacious than normal ploughing. In case of normal ploughing neem cake proved to be most effective in increasing the yield of barley (55.5%) followed by castor cake (38.0%), neem leaf(28.5%), castor leaf (20.6%). carbofuran (I 7.4%) and inorganic fertilizer (15.8%). Further increase in yeild was found in deep ploughing treatment. In this case neem cake (58.0%) was again found to be most effective in increasing the yield of barley followed by castor cake (50.6%), neem leaf (44.0%), castor leaf (40.0%), carbofuran (33 3%) and inorganic fertilizer (24.0%) respectively (Table 6). Similar results were also obtained in case of mustard grown alone where corresponding figures for increase in yield in above treatments due to normal ploughing were 16.6%, 22.2%, 27.7%, 33.3%. 48.1% and 53.7% respectively and increase in yield of mustard in different treatments in case of deep ploughing were 24.0%, 36.0%, 44.0%, 49.3°o. 62.6% and 80.0% respectively (Table 6). Similarly, when mustard was grown intermixed with barley there was a similar increase in the yield of both the test crops, viz. mustard and braley, but the yield was comparatively less than when these crops were grown singly. In case of normal ploughing the corresponding figures for increase in yield of barley in different treatments were 10.0, 13.3, 16.6. 21.6, 3 1.6 and 50.0% respectively, whereas in deep ploughed field the corresponding figures for increase in yield of barley in the abo\e treatments were 17.4, 24.2, 31.4, 37.1,42.8 and 51.4% respectively. 92 Table 6 Combined effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with barley cv.RD-2052, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the crop yield in field. Crop Treatment Crop yield in normal and deap' ploughed bed(q/ha) Barley Increase Mustard Increase over over control (%) control (%) Barley Untreated 6.3(07.5)* Inorg.fert 7.3(09.3) 15.8(24.0) Neemcake 9.8(11.9) 55.5(58.0) Castor cake 8.7(11.3) 38.0(50.6) Neemleaf 8.1(10.8) 28.5(44.0) Castor leaf 76(10.5) 20.6(40.0) Cartjofuran 7.4(10.0) 17.4(33.3) CD. (P=0.05) 0.45(0.57) C.D.(P=0.01) 0.63(0.81) Bar1ey+ Untreated 6.0(7.3) 5.3(07.3) mustard Inorg.fert. 6.6(8.2) 10.0(17.4) 6.0(09.0) 13.2(23.2) Neemcake 9.0(10.6) 50.0(51.4) 8.0(11.9) 50.9(63.0) Castor cake 7.9(10.0) 31.6(42.8) 7.3(11.2) 37.7(53.4) Neemleaf 7.3(09.6) 21.6(37.1) 6.9(10.7) 30.2(46.5) Castor leaf 7.0(09.2) 16.6(31.4) 6.6(10.3) 24.2(41.0) Carbofuran 6.8(08.7) 13.3(24.2) 6.2(09.5) 16.9(30.1) C.D.(P=0.05) 0.55(0.61) 0.82(1.23) CD. (P=0.01) 0.77(0.86) 1.16(1.72) Mustard Untreated 5.4(07.5) Inorg.fert. 6.3(09.3) 16.6(24.0) Neemcake 8.3(13.5) 53.7(80.0) Castor cake 8.0(12.2) 48.1(62.6) Neemleaf 7.2(11.2) 33.3(49.3) Castor leaf 6.9(10.8) 27.7(44.0) Carbofuran 6.6(10.2) 22.2(36.0) CD. (P=0.05]1 0.62(0.75) C.D.(P=0,01]1 0.88(1.06) Each value is mean of three replicates * In parentheses are given the figures for deep ploughed beds. 93 Normal Ploughing JC \ w 10- 0) u O •H U A B C D E F Deep Ploughing 14 12 10- 1^i. ^ ^ i. u 8- I- $ m ^ o (H •H 5H I u K i A B C D E Treatment E3 Barley I J Barley with Mustard U-UntrGstod.AHnorBfert..B-Ne8m caks O-Oastor cokB.D-Neem Isaf.E-Cmtor leaf. F-C«rbofuran Fig. 8 Combined effect of interculture of mustard cv.RH-30 with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic cunendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of barley (Ref.-Table 6). 94 Normal Ploughing 0-i1 ^ ~~~~ -0 u (0 4-1 u D e m • fllllllllll o •H 0) •H .IlillJIlllJ U A B C D E F Deep Ploughing 14 T 12 i. B. T3 10' m m nj 4J (A D g 6- o ^ t iH 2- •H 5H Ibt. k k U A B C D E F Treatment KWN Mustard I. :l Mustard witn Dariey UHJntnB8lBd.AHnora.fert..B-Neem cake, O-Gastor caks.D-Neem leaf.E-Gastor leaf, F-Crbofur»n Fig. 9 Combined effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of mustard (Ref.-Table 6). 95 Likewise, corresponding figures for increase in yield of must ard in aho\ e treatments due to normal ploughing were 13.2, 16.9, 24.2, 30.2, 37.7 and 50 9°o respectively, whereas in deep ploughed field the increase in yield of mustard in different treatments were 23.2%, 30.1, 41.0, 40.5, 53.4 and 63.0% respectively (Table 6). Thus, it is clear from the above results that combined application of ploughing, organic amendment/nematicide and intercropping brought about significant increase in the yield of barley and mustard. 4.1.2.2 Residual effect of intercropping of barley with mustard, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes on plant growth and yield of okra. The experiment was conducted on the same line as in 4.1.2.1. The residual effect of different treatments of 4.1.2.1, viz. intercropping of barley with mustard, soil amendment and ploughing were evaluated in the following season when okra was grown in the same beds without giving any treatment. Nematode population: There was a significant increase in the final nematode population in the present experiment growing okra over the final population of the nematodes of preceding crop. However, rate of increase in the population of nematodes was comparatively less in beds treated with organic 96 anienmdnient/nematicide in the preceding season as compared to untreated control Neem cake treatment of the preceding season remained most efficacious against plant-parasitic nematodes in the subsequent okra crop followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofurau and inorganic fertilizer in that order. The deep ploughing (40 cm) treatment brought about more reduction in nematode population than normal ploughing irrespective of the treatments of the preceding crop (Table 7. Fig. 10). In case of normal ploughing the nematode population on okra ranged between 1911-2342/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding barley crop as compared to 3318 nematodes in the untreated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the range of nematode population was between 1644-1934/200g soil in beds treated with organic amendments/nematicide for the preceding barley crop compared to 3128 in untreated beds (Table 7, Fig. 10). Similarly, the range of nematode population in case of normal ploughing on okra was between 1814-2142/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendments/ nematicide for the preceding mix-crops (barley-^mustard) compared to 3204 nematodes in untreated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the range of nematode population was between 1496-1736/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendments/nematicide 9 7 H .y » o 10 T3 £ « ro lO CM ^ CO lO Normal plougriing 3600 0 cn 3000 Di o 2500- o CM \ 2000 C o •H -600 +J (0 r-i 1000- a3 0 a, 500 o T3 0 U A B C D E •p It s Z •H 0 Deep ploughing CO 3500 cr o 3000 o CM C 260C o •H 2000 4J IB iH 1500 aS o a 1000 -o o 500 •p •0 E 0) BCD 2 Treatment [X33 Barley (IZD Barleytl^ustan] ^Mustard U-UntrBated.A-Nsem oaks, B-Castor oaks, C-Neem leaf.O-Gastor leaf.E-Oarbofuran. F-lnorg fert. Fig. 10 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 wit barley cv.RD-2052, soil treatment with organic cunendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes (Ref.-Table 7). 99 for the preceding mix-crops compared to 2966 in untreated control (Table 7, Fig. 10). Similar trend was also observed in beds where mustard was grown singly in the preceding season. The range of nematode population on okra in normal ploughed field ranged between 1647-1974/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding mustard crop compared to 3071 in untreated control, whereas in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population was 1383-1603/200g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding mustard crop compared to 2794 in untreated control (Table 7, Fig. 10). Plant growth: The ploughing and different treatments of the preceding crop also remained beneficial in improving the plant growth (fresh weight and length of shoot and root) of okra cv. Prvani Kranti in the following season. However, maximum plant growth was found in okra grown in beds having mustard in the preceding season followed by barley+mustard and barley alone in the preceding season respectively (Table 8, Fig. 11). Application of neem cake in the preceding season gave greatest improvement in the plant growth of okra in the following season followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer (Table 8, Fig. 11). 100 00 ^ '^ (C (O «> o CM « 00 o 00 O O r~; 10 CM O N- fO CO 0> t^ b p pj ^ CO b c S •» •* « CM tM S $' 9 Si;' ^ ^ to iR n •« CO to 55" ^ cT 177 as'?T !^ 25" ?r (T ?T (5" ?r FT cB" FT FT T- 0) E-d x: 3? ^ ? to CN (N re o) o o 10 ^ o p p O O 10 O lO N O o o ^ w 10 n p id V r>-' co' CM CO id ' ci 16 n t^ ui •^ 'T^ 1^: Q r^ CO o> oci S ^ S S S 8 8 - .E 8 in 00 00 t^ r- r^ CO O) 0k 00 00 h« ^ 5'?yi3r8'F5'3rF5' •5 -D s-prarpreriTrsr • "E-o s ^ t^n to a\ n w 00 o> CO 00 CO to o o CO h> 10 CO so to + -g JQ CD re •n Q- CD CO E 101 Normal Plougnlng 140 120- cn (0 u 100 M 0 4-1 0 •H C «0 iH Deep Ploughing 140 o» 0 O •P x: •H c BCD Treatment EXD Barley HZZI Barlsy^Mustard t^Muatard U-UntroatBd.A-Neem oake.B-Costor caKo O-Neem iBef.O-GaBtor loof.E-Oerbofuran FHnorg.fert. Fig. 11 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the plant weight of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 8). 102 Increase in plant weight of okra in beds having barley as preceding crop ranged from 54.2% in neem cake treated beds to 7.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep ploughing plant weight of okra ranged from 56.5% in neem cake treated beds to 10.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in the preceding season (Table 8). Similar trend was found in the field where mustard was grown alone or alongwith barley in the preceding season. Increase in plant weight of okra in beds having barley+mustard in the preceding season ranged between 66.8% in neem cake treated beds to 10.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing, whereas in deep ploughed field increase in plant weight of okra ranged from 68.0% in neem cake treated beds to 13.2% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds for the preceding mix-crops (Table 8). Similarly,increase in weight of okra in beds having mustard alone in the preceding season ranged from 68.3% in neem cake treated beds to 18.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field,whereas in case of deep ploughing increase in plant weight of okra ranged from 69.1% in neem cake treated beds to 19.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds for the preceding mustard crop (Table 8). Yield: The beneficial effect of the treatments of the preceding crops were 103 also noted on the pod yield of okra in the next growing season when okra was grown in the same beds. Neem cake of the preceding season crop was the most effective treatment followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer treated beds respectively. Deep ploughing brought about more improvement in yield of okra than normal ploughing. The yield of okra was more pronounced in beds having mustard in the preceding season followed by mix-cropping of barley-t-mustard and barley alone in the preceding season (Table 8, Fig. 12). In relation to normal ploughing the increase in pod yield of okra in beds having barley as preceding crop ranged from 56.8% in neem cake treated beds to 26.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas in case ofdeep ploughing the increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 58.8% in neem cake treated beds to 27.5% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in the preceding season (Table 8). Similar trend was also found in beds having mustard or the mix- crops (barley+mustard) in the preceding season. However, highest increase in pod yield was found in beds having mustard alone in the preceding season. The increase in pod yield of okra in the beds having barley+mustard in the preceding season ranged from 57.2% in neem cake treated beds to 26.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal plouging, whereas in deep plouged field the increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 59.0% in neem cake treated beds to 27.8% in 10 4 Normei Ploughing 120-iT 100- 80 J cr J1 u 60 M 0 li 40 1 0 1 20 •H A s o Deep Ploughing 120 100 fT 1 J (0 60 -? u J M O 60 ^ M-l ^ O 40 •H >i 20- o r U A B C D E F Treatment E3 Barley [IIZlBarlav*Mus»rd ^3 Mustard U-UntraatBd,A-Neem csaka.B-Castor caks G-Neem loef.D-Oslor ieef.E-Garbofurar^ FHrx)rB.fert. Fig. 12 Residual effect of interculture of mustard cv. RH-30 with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the pod yield of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 8). }{Jb inorganic fertilizer treated beds in the preceding season (Table 8). Similarly, increase in yield of okra in the beds ha^ ing mustard alone in the preceding season ranged from 59.3% in neem cake treated beds to 28.1% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep ploughing the increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 60.0% in neem cake treated beds to 30.0% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in the preceding season (Table 8). 4.1.3.1 Effect of intercropping of wheat with rocket-salad, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. The intercropping of oil crops with cereals and vegetables and incorporation of organic matter into the soil is an age old practice used since remote past. The present study was threrefore. undertaken to investigate the combined effect of intercropping of rocket-salad (Eruca sativa) cv. Local with wheat (Triticum aestivum) cv. WC-711. soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem {Azadirachta iiidica) and castor [Ricinus communis), carbofuran (2,3- dihydro- 2,2-dimethyl-7- benzofuranyl methyl carbamate) and ploughing on the population of plant -parasitic nematodes and crop yield. Nematode population: In the untreated wheat beds the population of plant-parasitic nematodes increased considerably (1719/200g soil) in normal ploughed field over 106 tlie initial population of 1408/200 g soil, whereas in case of deep ploughing the nematode population showed reduction in the untreated wheat beds (1363/200g soil) (Table 9, Fig. 13). There was further reduction in nematode population when rocket-salad was grown alone or intermixed with wheat in both the cases of normal and deep ploughing (Table 9. Fig. 13). The application of oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and a nematicide led to the significant decline in the nematode population in both normal and deep ploughed fields but deep ploughing proved to be most effective than normal ploughing. Amongst different treatmeuis carbofiiran was found to be most effective in reducing the nematode population followed by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer (Table 9, Fig. 13). In relation to normal ploughing the total population of nematodes in wheat in different treatments ranged between 1021-1368/200 g soil as compared to 1719 nematodes in untreated beds, whereas in deep ploughing the total number of nematode poupulation in different treatments ranged between 775-962/200g soil compared to 1363 nematodes in untreated beds (Table 9, Fig. 13). Further decline in nematode population was observed when rocket- salad was grown alongwith wheat. In case of normal ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was between 722-102 1 ] 0 7 JZ C *rf • — i ^ O c « r) * V »- »- K N to ^ in lo N. n lO r> (O 0> o> a> ID ri o to lo O) u> csi CO ri (O CM m •* o> r~ Z ^ " 0 CM o « r) r> t « < ^ »» p> II) r> U) ^ t « lO 3 ?" «" ri" o" 0? (D •V O 10 o T- CO lO ID •V in o> •^ So o •* o> «b T- o oo (0 (O 00 00 to .,- O O) E «5 D O Csl fO CJ PJ CJ •* CM CM CM CM n CO fO CO •* ''J Si .—.,^^^,^. ^--»tM CO o eo CM CD (p w CM lo n n O^etntDOIOCM^ rO^O> •H o Normal ploughing tn 1600 cp Initial population o 1400- o \ 1200 c o •H 1000- 4J (0 rH 3 O a; o 4J (0 g v z •H Normal ploughing o UOO Initial population CO 1200 O o 1000 c 600 0 •H •P (0 iH a, 0 -o 0 +j 0) BCD z Treatment CD Barley CI] Borloy* Mustard ^Mustard U-UntroatBd. A-lnora.fert.,B-Ne6m cakB. O-Oastor coto.D-Neem leaf.E-oastor leaf. F-Oarbofuran Fig. 13 Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-7ll, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of the plant- parasitic nematodes (Ref. Table 9). 109 nematodes/200 g soil compared to 1352 nematodes in untreated beds. In case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 565-784/200g soil compared to 1220 nematodes in untreated beds (Table 9, Fig. 13). The highest decline in nematode population was noted when rocket-salad was grown singly. In case of normal ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 656-923/200 g soil compared to 1292 nematodes in untreated beds. In case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 476-704 200g soil compared to 1113 nematodes in untreated beds (Table 9, Fig. 13). Thus, it is clear from the foregoing results that ploughing, organic amendments and intercropping in integration were highly effective in reducing the nematode population. Yield: As a result of reduction in nematode population due to intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing there was significant improvement in the yield of wheat and rocket-salad when grown alone or in combination (Table 10, Fig. 14-15). However, deep ploughing (40 cm) was found to be more effective than normal ploughing (20 cm). Among different treatments, neem cake proved to be the most ] J Table 10. Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the crop yield in field. Crop Treatment Crop yield in normal and deap' plouighe d beds(q/ha) Wheat increase Rocket- Increase over salad over control (%) control (%) Wheat Untreated 3.5(6.9)" Inorg.fert. 4.3(09.0) 22.8(30.4) Neemcake 6.1(12.6) 74.2(82.6) Castor cake 5.0(11.0) 42.8(59.4) Neemleaf 4.8(10.5) 37.1(52.1) Castor leaf 4.6(10.0) 31.4(44.9) Carbofuran 4.5(09.6) 28.5(39.1) CD (P=0.05) 0.65(0.54) CD. (P=0.01) 0.91(0.81) Wheat+ Untreated 3.4(06.7) 5.3(6.5) rocket- Inorg.fert. 4.1(08.6) 20.5(28.3) 5.9(7.8) 11.3(20.0) salad Neemcake 5.9(11.7) 73.5(74.6) 7.6(09.7) 43.3(49.2) Castor cake 4.7(10.7) 38.2(59.7) 6.8(09.4) 28.3(44.6) Neemleaf 4.6(10.1) 35.2(50.7) 6.6(08.5) 24.5(30.7) Castor leaf 4.4(09.7) 29.4(44.7) 6.2(08.1) 16.9(24.6) Carbofuran 4.6(09.3) 26.4(38.8) 6.1(07.9) 15.0(21.5) CD. (P=0.05) 0.67(0.52) 1.08(0.58) CD. (P=0.01) 0.94(0.73) 1.52(0.82) Rocket- Untreated 64(07.0) salad Inorg.fert. 7.3(08.7) 14.0(24.2) Neemcake 9.4(11.5) 46 8(64.2) Castor cake 8.6(11.0) 34.3(57.1) Neemleaf 8.0(09.9) 25.0(41.4) Castor leaf 7.6(09.4) 18.7(34.2) Carbofuran 7.5(08.8) 17.2(25.7) CD. (P=0.05) 1.06(0.25) CD. (P=0.01) 1.49(0.36) Each value is mean of three replicates * In parentheses are given the figures for deep ploughed beds. Ill Normal Ploughing 1' ri 5- m W\n 4J i (0 0) n x: o 0) •H Deep Ploughing - ^ _/ 0 -o iH 0) il 1 •H J| IL^ ju^ 111 IJ lus M lU U A B C D E F Treatment E3 Wheat I i Wheat with Rocket-sala'=^ U-UntrBat8d,AHnorB.fert..B-Neeni csks. O-Castor cBkB.D-Neem leaf.E-Osstor leaf F-Corbofuran Fig. 14 Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of wheat (Ref.- Table 10). 112 T3 Normal Plougtilng m i-t (0 w I 4-> d) M U 0 U U-i 0 -o >H (U •H li illl U A B C D E F Deep Plougfilng 12 -a (0 i iH 10 fO en I i 4J 8- ^ (1) >; o 0 ^i u ^ i 0 '0 iH (U 2- •H K i ^ U A B C D E F Treatment E3Rooket-sai8d L-jRocket-seiaci witn wheat U-Untre8t8d,AHnora.fort.,B-N8em caKs C-Castor cale.D-Neem leaf.E-Oastor leaf. F-Oarbofuran Fig. 15 Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711, solil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of rocket-salad (Ref.-Table 10). 11 effective in increasing the yield followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. In case of normal ploughing, the improvement in yield of wheat was 74 2% in neem cake treated beds. It was followed by castor cake (42.8%), neemleaf (37.1%), castor leaf (31.4%), carbofuran (28.5%) and inorganic fertilizer (22.8%) treated beds, whereas in case of deep ploughing corresponding figures for increase in yield in different treatments were 30.4%, 39.1%, 44.9%, 52.2%, 59.4% and 82.6% respectively (Table 10). Similar results were also obtained when rocket-salad was grown alone (Table 10). Due to normalploughing the corresponding figures for increase in yield of rocket-salad in the above treatments were 14.0%, 17.2%, 18.7%, 25.0%, 34.3% and 46.8% respectively, whereas for deep ploughing the corresponding figures for increase in yield in the above treaments were 24.2%, 25.7%, 34.2%, 41.4%, 57.1% and 64.2% respectively (Table 10). When rocket-salad was grown alongwith wheat there was also increase in the yield of wheat and rocket-salad but the yield was lower than when either of the above crops were grown singly. The increase in the yield of wheat due to normal ploughing were 20.5%, 26.4%, 29.4%, 35.2%, 38.2% and 73.5% in the above treatments respectively, whereas the corresponding figures for increase in yield of wheat due to deep 1]4 ploughing were 28.3%, 38.8%, 44.7%, 50.7%, 59.7% and 74.6% respectively. Similarly, increase in the yield of rocket-salad due to normal ploughing in different treatments were 11.3%, 15.0%, 16.9%, 24 5%, 28.3% and 43.3% respectively, whereas in deep ploughed field the increase in\jield of rocket-salad in different treatments were 20.0%, 21.5%, 24.6%, 30.7%, 44.6% and 49.2% respectively (Table 10). Thus, it is clear from the above results that combined effect of intercropping, organic amendment/ nematicide and ploughing caused significant reduction in nematode population and improvd the yield of wheat and rocket-salad. 4.1.3.2 Residual effect of intercropping of wheat with rocket- salad, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, plant growth and yield of okra. The experiment was performed on the same lines as in 4.1.3.1. The residual effect of different treatments given to the preceding crops, viz. wheat, wheat+rocket-salad and rocket-salad was evaluated in the following season when okra was grown in the same field without repeating the treatments. Nematode population: The population of nematodes declined considerably in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide in the preceding season. J ]5 However, the nematode population increased in the beds that did not receive any treatment in the preceding season. The neem cake treatment of preceding season remained most efficacious against the plant-parasitic nematodes during the subsequent okra crop. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. Deep ploughing proved highly effective than normal ploughing (Table 11, Fig. 16) In case ofnormal ploughing the range of nematode population on okra in beds treated with organic amendments/carbofuran for the preceding wheat crop was 1856-2314/200 g soil as compared to 3243 in untreated beds. In case of deep ploughed field the range of nematode population was between 1604-1896/200g soil compared to 3088 nematodes in untreated beds (Table 11, Fig. 16 ). The range of nematode population in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding mix-crops (wheat+rocket-salad) was 1653-1991/200 g soil compared to 3057 in untreated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep plouging the range of nematode population was 1332-1605/200 g soil compared to 2746 in untreated beds (Table 11, Fig. 16). Similarly, range of nematode population in beds treated with organic amendment/ nematicide for preceding rocket-salad crop was 1571-1832/200 g soil compared to 2948 nematodes in untreated beds in j J (, tl o -- > 0 , , O « T- ^ CM to t o> N. CO o lO t^ •0 CO CO o> o t) ss •0 in N o o (0 ^ CO (O '<» n ^ CM o CO 10 ^ n c y^ a. M *—' I* «»'«'** O ll> n * ^ n n in to n v t •V n >.-^ •V « ii r^ 1- O) r^ to (o CJ) CO •V 1^ r^ OO (^ '" o '" 00 •c * CM 0> lO CO •<- (0 m CM o OO «D •v O o c 1e o CM o r- ^ »» lo ^ CO o a> N. ^ CO r) T- CO CO ir t». ^ h- W ^ ^ (M to ^ lO CO CO CO 0> O O ^ CO r^ CO «> a> o o CM ^ O O O »- T- ^ •«- o o o o •»- •»- 3 i° IS •V O CM CM CM CM CT» CO T"-'-^^^•^^^- o o> r^ t^ ^ r- •* •«t CO in •«t CM E •o 00 t— CM CO o CO in (0 t^ 00 CO 00 O CM CM CO •* CO o •^ C CM T- •»- T- 1- T- T- o B "S. o £ ^ K f ^ <0 lO « o o lo r* r- r«. «» O CM O 10 O O O o> n ^ lo •H Normel ploughing o 3500-( a^ 3000- o o fN "^ 2500- c 0 2000 •H to l-l 3 1500 04 o 1000- 0) -o o •p 500 (0 e o Deep ploughing BCD Treatment EX3 Wheat CD Wh89t*roohBt-SBlad ^2 Rockst-saisd U-UntrBated.A-Nesm oahB.B-Castor oake, O-Nesm lBaf,[>-C«stor Isaf.E-Carbofuran, FHnorg.fert. Fig. 16 Residual effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711/ soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes. (Ref. Table 11). 116 normal ploughed field and range of nematode population in beds treated with different treatments for preceding rocket-salad crop was 1255- ] 5 1 1/200 g soil compared to 2655 nematode in untreated beds in case of deep ploughing (Table 11, Fig. 16). Plant growth The ploughing and different treatments of the preceding crop were also beneficial in improving the plant growth (weight and length) of the subsequent okra crop in the following season (Table 12, Fig. 17). However, increase was more pronounced in plants grown in beds ha\ing rocket- salad in the preceding crop followed by mix-cropping of wheat+rocket- salad and wheat in that order. Among the different treatments of preceding crop neem cake caused highest improvement in plant growth of okra in the following season. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer, compared to untreated control which showed lowest plant growth. Deep ploughing improved the plant growth more than normal ploughing (Table 12, Fig. 17). The increase in plant weight of okra in beds having wheat alone in the preceding season ranged from 57.2% in neem cake treated beds to 6.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep ploughing it ranged from 58.8% in neem cake treated beds to 8.0% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 12, Fig. 17). J J ^ o c o •- CM r> 00 m r>. n oo lo 00 ^ ic CO N- CO O *~ CO ^ cvi U> w <» t^ 0> (d 0> CM 00 CM b CM r<^ id ui W c )0 M n r* f*^'^ » ^ lo n N rj^ ID to "• ^ J2.2. (US' JB" tT (JT T- 35" 0) frarcTf^pT S ¥ « N (N T- 8?9R^R E -a ,^|g CO 0) 0) >? O O O ^ O O lO p p p p p p p O O M >(> p f4 O <» ci W « id c 2r^<5'5'i?r?rs' er ereripf Tars' OD CM h- T- O t^ S OS O) 00 OO 35 1"^ §?8§ 8 00 ^ O) Ot O O O <0 M 0> K O t^ ^ nn n ^ to V CO o h-' od o> CM (d o> T^ id o> t^ 00 V id »^ lO n N N,-"- O (S lo n J»,f< •^ lo^ic * ^ CO CO (N (T iTT S" ?T 3r arcTprp^B"^ f^ jycToo S'lTT 8 S R 8 2 J 88i^88oi ^£ 00 ^, (0 00 CO ^^ CO 00 O 00 O O O CO ^ ^ Q? h* CO h* rO »» r>; b W 00 CM oo' r» (o CO o g CM CM ^ O O « ^ 00 si ^ (d 5?? a? 3? ?? ar ^ c? CO* id lllllil ?T T 3f ?r 3f cT ?? o C^ g P O TT > N 5'?'' ^ 8 n 9 a ( 8 8S& in t^ 8 ri in 15:« « 8 8 ^ 8 « c in t~^ o •>- T- T- T- o o r ••- »- o p> o o (O o 00 CO n ID o « ^ o> r<^ o o o .5 « id 0) r«.( d Norrnel Ploughing 140 CT 120 ^ (0 ^ U 100 rg o J J 60- ^ I •p 60 s: •H 0) 40 c 20- (0 04 1 .a D^ Deep Ploughing 140- o 120 1 J 100- il 0 +J 80 ^ ^ ^P •H 60 rt S 40 I •cp IB I 20 i i^u: ii L jBC D Treatment CD WhBat*Roct«t-aoloa BS Rocekt-salsd U-Untreated.A-Nsem oske.B-Castor caks O-Noom ieef.D-Castor ioaf.E-Oarbofuran F-\rorg.fert. Fig. 17 Residual effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and and ploughing on the plant weight of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 12). 12] Similarly, plant weight of okra in beds having wheat + rocket-salad in the preceding season ranged from 68.6% in neem cake treated beds to 14.4% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing and plant weight of okra ranged from 69.0% in neem cake treated beds to 16.0% inorganic fertilizr treated beds in deep ploughed field (Table 12, Fig. 17). Similar trend was also found in plant weight of okra in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season. The increase in plant weight of okra in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season ranged from 68 7% in neem cake treated beds to 21.5% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the plant weight of okra ranged from 69.7% in neem cake treated beds to 31.4% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 12, Fig. 17). Yield The beneficial effects of the treatments given to the preceding crop were also noted on the pod yield of subsequent okra crop (Table 12. Fig. 1 8), but yield was more in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season followed by mix-crops (wheat+rocket-salad) and wheat alone. The neem cake treatment of preceding season caused highest improvement in the yield of okra followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. The increase in yield was more due to deep ploughing than normal ploughing (Table 12, Fig. 18). 122 Norrnei Ploughing 120 ^ 100- ^ w eoH (0 u 60 0 •4-1 1 0 40 T3 H 0) •H 20- -o 0 11 04 Deep Ploughing ^ 120 100 ^^ (0 ^ ^ 60 ri 0 60- O J "O 40 0) •H 1Ji 20- v ^ 0 latiI : miHM cm U 1A B C D E F TreatmenLt III CX] WhBBt [ZD Wheat*Roct U-UntrsatBd.A-Neem oako.B-Oastor caks ONBBm iBBl.D-Castor (Baf,E-Oorbo1urBn PHnor^fert. Fig. 18 Residual effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with wheat cv. WC-711, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing orv the pod yield of okra cv, Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 12). The increase in the pod yield of okra in beds having wheat in the preceding season ranged from 50.0% in neem cake treated beds to 16.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas in case of deep ploughing the pod yield of okra ranged from 5 1.1 % in neem cake treated beds to 17.7% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 12). Similarly, increase in the yield of okra in beds having wheat+rocket- salad in the preceding season ranged from 56.2% in neem cake treated beds to 22.2% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing and the increase in the yield of okra ranged from 59.3% in neem cake treated beds to 22.6% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in deep ploughed field (Table 12). Similar trend was also found in the field having rocket-salad in the preceding season but the pod yield was higher than the field having wheat+rocket-salad and wheat in the preceding season. In normal ploughed field the pod yield of okra in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season ranged from 60.0% in neem cake treated beds to30.7% in inorganic fedilizer treated beds^whereas in case of deep ploughing the pod yield of okra ranged from 60.3% in neem cake treated beds to 34.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 12). Thus,above results clearly indicate that residual effect of treatments of preceding season, viz. intercropping, organic amendments/nematicide and ploughing brought about significant reduction in nematode population and improved the plant growth and yield of okra in the following season. 124 4.1.4.1 Effect of intercropping of barley with rocket-salad, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. The use of intercropping of mustard with cereals and soil amendment is an age old practice used since the advent of agriculture. Therefore, scientific basis of these practices alongwith ploughing were investigated in the present study for use in integrated nematode management system. In the present study effect of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem (Azadirachta indica) and castor (Ricinus communis), carbofuran (2, 3-dihydro-2, 2-dimethyl-7- benzofuranyl methyl carbamate) and intercropping of rocket-salad {Eruca sativa) cv. Local with barley (Hordeum vulgare) cv. RD-2052 were studied for the control of soil population of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. Nematode population: In normal ploughed field population of all the nematodes'increased in the untreated barley beds (1436/200 g soil), whereas in case of deep ploughing there was decline in nematode population (1227/200g soil) over the initial population (Table 13, Fig. 19). Further stress in nematode population was noted, when rocket-salad was grown singly or alongwith barley in normal and deep ploughed field. Combined application of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor/carbofuran and ploughing led to a significant suppression in the nematode population. Deep ploughing treatment was J l'- CO 3 t) -c o > (O a> O o> ^ «o Normal ploughing Initial population BCD •H o en Deep plougning en 1 doo -iT"' - Initial population BCD Treatment EX] Barlsy IZZ] Barley*Rocl«t-salocl ZIZ Rockst-salad U-Untreatod.AHnorg.f8rt.,B-N8em caks. O-Castor cahB.D-NBem leaf.E-Oastor leaf, F-Oarbofuran Fig. 19 Combined effect of interculture of rockat-salad cv. Local with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes (Ref.-Table 13). found to be more efficacious than normal ploughing. Among different treatments, carbofuran was found to be most effective in reducing the nematode population followed by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer (Table 13. Fig. 19). In case of normal ploughing, the total population of nematodes on barley in different treatments ranged between 839-940/200g soil as compared to 1162 and 1436 in inorganic fertilizer treated and untreated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 665-701/200g soil compared to 863 and 1227 nematodes in inorganic fertilizer treated and untreated beds (Table 13. Fig. 19). Further suppression in nematode population was noted when rocket-salad was grown alongwith barley in alternate rows. In case of normal ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 756-827/200g soil compared to 964 and 1324 nematodes in inorganic fertilizer treated beds and untreated control and in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 559-758/200g soil compared to 758 and 1147 nematodes in inorganic fertilizer treated beds and untreated control (Table 13, Fig. 19). The greatest reduction in nematode population was observed when rocket-salad was grown alone. The range of nematode population in different treatments in case of normal ploughing was 656-793/200g soil 12b compared to 923 and 1292 nematodes in beds treated with inorganic fertilizer and in untreated control. Whereas in case of deep ploughing the range of nematode population in different treatments was 476-529/ 200g soil compared to 704 and 1113 nematodes in beds treated with inorganic fertilizer and in untreated control (Table 13, Fig. 19). Thus^the results clearly indicate that combined application of ploughing, organic amendment and intercropping was highly effective in reducing the nematode population. Yield There was significant improvement in yield of rocket-salad and barley due to combined effects of organic amendments, intercropping and ploughing. Deep ploughing (40 cm) treatment was found to be most effective than normal ploughing (20 cm) (Table 14, Fig. 20-21). In case of normal plouging, neem cake (55.5%) proved to be most effective in increasing the yield of barley followed by castor cake (38.0%), neemleaf(28.5%), castorleaf(20.6%), carbofuran (17.4%) and inorganic fertilizer (15.8%), whereas in deep ploughed field neem cake (58.0%) also proved to be most effective in increasing the yield of barley, it was followed by castor cake (50.6%), neem leaf (44.0%), castor leaf (40.0%), carbofuran (33.3%) and inorganic fertilizer (24.0%) (Table 14). 129 Table 14. Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. local with barley cv. RD-2052, organic amendment/nematiclde and ploughing on the crop yield in field. Crop Treatment Crop yield in normal and deap* plou ghed beds(q/ha) Barley Increase Rocket- Increase over salad over control (%) control (%) Barley Untreated 6.3(07.5)' Inorg.fert. 7.3(09.3) 15.8(24.0) Neemcake 9.8(11.9) 55.5(58.0) Castor cake 8.7(11.3) 38.0(50.6) Neemleaf 8.1(10.8) 28.5(44.0) Castor leaf 7.6(10.5) 20.6(40.0) Carbofuran 7.4(10.3) 17.4(33.0) C.D.(P=0.05) 0.45(0.57) C.D.{P=0.01) 0.63(0.81) Bar1ey+ Untreated 6.2(07.5) 62(06.6) rocket- Inorg.fert. 6.9(09.0) 11.2(20.0) 6.8(08.0) 09.7(21.1) salad Neemcake 9.4(11.8) 51.6(57.3) 9.0(10.7) 45.2(62.1) Castor cake 8.2(10.9) 32.2(45.3) 8.0(09.9) 29.0(50.0) Neemleaf 7.7(10.4) 24.2(38.6) 7.4(09.3) 19.3(40.9) Castor leaf 7.4(09.9) 19.3(32.0) 7.2(08.8) 16.1(33.3) Cart)ofuran 7.2(09.4) 16.1(25.3) 6.9(08.2) 11.2(24.2) CD. (P=0.05) 1.03(0.54) 0.49(1.27) CD. (P=0.01) 1.45(0.80) 0.69(1.79) Rocket- Untreated 6.4(07.0) salad Inorg.fert. 73(08.7) 14.0(24.2) Neemcake 9.4(11.5) 46.8(64.2) Castor cake 8.6(11.0) 34.3(57.1) Neemleaf 8.0(09.9) 25.0(41.4) Castor leaf 7.6(09.4) 18.7(34.2) Cart)ofuran 7.5(08.8) 17.2(25.7) CD. (P=0.05) 1.06(0.25) CD. (P=0.01) 1.49(0.36) Each value is mean of three replicates * In parentheses are given the figures for deep ploughed beds. 130 Normei Ploughing 12 10 ^ u (0 r P 6- fl o I" -o n iH 0) ^ •H ^ ^ $: I ^ K U A Deep Ploughing 14 0< 12- 0) iH fl 10 m P ^ ^ 8- llil U-l P o rH (U •H ^ 2- I I l^ A B C D E F Treatment ES3 Barley L__J Baney with Rocket-ffaiIa*i, U-Unt^BB1o[^.A^norB•1o^t..B-NBBm cale. O-0«Btor OBkB.D-NsBm taaf.E-OaBtOf Isaf, F-Carbofuran Fig. 20 Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the Yield of barley (Ref.-Table 14). 131 cr Normal Piougning 10-|1 ~ ~~ (0 H ih (0 (» I •p 0) M u o 0 0) 1 Hi liiiiiiiiiiiii U A Deep Ploughing -o 12 (0 n (0 10 il ^ I •4J ^ (U u 6- Ik t ^ 0 t" w fl o -o 4- iH 0) •H ii=K \M ^ K U A B C D E F Treatment E3Rooket-seied CZHBocket-seieo with barley U-UntreBted.A-lnora.fert.. B-Neom caks, O-Castor oate.D-Neem leaf.E-Oastor leaf. F-0«rbofuran Fig. 21 Combined effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the yield of rocket-salad (Ref.-Table 14). 132 Similar results were also observed in case of rocket-salad grown singly, where corresponding figures for increase in yield in different treatments were 46.6%, 34.3%, 25.0%, 18.7%, 17.2% and 14.0% in case of normal ploughing and in deep ploughed field the corresponding figures for increase in yield of rocket-salad in different treatments were 64.2%, 57.1%, 41.4%, 34.2%, 25.7% and 24.2% respectively (Table 14). A significant improvement in yield of rocket-salad was also found when both of these crops were grown together in alternate rows but the yield was lower than the yield of barley and rocket-salad grown alone. The corresponding figures for increase in the yield of barley due to normal ploughing in different treatments were 11.2%, 16.1%, 19.3%. 24.2%, 32.2% and 51.6% respectively, whereas in deep ploughed field the corresponding figures for increase in yield of barley in different treatments were 20.0%, 25.0%, 32.0%, 38.6%, 45.3% and 57.3% respectively (Table 14). Similary, in case of normal ploughing the increase in yield of rocket-salad in different treatments were 9.7%, 11.2%, 16.1%, 19.3%, 29.0% and 45.2% respectively, whereasthe corresponding figures for increase in the yield of rocket-salad in deep ploughed field were 21.1%, 24.2%, 33.3%, 40.9%, 50.0% and 62.1% respectively (Table 14). Thus^it is clear from the foregoing results that intercropping, organic amendment and ploughing in combination brought about significant reduction in nematode population, as a result of which yield of barley and rocket-salad improved significantly. 133 4.1.4.2. Residual effect of intercropping of barley with rocket- salad, soil amendment and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, plant growth and yield of okra. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.1.4.1. The residual effect of different treatments of preceding crops, viz. barley alone, barley+rocket-salad and rocket-salad alone were observed in the following season when okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) cv. Prvani Kranti was grown without repeating any treatments. Nematode population: There was an increase in the nematode population in beds which received no treatment for the preceding crop. However, the beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding crop caused suppression in nematode population. Neem cake of the preceding experiment remained most efficacious in reducing nematode population in the subsequent okra crop followed by castor cake, neem leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer in normal and deep ploughed field. The deep ploughing was found to be more efficacious than normal ploughing (Table 15, Fig. 22). In case of normal ploughing the nematode population on okra ranged between 1911-2342/200 g soil in beds treated with organic amendment/nematicide for the preceding barley crop compared to 3318 in untreated beds, whereas the range of nematode population in different 134 3 9 "^ > O o ^ "« W> ^ »- O t o to c o c0 ^ N ID w n ^ K CM r^ ^ o w ^ fo CO T- ?r«- f^ a> ^ CM r> ^ lo to 10 W A a> O r- ^ CO ^^ 00 o) o> o o »" O O O ^ »• ^ ^ o o o o V- ^ •° o a 1-^ O CD CO CO CO «0 ^- O O) O) ^- CO O •«- ^ -v o 10 a> CM o o K ^ O 10 (M O O 0> o CM O 10 O O O if 00 ^ ^ CO ro 00 00 ro «- (M CO « lO lo o to a> a> o ^ CM O 0) ^ e4 rM CM CM CM CM ^ CM N CM CM CM CM ^ T- ^ CM CM CM ^ CO O^ CM CM •» •* o^cD^f^c?iir S2 CO 10 CM ^ 00 le CO o »- o> o 00 e o ^ T- CO ^ ^ CM a> o> 00 o> ^ o> o ^ ^ 10 u) r*. K 00 a> O CM CO ^ 10 (O U> 3 r« CO CO CO CO to CO f^ CO CO CO CO CO CO O E.9? r«. CO CO CO CO ^ * ?^ to "^ "* O) O) O) CJ) t^ •* CM h- CO CO CO (0 '— ^ CM O) t- in r~ CO 1 CM •* CO r~ 00 O) CO CO '- CO •v in (o t^ r>- O) O) o ^ CM to 3 CO •*•*•*•* •v m r^ CO CO •*•*•«»• •* = c 2 - a o to (D o> 10 oe o 10 'V 10 10 lO « CO O « M CO CM CM 00 O O ro .!! « CM ^ CM CO « ^ CO o 00 a> e> ^ CM CO 0)-D • O) 1^ 00 0) 0> O ^ 00 CO CO CO ^ >» ^ «o * ^ * * in 10 00 n n n n * t O 2 0> CM 00 ^— 0> 00 rH o (0 Deep ploughing 3600 CP o o CM \ C 0 •H 4J (0 iH 13 O 04 0) -o o 4J (0 B BCD 0) z Treatment Ka Barley I I BarlBy*rockot-aalad ^ RockBt-salad U-UntrBBfBd.A-NBsm oBl«,B-C«8tor oaks. G-NBsm leaf.D-Castor laaf,E-Carbofuran. FHnoTB.tart. Fig.22 Residual effect of interculture of rocket-salad cv. Local with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes (Ref. Table 15). 136 treatments was 1644-1934/200 g soil compared to 3128 in untreated control in deep ploughed field (Table 15, Fig. 22). Similarly^in case of normal ploughing the nematode population in beds treated with different treatments for preceding mix-crops (barley+rocket-salad) ranged from 1706-2033/200g soil as compared to 3087 in untreated control, whereas in case of deep ploughed field the range of nematode population in different treatments was 1381-1635/200 g as compared to 2816 in untreated control (Table 15, Fig. 22). The highest reduction in nematode population was found in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season. The range of nematode population in different treatments due to normal ploughing was 1571- l83 2/200g soilcompared to 2948 in untreated control and the range of nematode population in case of deep ploughing in different treatments was 1255-15ll/200g soil compared to 2655 in untreated control (Table 15, Fig. 22). Plant growth: The ploughing and other treatments of the preceding crop were noted to be highly beneficial in improving plant growth (weight and length of shoot and root) of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Table 16, Fig. 23). However, maximum plant growth was found in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season, followed by barley+ rocket-salad and barley alone. Neem cake of the preceding season proved to be most effective in 1 3 c CO ^ »- «e • ..-^ T- 'f T-^ t 5? (O CM T- -^ O 88!§88r^ * o * « CO * *^ »- 09 £"lO •»; 08 O C^ 00 W CO ^ 09 "» * A i»; q q q £ f r» n ^ o to •* CM 00 '^ 0> >0 S" S" o? 7 «• o" »• A CM A h- « lO n •^ .— (0 00 Q 1- (0 «- 09 o !>: d T^ d fo K A O «- d CM ^ '•-^ d d »- CM CM m g « R ji j; ^ o CM A A n «0 CM CM •«- t- lO A (0 PJ" y SB" ST TT S" ^ id t^ DT ST ~ PT ?^ ~ ST Sr PIT ?^ 3r i?r 95" iTJ" rj CO £ E r- CM c» in m on n- h- ^^ SO P- £1 g8§ CO •^ r c O O O O ? 3 :: c ^ (D IS eo lo lo u> A T- n K CM m (o A A CO r^ CO A O O) lO t; ^ T^ CO l>^ » d ^ T^ A d d d ^ 0) T- N CM CM ^ T- t- d W Is I UJ J 38 Normal Ploughing uo 120 01 100 to u X fi o o •u J: •H » c (0 Jfl Deep Ploughing Cn (0 O M-l O £ •H > B m BCD Treatment CXX] Barley CID Barley«Rockst-salad CZ2 Rocskt-salad U-UntraBtBd.A-Neam oakB.B-Oastor cal In case of normal ploughing increase in plant weight of okra in the different treatmens of the preceding barley crop ranged from 54.2% in neem cake treated beds to 7.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas in deep ploughed field the increase in the plant weight of okra in different treatments ranged from 56.5% in neem cake treated beds to 10.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 16). Similar trend was found in field having barley+rocket-salad and rocket-salad in the preceding season. The increase in plant weight of okra for the preceding mix-crops (barley+rocket-salad) ranged from 68.4% in neem cake treated beds to 16.0% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing and in deep ploughed field the plant weight ranged from 69.3% in neem cake treated beds to 16.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 16). Likewise, increase in plant weight of okra for the preceding rocket-salad crop ranged from 68.7% in neem cake treated beds to 21.5% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughed field,whereas in deep ploughed field the increase in plant weight of okra ranged from 69.7% in neem cake treated beds to 31.4% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 16). 140 Yield: The beneficial effects of the treatments of preceding crop were also observed in the pod yield of subsequent okra crop in the following season (Table 16, Fig. 24). However, greatest improvement in yield was noted in beds having rocket-salad in the preceding season followed by mix-cropping of barley+rocket-salad and barley alone in that order. Among different treatments neem cake of the preceding season proved to be most effective in improving the yield of okra followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer respectively. The yield was also highest in deep plouging than normal ploughing (Table 16, Fig. 24). Incase of normal ploughing the increase in pod yield of okra in different treatments of preceding barley crop ranged from 56.8% in neem cake treated beds to 26.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds, whereas the increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 58.8% in neem cake treated beds to 27.5% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in deep ploughed field (Table 16). Similarly, in beds having mix-crops(barley+rocket-salad) in the preceding season the increase in pod yeild of okra ranged from 58.0% in neem cake treated beds to 27.4% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of normal ploughing, whereas in case of deep ploughed field the increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 60.0% in neem cake treated ]41 Normal Piougrilng Deep Ploughing 120 TT ^ 100 (0 0 0 0) o BCD Treatment C3 Barlery CD 8arlBy*HockBt-s9lad ^3 Rocekt-salad U-UntraatBd.A-Nesm OBks.B-Castor cahs ONBom iBsf.D-Oastor iGSf.E-Oarbofuran FHnoTj.fert. Fig. 24 Residual effect of interculture of rocket-salad with barley cv. RD-2052, soil treatment with organic eunen- dment/nematicide on the pod yield of okra cv. Prvani Kranti (Ref.-Table 16). 142 beds to 28.8% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds (Table 16). Similar trend was also observed when okra was grown in beds having rocket- salad in the preceding season but pod yield of okra was higher than those grown in beds treated with barley+rocket-salad and barley in the preceding season. The increase in pod yield of okra in different treatments of preceding rocket-salad crop ranged from 60.0% in neem cake treated beds to 30.7% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in normal ploughed field, whereas increase in pod yield of okra ranged from 60.3% in neem cake treated beds to 34.3% in inorganic fertilizer treated beds in case of deep ploughing (Table 16). Thus,it is clear from the above results that residual effects of treatments of the preceding crop brought about significant reduction in the nematode population and improvement in plant growth and yield of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Summary of results (Exp. No. 4.1): The intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing in integration proved to be effective method for the control of plant- parasitic nematodes. In thepresent study (Exp. No. 4.1.1.1 to 4.1.4.2) the effect of intercropping of wheat and barley with mustard and rocket- salad, organic amendment (oil-cakes and leaves of neem and castor)/ nematicide (carbofuran) and ploughing were investigated for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes and crop yield. There was significant 143 reduction in the population of nematodes due to combined effect of intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing as a result of which crop yield of all the test plants increased greatly. Highest reduction in nematode population was found when mustard and rocket- salad was grown singly. It was followed by mix-cropping of mustard and rocket-salad with wheat and barley. The population of nematodes was higher in the field where wheat and barley was grown alone. Deep ploughing proved to be highly effective than normal ploughing. Among different soil treatments, carbofuran proved to be most effective in reducing population of nematodes. It was followed in order of efficiency by neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer. Similarly,crop yield of all the test crops, viz. wheat, barley, mustard and rocket-salad improved greatly due to combined effect of intercropping, organic amendment/nematicide and ploughing. However, highest yield was found when the crops were grown singly than crops grown intermixed in alternate rows. Highest improvement in yield was observed in plants grown in neem cake treated beds. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer. The residual effect of different treatments of preceding season also persisted in the following season when okra was grown (Exp. No. 4.1.1.2, 4.1.2.2, 4.1.3.2, 4.1.4.2). In this case also reduction in nematode 144 population was higher in the beds having mustard and rocket-salad in the preceding season followed by beds having mix-crops (wheat+raustard, wheat+rocket-salad, barley+mustard, barley+rocket-salad). As a consequence of reduction in the population of nematodes^plant growth and pod yield of okra cv. Prvani Kranti also improved greatly. Deep ploughing proved to be highly efficacious than normal ploughing. Among different treatments of the preceding crops, neem cake proved to be most effective in reducing the population of nematodes followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer of preceding season. Similarly, highest improvement in plant growth and pod yield of okra was observed in neem cake treatment of the preceding crops followed by other treatments with organic amendments/ nematicide. It was observed that rocket-salad was more effective in reducing the nematode population than mustard. 4.2. Integrated control of nematodes with cropping sequences and ploughing (field study) 4.2.1 Effect of cropping sequences and ploughing on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth in field. The selection of proper cropping sequences is an effective method for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. The nematode population is maintained below the threshold level either by growing non-host crop or a resistant cultivar in the sequence. Hence, an experiment was conducted ] 45 to study the effect of some selected cropping sequences on the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth in relation to ploughing. Nematode population: The results (Table 17-18) indicate that there was a significant reduction in the population of plant-parasitic nematodes, viz. Meloidogyne incognita, Rotylenchulus reniformis, Tylenchorhynchus hrassicae, Hoplolaimus indicus. Helicotylenchus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis due to different cropping sequences and ploughing. However, deep plouging proved to be more effective than normal ploughing. The cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow caused greatest reduction in the nematode population as the nematode population decreased from 3348 to 983 nematodes/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and 3348 to 766/ 200g soil in deep ploughed field. It was followed in order of efficiency by the cropping sequences, lentil-cowpea-mung, chickpea-okra-chilli, mustard-mung-tomato and tomato-fallow-okra (Table 17-18, Fig. 25). In the cropping sequence lentil-cowpea-mungbean the suppression in total population of nematodes was from 3348 to 986/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 3348 to 807/200g soil in deep ploughed field, whereas in the cropping sequence chickpea-okra-chilli the total nematode population declined from 3348 to 1589/200g soil in normal ploughed field and from 3348 to 1462/200g soil in case of deep ploughed field (Table 17-18). 146 ^ O) CO UD 1- JO •»r t^ T- (3) O) oo •^ CM o (o 00 00 T- ob 1-' o T- .r- (NJ O) V CD 10 ^ in •v o O CM •^ o CO in cvj II -B '55 <0 o •* •>- CO - Q. CM (O u r~- cj) cj> «n o •* s o «o in CO V V vi CO V iri CO CM o 00 CO it> •^ oo s c .9 C i O I JO v> a> v> r- '- in <» .c 3 P •<- CO 00 CM in •» e 1^ o> 3 '2 f^ ' iri CM V o> iri I Q. o m o) S CM CO ^- '- c» CD •r^ 9 '^ 3 Jl^ CM CM •* CO I O oo o f) Q. « X 8 *>" o 3 00 T- CD ro CD II in in CD CM CO t- a •% d CO r»' •^ CM •>«•• d CO o « c CM ^ ,- iri iri fo CO CD 0.0 s '- CM T- •^ "^ c '- CM CM CM Si n o £ m Oi CO 00 O) CO CO in c 10 in CO o> m CO CO •<«• •o 5 e CM O CO 00 m o CO cj> D) <0 CM •«- CO O in o) 'V CJ) in IS. o 00 ? II-a f o 00 (o in ? 00 r>. m 1^ DJ J2 "* « 00 (0 (O T- 00 €0 ^ CM CM T- (M .,- .E Q. oo in CO •«• P 3 CJ) CO ^ ^ •c O) CM •«- O O) N. <») o tf CD ••5 <0 O 00 O JO CO 00 CM c JO r- O) 2 5 o> m 0> O O CD c . = CM m CO ri CM »- CO •^ CM •* fO JO 2 o CO <0 CO •V CM CM •»•<»• •()• tM m CM (O ^ (D '£ ' • - _: I ^ CO CM CD CO O a ra CO CJ) CO t^ 2t !G <^ o •V 00 1^ CO i> ^ UJ y II O) CM CM T- CO c •H Cr> £ -^ C -^ 0^ Qj •H CU 0 03 JC V 0 0) 01 0) ^^ r-l -O S -0 0 0 a • iH • -H g a B c X rO O 0 0 0) E a •H O; o •P C 0u «oN ft) .4. D w rmH z ^ 3 a. 0 a 1-1 (8 +J 0 +J (IJ . 0 H M C 1 0 0 r- H 01 OJ C rH •H XI •s5 •£&^ 0^ 1 3 . 0 4-1 rH ^ •H 0 » >« 0) 0 C C -H 0a ; to Of 0^ CD -0 - W 0 2 +J u « 01 e C 0) •H C Ou D CU U M 0 -H 0 1^ +J U -H CO 0 & ° Jo 0 a 0 •p 1 0 4J 0) C iM la _ »W r-l M a c in fS Xjos 6 002/sapo:»piusu OTtjxsBaed-quBXd jo uoxtjeindod • «7> •H b 149 Likewise, in cropping sequence muslard-mung-tomato the decrease in nematode population was from 3348 to 1663/200 g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 3348 to 1476/200g soil in deep ploughed field, whereas in the cropping sequence tomato-fallow-okra the reduction in nematode population was from 3348 to 2025/200g soil in normal ploughing and from 3348 to 1803 in deep ploughed field (Table 17-18). In this case increase in nematode population was noted when tomato was grown in the first season in case of normal ploughing. However, deep ploughing brought about reduction in nematode population (Table 17- 18). Fallowing also played improtant role in the reduction of nematode population. Fallowing even after susceptible crops like tomato and chilli in the 2nd and 3rd season of cropping sequences resulted in significant decline in the population of all the nematodes (Table 17-18). The population of root-knot nematode, Meloidogytie incognita " decreased significantly due to combined effect of the cropping sequences and ploughing. Highest suppression in root-knot nematode population was observed in the cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow. It was followed by the sequences lentil-cowpea-mung, mustard-mung-tomato, chickpea-okra-chilli and tomato-fallow-okra (Table 17-18, Fig. 26). In the sequence wheat-chilli-fallow the decrease in thefpopulation ofroot- knot nematode was from 934 to 210/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 934 to 176/200g soil in deep ploughed field. Lowest nematode ISO cn C 0 •H C7^ c x: C -^ y. •H Qj cn '-- 4-1 V a, 0 O Q) x: Q; 0 —-^— w O U-l rH • e o a, e 0 X u u O o Q) O c a; 1 4J (U r-l C A 0 EmH cr> 1 c (M• •H dJ JC 0^ oi 3 1 1 0 V ^ iH 04 a; •H -0 c c (T1 •"^ CO (0 Q) •p 0 •H C C 0) 0- 3 0 tr 0 (1) c (Q •H 0) tr c •cH > U4 0tr tx •o 0 •H k4 0 u iH w •0 (H E M 0) c i« CN • cn •H XTOS 6 00Z/{^r) BturuboouT auA&opxoxaw Jo uoT:iBxt»<5od h ILl population was observed when field was left fallow after chilli. Likewise, in the sequence mustard-mung-tomato the suppression in root-knot nematode population was from 934 to 224/200g soil in normal ploughed field and from 934 to 200/200 g soil in case of deep ploughing. But lowest nematode population was observed when mung was grown after mustard. In the sequence lentil-cowpea-mung the decline in root-knot nematode population was from 934 to 219/200g soil in normal ploughed field and from 934 to 183/200 g soil in deep ploughed field but lowest nematode population was observed when mung was grown after cowpea in the 3rd season of cropping. Whereas, in the sequence chickpea-okra- chilli the reduction in the root-knot nematode population was from 934 to 285/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 934 to 220/200g soil in deep ploughed field but lowest nematode population was observed when chilli was grown after okra in the 3rd season of cropping sequence. Similarly, in the cropping sequence tomato-fallow-okra suppression in root-knot nematode population was from 934 to 424/200 g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 934 to 307/200 g soil in deep ploughed field. However, in this case there was an increase in the root-knot nematode population in normal ploughed field when tomato was grown in the first season of cropping but in deep ploughed field decline in root-knot nematode population was observed. Lowest nematode population was noted when field was left fallow after tomato in both normal and deep ploughed field. 152 The population of stunt nematode. Tylenchorhynchus brassicac decline significantly due to combined effect of cropping sequences and ploughing. Highest suppression in the population of stunt nematode, Tylenchorhynchus bassicae was observed in the sequence lentil-cowpea- mung. It was followed by cropping sequences wheat-chilli-fallow, chickpea-okra-chilli, tomato-fallow-okra and mustard-mung-tomato (Table 17-18, Fig. 28). In the cropping sequence lentil-cowpea-mung the population of stunt nematode decline from 825 to 229/200g soil in normal ploughed field and from 825 to 189/200g soil in case of deep ploughing. In the sequence wheat-chilli-fallow the population of stunt nematode decline from 825 to 245/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 825 to 189/200 g soil in deep ploughed field, whereas in the sequence c/i/cA:/)ga-oA:ra-c/j/7// population of stunt nematode decreased from 825 to 255/200g soil in normal ploughed field and from 825 to 229/200g soil in case of deep ploughing. Similarly, in the sequence tomato-fallow-okra, suppression in the population of stunt nematode was from 825 to 435/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 825 to 418/200g in deep ploughed field. Whereas in the sequence mustard-mung-tomato the population of stunt nematode decreased from 825 to 783/200g soil in case of normal ploughing and from 825 to 704/200 g soil in deep ploughed field. Similarly, in case of reniform nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis the population decreased in all the cropping sequences. However, the 53 ai •cH 0^ £ C '— -' ^.y Oi Oi •H a 9 0) £ (U 0 0) CD 0) E •H -0 9 -C k a 0 0 :-' • iH • vw rM e a s •H (0 0 o c s cu 0) /f u o OJ o h 0 N 0) >* / Z-' Q w. «M 0 /i. • c c 0 . •H ''x.;- o 3 ' 0 ^ 0- 0) iH 0) A D £ m o +J &H 0 -S « * 0* w p. c •JHC -M0 CP 4) 3 -H 0 U-i 0 rH Qj C ti! •H "0 in D . 0 n «5Ri -•H« H c S 3^ 2 I^ 9 ty (Q ^ - H 4J U 0 0 a; 0 OJ -o 0 £ c c C '- •H 4J •H a, c 0 (U a -o 6 0 a O 04 g >4-l E o O o 04 O CM c 0) O o Q -* •H c H m 3 O* o 04 0) CO H I 0^ (U en f^ 3 1 -^ c T3 (6 iH o; (0 uj 4) o C e •H 0) 3 0) (T) u 0 CO •H (0 (0 C7> (fl c U •H o* Xi 04 o 3 x: u o c > o x: 0 o c U > 00 Xjos 6 ooZ/s^^TSseaq snqouAqaoqousxAj, jo uoT:^Bxndod CM ] bb c C -^ CD a •H Oi o x: 0) (0 0 a> E c 0 c 0 •H +J i r-l 3 a 0 a x: ' 00 0 ' c 0) •H o ^ (-1. I 0) 3 c 2 «« 0 CO C 0 •H .H Oi c 0 u (fl 0 a E 0 •H 4J to O UH a «M O u a: ITOs Booz/snoxpuT smnxcxoidiOH jo uoxtjeindoa •rl 15 0 0) 0 tTi en 4J c c •H •H "^ £ JS ^ r a c Di Ou en oj 9 0) •H QJ iH 0 0) a -o (13 rH -0 0 V^ 04 iH • t •H CU S Q< n -H B o m u a m 0) o X ue o 0) ir 0) 0 CN Q -^ 0 V Z w 1 C c 0 •H +J (0 FH S a 0 . a^ 00 •u r-- H C 0 OJ U»JQ C ro •H E-t x: I D^ • 3 *W 0 0} iH « a,>- C H (fl (U tfl IM 0 C C 'H 9 to cr 9 (0 -H TJ Oi C C -H •H a< (0 a 9 0 x: u o o 4J 0 O u o cr Xjos 6 oOZ/snoxpuT smiDuaxAtjooTxaH Jo uoxrjexrtdod J :3 / 0) X3 0 E Di c c CT« •M C "^ s: •H Oi ^ Qi £ 0) 0 a •cH (D X! r-l CP ^ 3 (0 0 El rS 1 Q< • H4 T) 03 C a (0 ^^ 03 0 •H c 3 cr c 0) •H (Q n •H c g a 0 •H o iH M •H U «M 4H in 0 3 JS •p 0 0 0) 0c) «4-< r-l IM > u H l-l «n • tp •w XTOS 6 00?/ST'nJOJTTT5 snqouaiAi jo uoT:>i?Tndod Cu 156 cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow proved to be most suitable for reducing the population of reniform nematode. This sequence was followed in order of efficiency by cropping sequences lentil-cowpea-niung, mustard-mung-tomato, tomato-fallow-okraandchickpea-okra-chiHi{TahU 17-18, Fig. 27). In the sequence wheat-chilli-fallow the lowest nematode population was observed when field was left fallow after chilli in both normal and deep ploughed fields and in the sequence lentil-cowpea- mung thelowest-nematode population was noted when mung was grown after cowpea in the 3rd season of cropping sequence. Likewise, in the sequence mustard-mung-tomato thelowest population of nematodes was found when tomato was grown after mung in the 3rd year of cropping sequence. Similarly, other cropping sequences also caused reduction in the population of reniform nematode but to a lesser extent. By and large the different sequences had a similar effect on other nematodes, viz. the spiral nematode, Helicotylenchus indicus, the lance nematode, Hoplolaimus indicus and the filiform nematode, Tylenchus filiformis but to a varying extent (Table 17-18, Fig. 29, 30, 31). Plant growth: As a result of reduction in the nematode population plant growth (weight and length of shoot and root) of all the test crops improved greatly (Table 17-18). Plant weight of tomato was 16.9g and 17.9g in the first year of cropping in the normal and deep ploughed beds, respectively. ] i.9 Wlieii tomato was grown after mung. better iiiipiovemeiit in plant weiglit of tomato was observed. It was 21.3g and 23.Qg respectively in normal and deep ploughed beds. Similarly, plant weight of mung was 18.9g and 2].0g in the first year of cropping in normal and deep ploughed beds respectively, but when mung was grown after cowpea, it showed better improvement in plant weight (20.6g, 23.Og) respectively in normal and deep ploughing treatment (Table 17-18). Likewise, when chilli was grown after wheat in the 2nd year of cropping sequence the plant weight was 46.9g and 49.9g in normal and deep ploughed fields respectively. However, when chilli was grown after okra in the third season the plant weight was 49. Ig and 51.4g in normal and deep ploughing respectively. Similarly, when okra was grown after chickpea in the 2nd season it showed considerable increase in the plant weight (94.7g, 108.3g). But plant weight increased further when okra was grown after fallowing (101.8g, 108.5g) in the 3rd season of cropping sequence (Table 17-18). Thus, it is clear from the above results that cropping sequence alongwith ploughing and fallowing in combination caused significant reduction in nematode population and improved the plant growth. Summary of results (Exp. No. 4.2): Effect of selected cropping sequences and ploughing on the 1 (> C population of nematodes and plant growth was investigated in field conditions (Exp. No. 4.2.1). Significant reduction in the population of nematodes were obtained due to combined effect of cropping sequences and ploughing, with the results plant growth of all the test crops improved greatly However, deep ploughing proved to be most efficacious than normal ploughing. The cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow caused greatest reduction in nematode population. It was followed by cropping sequences lentil-cowpea-mung, chickpea-okra-chilli, mustard-mung- tomato and tomato-fallow-okra. Fallowing after tomato and chilli in the 2nd and 3rd season of cropping sequence caused significant decrease in the population of nematodes. The different test crops involved in the cropping sequence when grown again in the following season after other test crops showed better improvement than crops grown in the first season. 4.3. Integrated control of nematodes with plant resistance and organic amendment (pot study). 4.3.1 Response of cultivars/accessions of lentil {Lens culinaris) alone and in combination with soil amendment with oil cake of neem to root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil. The present experiment was conducted to study the response of 12 cultivars/accessions of lentil to Meloidogyne incognita in presence of soil amendment with oil cake of neem (Table 19). ] 6 ] TO 2 O o Q: CO CO CO o (/) w I 5 111 0(OCOCOfOOOOtf> — D) •^ O I I inr- 9 ^ ^ ^ -1 _J ^ Q. Q. a! (2 II Q a O O o J f). CO Q: ct COO«DtDOOOOOOOOOlDCDOOOcOCOOOOO lit c\j CO CO CO u^' u> »o u:) uj u> uj iri c»j CO CO -^ •^ •* -^ •^' -^ xh tri lo I •9 I o o o o o o o o o 00 o CO I cvi d d d I d d I T-' d d d e Q. 0) inotNU50co a> u COOlOOCNJOCO-^OOT-mcDCnoO-r-CM-^OCVjTfr-T-cOinCD if) CO CO CO -^^ '^" -^ -^^ - .2» (V « CMinint^in t^iOT-r^ooor^aDiniooooiniotsoo-^oocvj-^oinco-t Q. 5:eggj'r^dco-^Ktot3o6'^c»^toiri(D(jidiriKc5diri (p 1 o (/) i: II cor^(3)ooO'^co-*T-f>^Ooo(j)0'^'-comr-cDr^incooo w cocoiriihuJtdKodthioKK-^'inKKfOTtujKcOTfiritd 'c re "in w I •r-oqc>ja)p-^"^'^'*a)pptqipcq?~>-T-;cq'r-ootoofOtp a; CO CO S J3 {5? 8 cotOrt«?5'*totomcotototocococortco >•«< O 0) ( ^—' ••-' ( O 0) 5 >- D _ D D _ 3 D _ D _ D 3 _ D _ D _ D II CO 0) 0) a> w 0) OC ^ s o oo e s s S s s II II ^.2 To to 1 Q-jaj c E E E E TO E E c "^ e v se •2 E o c 03 d d o 3 Z V 1 c 1 Z Z 3 z 3 Z 3 z o o >-a3 -Jro I > -J 5 II ^ I 0. 0. Q. Q. O m O o o O X ™ 1 a 163 It was revealed from the results (Table 19) that out ol 12 culti\ ars accessions, two cultivars/accessious (DPL-34, DPL-25) were highh resistant and three cultivars/accessions (DPL-32, DPL-23 and DPL-29) moderately resistant. Rest of the cultivars/accessions showed varying degree of susceptibility. The resistant cultivars showed low root-galling and better plant growth as compared to susceptible cultivars. The cultivars/ accessions, DPL-32, DPL-23 and DPL-29 showed moderate root-galling, hence, considered as moderately resistant. Rest of the cultivars showed high degree of root-galling, lowplant growth and root-nodulation and are considered either moderately susceptible or highly susceptible (Table 19) Further reduction in the root-knot development was observed when all the cultivars were grown in pots amended with oil cake of neem (Table 19). There was also improvement in plant growth of each cultivar, accession when grown in pots amended with neem cake as compared to untreated cultivars/accessions. However, uninoculated set of each cultivar/accession showed more improvement in plant growth than inoculated ones (Table 19). Summary of result (Exp. No.4.3): In the present study (Exp. No. 4.3.1), effect of 12 culti\ars/ accessions of lentil were investigated alone and is presence of soil amendment with oil cake of neem against root-knot nematode. 164 Meioidogvne incognita. Two cultivars/acessions {DPL-34, DPL-25) were found highly resistant and three cuitivars (DPL-32. DPL-23 and DPL-25) moderately resistant. Rest of the cultivars/accessions showed varying degree of susceptibility.Further reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root-nodulation and plant growth were observed in all the cultivars/accessions when they were sown in pots amended with oil cake of neem 4,4. Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendments in different combinations (pot study). 4.4.1 Effect of organic amendments with oil cakes and leaves alone and in different combinations on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra {Abelmoschus escuientus) cv. Prvani Krani. In the present experiment effects of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and Persian lilac/bakain in different combinations were investigated on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita, plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Root-knot development: In the untreated-inoculated plants the root-knot index (RKl)was noted as 5.0 (on 0-5 scale). There was significant reduction in root- galling caused by M. incognita in the treatments with different combinations of oil cakes and chopped leaves (Table 20). As compared to untreated plants the root-knot index was 0.66 in plants treated with neem J O . c to o -o CO o 0) O 0) > o I s 0) o«OfOfOOO 2.3, 2 6, 3 0, 3.0, 3.3, 3.3, 3.6 and 4.0 in different treatments, viz. neem cake+ neem leaf, neem cake+ Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf, neem cake+castor leaf, castor cake+neem leaf, castor cake+Persiau lilac leaf/ bakain leaf, castor cake+castor leaf, neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem leaf+castor leaf, castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer treated plants respectively (Table 20). Plant growth: Plant growth (fresh and dry weight and plant length) improved significantly in all the treatments with organic amendments (Table 20). However, increase was more pronounced when these treatments were used in different combinations. Among all the treatments plant weight was maximum in neem cake+castor cake treated plants (10.9g). It was followed by neem cake+neem leaf (10.8g), neem cake+Persian lilac leaf (10.2g), neem cake+castor leaf (9.6g), castor cake+neem leaf (9.3g), castor cake+Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf (9. Ig), castor cake+castor leaf (8.8g), neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf (8.6g), neem leaf+castor leaf (8.5g), castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf (8.3g), neem cake (8.2g), castor cake (8 Ig), neem leaf (7.4g), Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf (7.0g), castor leaf (6.7g) and inorganic fertilizer (6.4g) treated plants (Table 20). 16' Dry weight of the okra plants also improved in all the treatments with organic amendment. Maximum improvement was found in neem cake+ castor cake treated plants followed by different treatments with organic amendments as above (Table 20). Similarly,plant length of okra also improved greatly in all the above treatments with organic amendments, but maximum plant length was found in case of neem cake+castor cake (69.9 cm) treated plants. It was followed by different treatments with organic amendments (Table 20). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content in leaves of okra cv. Pravani Kranti showed significant improvement due to thedifferent treatments with organic amendments as compared to untreated plants (0.397 mg/g leaf) which showed lowest chlorophyl content (Table 20). Maximum chlorophyll content was found in the plants from pots amended with neem cake+castor cake (1.091 mg/g leaf). It was followed by neem cake+neem leaf (1.014), neem cake+Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf (0.978), neem cake+castor leaf (0.946), castor cake+neem leaf (0.925), castor cake+Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf (0.917), castor cake+castor leaf (0.881), neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf (0.865), neem leaf+castor leaf (0.817), castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf (0.810), neem cake (0.766), castor cake (0.766), neem leaf (0.714), Persian lilac leaf (0.705), castor leaf (0.680), inorganic fertilizer (0.573) treated plants (Table 20). 16^ 4.4.2 Effect of organic amendment with oil cakes and leaves alone and in different combinations on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.4.1. to study the effect of organic amendments with oil cakes of neem and castor and chopped leaves of neem, Perisan lilac/bakain and castor in different combinations on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: The root-knot development caused by M. incognita was very high (Root-knot indexes.00 on 0-5 scale) on untreated lentil plants (Table 21) Due to different treatments with organic amendments the root-knot incidence declined significantly. However, minimum root-galling was found in neem cake+castor cake (RKI=0.66) treated plants, whereas root-knot indices were 1.0, 1.3,1.3, 1.6, 2.0, 2.3, 2.6, 3.0, 3.3, 3.3, 3.6, 3.6, 4.0 and 4.3 respectively in neem cake+neem leaf, neem cake+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake+castor leaf,castor cake+neem leaf, castor cake+Persian lilac leaf, castor cake+castor leaf, neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem leaf+castor leaf, castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, Persian lilac leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer treated plants (Table 21). The application of organic amendment in different combinations reduced the root-knot index much more than when the additives were used singly. IG' O i o O ID L— O "D &•' tDOOOO(DtDO'-COCDt0OOO(D(OlDfO CD 00 O O •" Q) IT) o o SI r^ c ^ r-- (D o O o A' O ID to CO CO O CD CO o CD CO CO o CD CO o in o c •» r— T— •^ in CM eg CM •^ O •f CO CO CO CO CO •^ ^~ '~ CD c: + CO •^— re CD 00 00 CN 00 o •<}• 5 O in 00 iCDn CD CO CD § - in CD o tncDocMco' Ol o o ini^oooooocDcncDO CM CO CO CO -^ IX) "^ > x: d d o o CO ^ c o eg CM -<• m in ooo-^cOT)-in(Dr--t^oai (0 •^csicsicvicsicvicsicsicsi-r^d 2^ O -D iS in OO •*-' r- 2 o ocooro-^incocn^ooocDcoT-cor^cD CD 00 CO CO •*' •^' •*' •<}• xf •<*•' in iri CO CD (b t-- r-: CM' CNJ O) o o O T- CO 1^ r^ oqoqoqoop'r-cMcocOTi-in o o s ^ c o •^•^T-^-i-csicvicNirvicNJcsicNi (0 O u O 0) <7)Ocococoh-0'^'*r^oocoin:^oot~^cD 1.^ T-CNrgc\ic\icNicorocococO'«t->a^'*Tf-^'<-: qqtnoqocMcn^oinoocn •^ (O r^ CO r^ CO O CO CM o •^df-^-^Cpt^OOOiCvicDCT) in CD h- CO •'J- '"J- -^ -^ •* Tj- _ o c» in r- ininincDcDcotDcorvj E u -c in eg CO CO CO "^ o ommr^mcOT-ocoinor- o T- (b CD ih h-' ododccio6dcgco^r' ^ o LJJ ^ O in ii- i:r 2 oT -03^ ^— CM CD to j^ o o 0) (0 CO c v (U CD 0) o o o O II II V C5 t_ _I_J_)-I-I-J_I_1_J0 CO ~^ CO D-l Q-l IS E o E DL0Q.0D.Z0Q-20 *•- If) 03 to Root-nodule development: In the untreated plants the root-nodule index (RNl) was noted as 1.3 on 0-5 scale (Table 21). However, highest root-nodule index was found in neem cake+castor cake treated plants (RNI=4.6). It was followed by neem cake+neem leaf (4.6), neem cake+Persian lilac leaf (4.3), neem cake+castor leaf (4.0), castor cake+neem leaf (3.6), castor cake-^Persian lilac leaf (3.6), castor cake+castor leaf (3.3), neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf (3.1), neem leaf+castor leaf (3.0), castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf (2.6) neem cake (2.6), castor cake (2.3), neem leaf (2.0), Persian lilac leaf (2.0), castor leaf (1.6) and inorganic fertilizer (1.6) treated plants (Table 21). Plant growth. A significant improvement in plant growth (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 were observed due to the application of different organic additives (Table 21). Moreover, the greatest increase in plant weight was noted in neem cake+castor cake (plant weight = 7.3g) treated plants,followed by neem cake+ neem leaf (7.1g), neem cake+Persian lilac leaf (6.8g), neem cake+castor leaf (6.6g), castor cake+neem leaf (6.0g), castor cake+Persian lilac leaf (5.8g), castor cake+castor leaf (5.4g), neem leaf+Persian lilac leaf (4.9g), neem leaf+castor leaf (4.8g), castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf (4.5g). neem cake (4.4g), castor cake (4.3g), neem leaf (4.0), Persian lilac leaf (3.3g), castor leaf (3.Og) and inorganic fertilizer (2.7g) treated plants (Table 21) 171 Dry weight and length of plants also improved greatly in all the treatments as compared to untreated control in a similar manner as for fresh weight. Highest improvement was found in neem cake+castor cake treated plants followed by other treatments with organic amendments (Table 21). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll (Chl.a+b) content was noted as 0.541 mg/g leaf in untreated control, whereas it improved greatly in all the treatments with organic amendments. The chlorophyll content was higher in plants from pots amended with different combinations of the organic amendments than those receiving the amendments singly. Neem cake+castor cake treated plants showed maximum chlorophyll content (1.058 mg/g leaf) followedby neem cake+neem leaf (0.912), neem cake+Persian lilac leaf (0.902), neem cake+castor leaf (0.892), castor cake+neem leaf (0.861), castor cake+Persian lilac leaf (0.846), castor cake+castor leaf (0.803), neem leaf+Persian leaf (0.789), neem leaf+castor leaf (0.726), castor ieaf+Persian lilac leaf (0.689), neem cake (0.680), castor cake (0.668), neem leaf (0.616),Persian lilac leaf (0.611), castor leaf (0.563) and inorganic fertilizer (0.541) treated plants (Table 21). 4.4.3 Effect of organic amendment with dry crop residues alone and in combination on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. The present experiment was undertaken to study the efficacy of 172 dry crop residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold in different combinations on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode,Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Root-knot development. The root-knot development was reduced by the application of dry crop residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold as compared to untreated control (Table 21). Higher doses of the treatments gave greater reduction in root-knot development than lower doses. Highest reduction in root-knot development was found in plants treated with dry crop residues of marigold+rocket-salad (RKI=0.60) at highest test dose (50 g/ pot) followed by plants treated with dry crop residues of mustard+marigold (RKI= 1.0), mustard+rocket-salad (RKI= 1.3), marigold (RKI= 1.6), rocket- salad (RKI-2.0) and mustard (RKI=2.3) at highest test doses (Table 22). Lower doses of dry crop residue (@ 20 g/pot and 30 g/pot) were also effective in reducing the root-knot development but to a lesser extent. The combined application of dry crop residue proved to be more effective than when used alone. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of okra cv. Prvani Kranti improved significantly by the application of dry crop ] 7 3 *-' (/) u n a •4^ ^ C 1 fl> %o * r^ o o •— CO Q) 0) r •^ w c 3 o o (0 c lO o o I '-•—' B o m (- 0) O o 5 •o CO tt) CO O CO O CD O CO CO O CO O CD O CO CO CD CD CD S CO CSI o) 00 CO CO . m o) rt 00 CD T- CM CD CO r^ ^^ 9S§!^ in r^ c» K Cji csj in in S oo E •* -"i- in u o o CD r- CD O CD CD r- •<»• TC CM CO CO CM CD r^ CSJ CO o in E «i c a> T-: T-; cvi CN C\i CM rg CO -^ CO Tf in CO oci cxi CO -^ CD d c CSJ CM CM T- to 0) O S^ o c o r--incq ooin'<- cpc3)co cjcO'-^ cpp-<; pcoco csi ^ E c £ ° o ^ a. cocort cocort cortrt rtcoco rtcoco §"^ CM HI -O o O Q. S«S SnS 8«S S8S SPSS R°S CM CVJ •D Q> m •D So + Si 95 S CO (U 03 CO CD ra OD •c Vi •c It CO CD d d £ S1^ C cm s E E »- 2 oc + 3 d d 174 residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold in different combinations (Table 22). However, combined application of dry crop residues was found to be more effective than their single application. Moreover, higher doses of all the treatments of dry crop residues improved the plant weight, but maximum plant weight was noted in plants treated with dry crop residues of rocket-salad+marigold (8.5 g). It was followed by plants treated with dry crop residues of mustard + marigold (8.0g), mustard+rocket-salad (7.5g), marigold (7.3g), rocket-salad (7.1g) and mustard (6.9g) at higher doses (Table 22). Similar trend was observed with lower doses but efficacy was comparatively less. Lowest plant weight was noted in untreated control (5.8g). Likewise,dry weight and length of okra plants also improved by all the treatments with dry crop residues but maximum dry weight and length of plants were observed at higher doses of the dry crop residues. There was further increase in the dry weight and length of okra plants when the dry crop residues were applied indifferent combinations (Table 22). 4.4.4 Effect of organic amendment with dry crop residues alone and in combination on the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.4.3 to evaluate the effect of dry crop residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold in different combinations on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. 175 Root-knot development: In the untreated control the root-knot index (RKI) was noted as 4.8 on 0-5 scale (Table 23), but there was decline in the root-knot development by the application of different doses of dry crop residues. Higher doses of dry crop residues proved to be effective than lower doses. Highest suppression in root-galling was found in plants treated with dry crop residue of marigold+rocket-salad (RKI=0.66) at higher doses (50g/pot) followed by dry crop residues of mustard + marigold (RKI=1.3), mustard+rocket-salad (RKI=1.6), marigold (2.0), rocket-salad (RKI=2.3) and mustard (RKI=3.3) at higher doses respectively (Table 23). The lower doses also caused decline in root-knot development but to alesser extent. The root-knot index further decreased when dry crop residues were used in different combinations. Root-nodule development: The root-nodulation increased considerably due to application of increased dosesof dry crop residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold as compared to untreated (RNI=1.0) control (Table 23). The maximum root-nodulation was found in plants treated with dry crop residues of rocket-salad+marigold (RNI==4,6) at higher doses (50g/pot). It was followed by dry crop residues of mustard+marigold (3.6), mustard+rocket- salad (3.0), marigold (2.3), rocket-salad (2.0) and mustard (1.6) at higher doses respectively (Table 23). The lower doses also caused increase in ] 7 6 •-• o in C N- «• 1 1 ^ •• i< ^•h o «? o > « 2, 1- O *i "5 X CD eg h~ 0 CD (/) O O ^ CO CO (D CO CD O CD O CO CO CD 0 CD 0 CD 0 CO CD 0 -c c K c .E T-^ T- T^ •r^ T- CM •>- eg eg eg CM CO evi CO CO •«f -C •««•• •^ CD T- *" CD c c O ::= ? V- (0 o_ CO c: o ol CO to n CD CD CO O CO O CO 0 CD CO CD CO CO 0 CO oo r^ 5 i3 -^ Q^ J£ .= Tf CO CO CO eg CNi CO eg eg eg eg T-^ eg •r-' •.-; T^ T-^ 0 •c d d E _' o .;:: o c c i^ ^^ iS CO r- c o CO CD O) •<*• 0) CN CJ) in h- CM r^ (35 in CO 0 r~ 0 CM CO eg CO CD x: 1- CNJ CNJ r>j eg csi CO eg CO CO CO CO CO CO CO -^ CO TT Tf 1-^ d d o 2 o oo q CN CD T^ CN T-; CO -^ CM TT in eg in q Tf q q in o >- Q: CD CD o '^. ^ 1 (D CD o in CD 1^ CD 00 O oo eg CO 0 CO Ti- CM CO •* CO -C CO q (0 T-^ r-^ CM T-" eg c\i eg eg CM eg eg eg CM CM Csi o •^ •^ •^ •^ 55 "o o c 2 2 ,,_ ^_ *- CO •^ CD eg CD •«- (» -^ CD C3) T- 0 CO in '- in 00 CO CJ) CO CM -•s- in £ o Q. H -^ in ifi in in CD cb CD f^ r~^ r-" K K h^ r-^ K 1^ (O •^ d d o 2 o c 1 o c o r-- -^ rj o eg o in CD K r- CO 00 in CJ) 0 CD 0 CM in ^g" ra Q£ T-^ cvi c>i CM CM eg CM eg CM eg eg c\i eg CM CO CM CO CO T-^ T3 O a o J= S (0 •"I o 05 T- ^ •<- CO O •«- CO •<»• CO in h- CD CD oo r- CJ) •^ r^ 5 ^ U. (0 C\j CO CO CO CO -^ •* Tf-' Tj: '"f -^f Tf -* •* -Tf • Plant growth: As a consequence of reduction in root-knot development by the application of different doses of dry crop residues of mustard, rocket- salad and marigold in different combinations, the plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved greatly. Combined application of dry crop residues proved to be most effective than when used alone. Also higher doses (50 g/pot) caused highest improvement in plant growth than lower doses (Table 23). In the untreated control plant weight was noted as 4.2g. Maximum plant weight was found in plants treated with dry crop residues of rocket-salad+marigold (8.3g) at higher doses. It was followed by dry crop residues of mustard+marigold (7.8g), mustard+ rocket-salad (7.5g), marigold (7.1g), rocket-salad (6.4g) and mustard (5.6g) respectively at higher doses (Table 23). Similar effect was observed with lower doses but efficacy was comparatively less than higher doses (Table 23). Dry weight and plant length of lentil cv. K-75 also showed the same trend as that of fresh plant weight. There was significant improvement in dry weight and length of plants by different doses of dry 178 crop residues when used alone or in different combinations. Maximum improvement was found at higher doses followed by lower doses of dry crop residues (Table 23). Summary of results (Exp. No. 4.4): The investigations (Exp. No. 4.4.1, 4.4.2) were undertake to study the effect of organic amendments with oil cakes of neem and castor and leaves of neem, castor and Persian lilac/bakain in different combinations on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita on okra cv. PrvaniKranti and lentil cv. K-75. It was found that organic amendments in different combinations brought about significant reduction in the root- knot development, as a consequence of which plant growth and chlorophyll content improved greatly. The minimum root-galling was found in neem cake+castor cake treated plants followed neem cake+neem leaf, neem cake+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake+castor leaf, castor cake+ neem leaf, castor cake+Persian lilac leaf, castor cake+ castor leaf, neem leaf+ Persian lilac leaf, neem leaf+ castor leaf, castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, Persian lilac leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer treated plants. Similarly plant growth and chlorophyll content also increased in different treatments with organic amendments. Highest plant growth and chlorophyll content was found in neem cake+castor cake treated plants followed by other treatments with organic amendments. 179 Similarly, in another study (Exp. No. 4.4.3, 4.4.4) the effects of dry crop residues of mustard, rocket-salad and marigold in different combinations on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75 were also investigated. It was observed that dry crop residues in different combinations brought about significant reduction in the root- knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita, as a consequence of which plant growth improved greatly. Higher doses of dry crop residues proved to be most effective than lower doses of dry crop residues. Highest decline in the root-knot development was observed in plants treated with dry crop residues of marigold+rocket-salad at higher doses followed by plants treated with dry crop residues of mustard+marigold, mustard+rocket-salad, marigold, rocket-salad and mustard at higher doses. Likewise, plant growth and root-nodulation (in lentil) was also highest in plants treated with dry crop residues of marigold+mustard followed by other treatments with dry crop residues. 4.5 Integrated control of nematodes with seed treatment and organic amendments (pot study). 4.5.1.1 Effect of seed treatment with leaf extracts of mustard on the root-knot development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. Mustard {Brassica juncea) has been reported to have nematicidal properties. Therefore,it was considered desirable to investigate efficacy of plant extract of mustard as seed dressing treatment for the control of 180 root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: The root-knot index (RKI) was noted as 4.6 (on 0-5 scale) in untreated plants (Table 24). However, significant inhibition in root-knot development was observed with an increase in the concentration of mustard leaf extract and seed soaking duration. Minimum root-knot index was noted in 'S' concentration (RKI=1.6) after seed soaking for 12h duration. It was followed by S/2 (2.6) and S/10 (3.0) concentration (Table 24). The seed soaking in different concentrations for 12h duration also caused reduction in the root-knot development but to a lesser extent than 24h duration of seed soaking. Root-nodule development: The root-nodule index (RNI) of lentil increased greatly with an increase in the concentration of mustard leafextract and seed soaking duration. In the untreated plants the root-nodule index was noted as 1.0. However, the maximum root-nodule index was observed with 'S' concentration (RNI=3.0) of mustard extract after 12h seed soaking duration followed by S/2 (2.6) and S/10 (2.0) concentrations of mustard leaf extract (Table 24). The root-nodule index also increased in plants raised from seeds soaked in different concentrations of the mustard leafextract for 12 h duration but to a lesser extent. Ibl •*^ 00 . t^ c: "? 0) Q) CD CM E -1 (D o CO o CD O q CD Oi Q. - ii! CN csi ^ CO Cvj CM '- d d O = ._ 0 C 2 > Q) IK T3 ^ CO (O o •R Q) § ,_ o o CO CM ^_ O ^ eg •^ d d CD O iM «w -a S D d d lu £ 1B2 Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresb and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved significantly with an increase in concentration of leaf extract of mustard and seed soaking duration. Maximum plant weight was found in 'S' concentration (plant weight==3.7g) of mustard leaf extract after seed soaking for 24h duration. It was followed by S/2 (3.3g) and S/10 (3.0) concentrations for similar seed soaking duration (Table 24). The seed soaking in different concentrations for 12h duration also caused improvement in plant weight but to lesser extent. Dry weight and length of plants also increased with an increase in the concentration of mustard extract and seed soaking duration in a similar manner as that of fresh plant weight. Maximum dry weight and length was found in plants raised from soaked seeds in 'S' concentrations of mustard extract for 24h duration followed by other concentrations of mustard extract (Table 24). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content of the lentil plants increased significantly with an increase in the concentration of leaf extract of mustard and seed soaking duration as compared to untreated plants (0.646 mg/g leaf). Highest chlorphyll content was found with seed soaking in'S' concentration (0.874 mg/g) for 24h duration. It was followed by S/2 ] b (0.835) and S/10 (0.760) concentialions of mustard leaf extract (Table 24). Seed soaking for 12b duration also caused increase in the chlorophyll content but it was lower than in 24h seed soaking duration. 4.5.1.2 Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root- knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. In the present experiment effect of seed soaking in different concentrations of mustard extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor were studied for the control of root- knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot index (RKI)was noted as 4.6 (on 0-5 scale). But significant inhibition in root galling was observed in plants raised from seeds soaked in different concentrations of mustard leaf extract and sown in pots amended with organic additives. Maximum reduction in root-knot development was found in neem cake treated plants (RKI=0.6 ) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of mustard leaf extract. It was followed by castor cake (RKI=1.0), neem leaf (RKI=1.0) and castor leaf (RKI=1.3) treated plants (Table 25). Seed soaking in other concentrations alongwith soil treatment with different ] h — CD O -D •2 "« CO Q? ^ B Root-nodule development: Seed soaking in different concentrations of mustard leaf extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor caused significant increase in root-nodulation. Maximum root-nodule index (RNI) was found in neem cake treated plants (4.6) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of mustard leaf extract. It was followed by castor cake (3.6), neem leaf (3.3) and castor leaf (3.0) treated plants compared to untreated plants (1.0) which showed lowest root-nodule index (Table 25). Seed soaking in other concentrations of mustard leaf extract and soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused increase in root-nodulation but to lesser extent. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved greatly due to combined effect of seed soaking in different concentrations of mustard leaf extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest plant weight was found in neem cake treated plants (4.2g) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of mustard extract followed by castor cake (4.1g). neem leaf (4.0g) and castor leaf (3.9g) treated plants (Table 25). Seed ] '6(. soaking in other concentrations of mustard leaf extract alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendment caused improvement in plant weight but it was lower than in 'S' concentration. Dry weight and length of plants also improved considerably due to seed soaking in different cocentrations of mustard leaf extract and soil treatment with different organic amendments in a similar manner as that of fresh plant weight. Maximum dry weight and length was observed in neem cake treated plants which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of mustard leaf extract followed by other treatments withorganic amendments (Table 25). The lowest dry weight and length was found in untreated plants. Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content of treated plants improved significantly as compared to untreated plants (0.646 mg/g leaf). But maximum chlorophyll content was noted in neem cake treated plants (1.030 mg/g leaf) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of mustard leaf extract. It was followed by castor cake (1.009), neem leaf (0.970) and castor leaf (0.941) treated plants respectively (Table 25). Similarly, seed soaking in other concentrations of mustard leaf extract alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendment caused considerable increase in chlorophyll content but it was lower than in 'S' concentrations of mustard leaf extract. 187 4.5.2.1 Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, l^ns culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.5.1.1 to evaluate the effect of seed soaking in different concentrations of rocket- salad leaf extract for different durations on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: The significant reduction in root-knot index (RKI) was observed in plants raised from seeds soaked in different concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad for different durations as compared to untreated plants (RKI=5.0). However, root-knot index decreased with an increase in the concentration of leaf extract of rocket-salad and seed soaking duration. Maximum reduction in root-knot development was noted in 'S" concentration (RKI=1.1) of rocket-salad leaf extract after 24h seed soaking duration followed by S/2 (RKI=2.0) and S/10 (RKI=2.5) concentrations for similar seed soaking duration (Table 25). The seed soaking in different concentrations for 12h duration also caused decline in the root-knot development but it was lower than in 24h duration of seed soaking (Table 26). 188 "O ^ ^ Q) c: .i!o 3 CD 05 in 10 ~J o CO O o O in o 00 CM CO III CO c\i CM •^ CO (M •*- d 1- O _' ._ *-" '•*-' c c ?o 0) (D co r^ CO to ^ o in o ill o 00 •^ EQ. »^- £ £ .E CO CO CO •<- CM c\i in d T^ o o ? + (1 m ^ -C 0> o in (P CM 00 r^ •g- > -^ « fS oo Q in T— m •2 •g en oo t^ CO 00 00 © 88 T3 O 1- d d d d d d d d d "o o) 1 CM T- T- O) in O) CM c 5 ?8 co 5 o d d d d d 1 d d 5 t-~ O) -^ r- r- °5 CM 83 " II •Jo 11 |2 CM "If c d d « "D CM f i ilCO l ^— 3 (J d UJ S 189 Root-nodule development: The root-nodule index of lentil cv. K-75 increased greatly with an increase in the concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and seed soaking duration. In the untreated plants the root-nodule index (RNI) was noted as 1.0. However, highest increase in root-nodule index was observed in plants raised from seeds soaking in 'S' concentration (RNI=4.0) for 24h duration. It was followed by S/2 (RNI=3.0) and S/10 (2.5) concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract (Table 26). Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil plants increased considerably with an increase in the concentration of rocket-salad leaf extract and seed soaking duration. However, highest plant weight was found in 'S' concentration (4.4g) of rocket-salad leaf extract after 24h seed soaking duration. It was followed by S/2 (4.0g) and S/10 (3.7g) concentrations of rocket-salad extract for similar seed soaking duration (Table 26). The seed soaking in different concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract for 12h duration also caused improvement in plant weight but it was to a lesser extent. Lowest plant weight was noted in untreated plants (3.0g). Likewise, dry weight and length of plants also improved greatly with an increase in the concentration of rocket-salad leaf extract. Maximum 290 dry weight and length was observed in 'S' concentration after 24h seed soaking duration followedby other concentrations of rocket-salad extract (Table 26). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content of lentil plants increased significantly with an increase in the concentration of rocket-salad leaf extract and seed soaking duration. However, maximum chkophyll content was found with seed soaking in 'S' concentration (0.906 mg/g) of leaf extract of rocket-salad extract after 24h seed soaking duration followed by S/2 (0.852) and S/10 (0.818) concentrations (Table 26). Seed soaking in different concentration for 12h duration also caused increase in the chlorophyll content but it was to a lesser extent. Lowest chlorophyll content was noted in untreated plants (0.688 mg/g leaf). 4.5.2.2 Effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. The experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.5.1.2 to evaluate the efficacy of seed soaking in different concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract alongwith soil amendments with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by theroot-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. 191 Root-knot development. The root-knot development was highest in untreated plants (RKI=5 0 on 0-5 scale). However, root-knot development suppressed greatly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Greatest inhibition in toot-knot index was observed in neem cake treated plants (RKI=0.50) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of leaf extract of rocket-salad followed by castor cake (0.6), neem leaf (1.0) and castor leaf (1.6) treated plants (Table 27). Seed soaking in other concentrations alongwith soil amendment with different organic amendment also caused reduction in root-knot index but it was lower than in 'S' concentration of leaf extract of rocket-salad. Root-nodule development: Root-nodule index (RNI) in untreated plants was noted as 1.0. However, there was significant increase in the root-nodulation due to seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest root-nodule index was observed in neem cake treated plants (RNI=5.0) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract followed by castor cake (4.6), neem leaf (4.0) and castor leaf (3.3) treated plants (Table 27). Seed soaking in other concentrations of rocket- salad leaf extract alongwith soil treatment with different organic 1«, x: ' — 1 t3 Q) . "? • |2- CM OO 1|| o o o ID o o o o o CO o O o -^ in iri •«r CO TJ •^ CM •^ CO CM CO CO CM d d £ E ^ o T13 ^^ •g- CO in q to to CO O q o CO q CO CO o CI) CM in T- oc I d '~ d "r- CM CM CM CM CM q d T-^ '^ ^ CO J. ^ n 1^ Q ,_ Q CJ) CM « in ,_ 00 in 00 CO CO CM — o CO CO a> 5) 00 58 1 d d d d d d d d d o 2 > 1- d d d f CM CO CM o 5 t« O 1 in § 9 5 CO O d d d d d d d d dCM d d d d "O X3 C 1 CM CM m CO 00 — T>J% CD^ CO Q) g o ^ S ffi § § 5? § § 9 CO <^ 3 ^ o d d d d d d d d d d d d d •- (/) CO Tj- CO CD CO c: 1 r^ lO CM tn CO o CO CM 0) CM o 00 CM CM CO -J^ O 0) H c\i c«i c\i CM CM CM CM CM 1-^ CM CM 1-^ T-^ d d ^ CD — *» 1 O) CO r^ CO 1^ (O N- r~ m r- CO CO CO £ d d d d d d d d d d d d d » 1 CO r- in h- (O •^ CO in Tf in Ti- CM 11° 1- (0 d ^CO *- > CD CD r^ co (D CM o in CM o CO o CO o CM CO 0)0 0 0) 1 K •^ •t' •^ •^J^ •^ •* •*• •*' •^ •^ •^' CO CO d d —c: ^c >O-) '"" *-» •^ • 5 r^ (O (O t^ (O (O h- in •t (O in •^ ^ C O CD C 1 jx: *" Q. 0_i-D M tn £ c £ 1 o r- in CJ) (O •* OO 1^ (O h- m CM CD u. M CO cg CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM -^ 0) O CD •^ •<«• -»!• -^ m Tj- m q CO r^ CO r- in CM CD 1 CM CO cd d •* 0) s s s CO 5 m s in m s Tf q ° m O *O- 50^) Co! ? m ^ O) CO o CO T- in CO CO o CM o d CO r^ O) r-' in cd K d h~' CD iri C\i OJ C ^ 1 CM c 0) c/) cn ^0f C Q) O e 1 0) M « •e n s to T3 ii CO A E E o E o ns E to 0) CD c d d 11» z (0 2 O d d o 193 amendments also caused increase in root-nodulation but to a lesser extent than in 'S' concentration (Table 27). Plant growth. Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved significantly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Maximum plant weight was observed in neem cake treated plants (4.7g) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract. It was followed by castor cake (4.6g), neem leaf (4.5g) and castor leaf (4.3g) treated plants (Table 27). Seed soaking in other concentrations of rocket-salad leafextract alongwith soil treatment with organic amendment also caused impovement in plant weight but it was lesser than in 'S' concentration. The lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (3.0) (Table 27). Similarly, dry weight and length of plants improved significantly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil treatment with different organic amendment. Maximum dry weight and length was found in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in S' concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad followed by other treatment with organic amendments (Table 27). Lowest dry weight and length was noted in untreated plants. 194 Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content of untreated plants was noted as 0.688 mg/g leaf. However, maxiumum increase in chlorophyll content was observed in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentrations of rocket-salad leaf extract (1.067mg/g) followed by castor cake (1.040), neem leaf (0.966) and castor leaf (0.918)treated plants (Table 27). Similarly, chlorophyll content also increased due to seed soaking in other concentrations of leaf extract of rocket-salad and soil treatment with different organic amendments but it was lower than in 'S' concentration of rocket-salad leaf extract. 4.5.3.1 Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract for different durations on the root-knot development caused \>y Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of okra cv. prvani Kranti. Root-knot development: Root-knot development on okra was highest (RKI=4.0) in the untreated plants. However, as a result of seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract for different durations there was 19: reduction in root-galling. The inhibition in root-galling increased with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. Maximum inhibition in root-galling was observed with 'S' concentration of rice polish extract after 12h seed soaking duration (RKI=1.0). It was followed by S/2 (RKI=2.0), S/4 (3.0) and S/10 (3.3) concentrations of rice polish extract for same duration of seed soaking (Table 28). Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of okra cv. Prvani Kranti increased considerably with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. However, highest plant weight was observed with 'S' concentration after seed soaking for 12h duration (9.4g). It was followed by S/2 (8.5g), S/4 (8.4g) and S/10 (7.5^ concentrations respectively (Table 28). Lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (6.3g). Similarly,dry weight and length of plants also improved significantly with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. Maximum dry weight and length was found with 'S" concentration after 12h seed soaking followed by S/2, S/4 and S/IG concentrations of rice polish extract (Table 28). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content of leaves also increased greatly with an increase in ] 9h >s (O JD :3 0) J^ ^ o CO ^ ? o u ^ J, "S" t-- CO o CO CO CD o o o CO o (D CJ) III CNJ CO CO •r^ CM CO CO iri d d E « f Q. ti: n in en -r- o ^ ^ s S 8 « oo s ss oJ ° 5 CD d > ^t:: ^ H d d 0 O E ^ CSl O o •O £ £ CM CO CO 00 S CM o^ f 5 CJ d d c o g in o (35 CO in in ^ en CD CM CM 1 1 CO CO o *- o d (b d d d _ 1 »o- (c0 ^ CM CO CO •<- -* in 00 1 CO •<- in in CM o o in CM 1 CO CO CM CM CO CO CO CM CM ^ "—. n 1 CM in o CM > *= CO 1 0) iri iri in Tt CD iri in in o u. Q. in CM o CO q CO O 2? -D ._ ^ O) CM S o H S S8 S CM o E o c 8 in CM TO TO 5 CD E ^ __. i= 0) Q. ^ in CM 00 (0 1 1 - the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration as compared to untreated control (0.605mg/g leaf). Highest chlorophyll content was found with 'S' concentration (0.814 mg/g) of rice polish extract followed by S/2 (0.736), S/4 (0.700) and S/10 (0.668) concentrations after 12h seed soaking duration (Table 28). 4.5.3.2 Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same line as in 4.5.3.1 to study the effect of seed soaking with different concentrations of rice polish extract for different durations on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot index (RKI) was noted as 4.5 (on 0-5 scale). However, there was significant reduction in the root-knot development with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. Maximum inhibition in root-knot development was found with 'S' concentrations (RKI=1.0) of rice polish extract after 12h seed soaking duration followed by S/2 (RKI=2.3), S/4 (RKI=2.6) and S/10 (RKI=3.0) concentrations of rice polish extract for same duration of seed soaking (Table 29). 198 >> (/) — X3 T: iS o o -D 2 CO o (D T- •- CI IX) (O O CO CO CO CO o in 0) -J r=OC M i£ CM CO CO CO CM CM CO E _' + Q.-^ n CM CM CO CO CO o c It R := 5 OO Ifo) ro- ^ (O s 0 i? d d o so O o d d d d d > w 1 H 0) o ^r—. CD CM a> CM 1 o CO JQ CO •o CM CO CM CM .^ -C J £ ?? p> CO o O o o d CO IQ (D 5 2 1 o CM •^ O) ^ co CO z o o O o d d d o ,_ 2s 1 O) in •^ CO o CO CO ?8S CM CM CM «-a 1- •^ •^ •^ •^ o o *" -o _j_,^ c c S 1 r^ -c .c — r^ OO CO "~ OO CM 0) to in en CO o CO in t^ = 0) 1 1 CO CO CM CM TT CO CO CO CM d d o c £ Q. ^ .? 0) g' -"t CO Y" o r- in CO -. (J) 1 1 d k_ • — ^J — O tL x: — 1 £1 •* CJ) 00 CD 00 TT o CJ) •^ (0 CM CM CM CM o 1 •^ •^ '" •^ "^ a. .^i^^ C ' O OO O) r- Tj- O O) CD Q. 1 0) c *^ 5 . 1 in o CO (D CJ) (D OO OO :^ Csi N^ -^ CO CO O) £ O) (O CO CM £ CO CM CM CM ^ CM CM CM CM o to O ii o Si^ c 5 <^ ^. ^ 03 ^ o E >^ LU £ o o £M 5; T- o ii CM 5 T^ W W (0 W TO OJ u) (/) (o ui > CM _. 0) Root-nodule development The untreated plants showed lowest root-nodule index (RNI=1.0) as compared to treated plants. But root-nodule index increased greatly with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. The highest root-nodule index was observed in 'S' concentration (RNI=3.6) after 12h seed soaking duration. It was followed by S/2 (3.3), S/4 (2.3) and S/10 (2.0) concentrations of rice polish extract (Table 29). Seed soaking for 6h duration with different concentration of rice polish extract also showed increase in root-nodule index but only to alesser extent. Plant growth: The plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved considerably with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract (S-S/10) and seed soaking duration (6h- 12h). However, highest plant weight was noted with 'S' concentration (4.5g) after I2h seed soaking duration. It was followed by S/2 (3.9g), S/ 4 (3.3g) and S/10 (3.0g) concentrations of rice polish extract (Table 29) The seed soaking for 6h duration with different concentratons of rice polish extract also caused improvement in plant weight but to a lesser extent. Similarly, dry weight and length of plants showed the same trend as that of fresh weight. These parameters also increased with an increase 200 in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. Highest dry weight and length was found with 'S' concentration after 121i seed soaking duration followed by other concentrations of rice polish extract (Table 29). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content increased greatly with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. Maximum chlorophyll content was found in ' S' concentration (0.782 mg/g) after 12h seed soaking duration followed by S/2 (0.735), S/4 (0.733) and S/10 (0.683) concentrations of rice polish extract as compared to untreated (0.561) control (Table 29). The seed soaking for 6h duration with different concentrations of rice polish extract also caused increase in chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent. 4.5.4.1 Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. In the present experiment the efficacy of seed treatment in different concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor were investigated on the root-knot development caused hy Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. 201 Root-knot development: The root-knot index (RKI) was highest in the untreated plants (RKI = 5.0 on 0-5 scale). However, root-knot development was suppressed greatly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor Maximum inhibition in root-knot development was observed in plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and grown in neem cake treated pots (RKI=0.90). It was followed by a similar seed soaking treatment coupled with soil treatment with castor cake (RKI=1.0), neem leaf (RKI=1.3) and castor leaf (RKI=1.5) treated plants (Table 30). Seed soaking in other treatments also showed inhibition in root-knot development but to a lesser extent. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) improved significantly with seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Maximum plant weight was found in plants from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and grown in neem cake treated pots (plant weight = 12.9g). It was followed by castor cake (11.5g), neem leaf (10. Ig) and castor leaf (9.4g) treated plants (Table 30). The lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (6.4g). Similarly seed soaking in other concentrations of rice polish extract, viz. S/2, S/4 and '02 c/) Q) is 03 CD O O — 73 O _0 •9 O) T- n 00 O CO O CO CO tn o to n (D o o CO CD o CM CJ CO in (D CO x: "oj .;£ I 6 -- •r- '- •r- •^ CM CN •r- T- CM CM I^ • O O ^5 a:£.E CO CO CD CM in CD •o- ^ CM CO CO CO cn CJ) CO CM O CD 0) a> O) oo o o CO (D O O O O foe I 6 o •^ •^ o o in oi r^ CM r^ 00 CO O O !$ S § ^ CM O CM in in 00 III in I/) I' •* In ¥ ? in CO 5 CO CO CO CM o 6 o d d 0) 0 Q_ •>- O CO O) ID n OO CM ^ O O in K ? ? •<}• CO CO CO o 6 s ? ? d o o 5 e' r- (o 00 00 -t o in CM 0) o CO CO CD CO w *L 5 IT) iri •^ in in in CO CO CO CN CO in C 2 ^ o d «5 0 1 I O 1^ (D CO CM n d o £ to CN 2 >.^ 1 t/> O) (D (N CO m CO CO CD in o •T CD CM r^ g So I •^ in Csi •<- o 0) -,- o 0) OO o (3) CD OO 0) 00 00 CD I- " " o d E ^ « CM o o in CM • 1 •<1- 0) in CO OO • •D 00 CD CO CO O) O) -- in 1 CNJ •^ CO CM CO o r- T- g> CD CD CM O) in CO m in in in in TT in t • o O C o O n O O ilh9 O CM -f CM •* CM CM • o ^ m m^ Ji. V) 03 V) Vi 03 03 d w (/) 03 in S/10 alongwith soil amendment also caused improvement in plant weight but to lesser extent. Likewise, dry weight and length of plants also improved greatly due to seed soaking in different concentrations and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor,but maximum dry weight and length was found in neem cake treated plants grown form seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish followed by other treatments with organic amendment in a similar manner as in case of fresh weight (Table 30). The lowest dry weight and length of plants was found in untreated plants. Chlorophyll content: The chlorophyll content was noted as 0.605 mg/g leaf in untreated plants (Table 30). However, chlorophyll contents improved greatly in the treated plants. Maximum chlorophyll content was observed in neem cake treated plants (1.145 mg/g) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract. It was followed by castor cake (1.060), neem leaf (1.034) and castor leaf (0.896) treated plants (Table 30). Seed soaking in other concentrations, viz. S/2, S/4 and S/10 of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with different treatments of organic amendment also caused improvement in chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent (Table 30). 2 04 4.5.4.2 Effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, {ens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.5.4.1 to study the efficacy of seed soaking in different concentration of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: The root-knot index (RKI) was highest in the untreated plants (RKI=4.5 on 0-5 scale). However, root-knot-index decline considerably due to seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. The highest inhibition was observed in neem cake treated plants (RKI=0.60) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract followed by castor cake (RKI=1.1), neem leaf (RKI=1.1) and castor leaf (RKI=1.3) treated plants (Table 31). Seed soaking in other concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendments also caused reduction in root-knot development but to a lesser extent. Root-nodule development: A significant increase in root-nodulation of lentil cv. K-75 was observed due to seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and 2 05 soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest root- nodule index was found in neem cake treated plants (RNI=4.0) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract. It was followed by castor cake (3.6), neem leaf (3.0) and castor leaf (2.6) treated plants compared to untreated plants (1.0) which showed lowest root-nodule index (Table 31). Seed soaking in other concentrations of rice polish extract and soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused increase in root-nodulation but to a lesser extent. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved greatly with seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest plant weight was found in neem cake treated plants (plant weight = 5.7g) which were raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentrations of rice polish extract followed by castor cake (4.9g), neem leaf (4.3g) and castor leaf (3.8g) treated plants (Table 3 1), The lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (2.3g). The seed soaking in other concentrations alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused improvement in plant weight but to a lesser extent. Similarly, dry weight and length of plants also improved greatly with the seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract •M\(, CO (D •9 i! o r- CO CO O) 1 ocoqio cDtDfOO orocDfO coqtDO K O o o 1« rrrococN rocsiogcsi fOc\iT--r^ CNJCNT-T- — "^ o ^ 2 SI "qS i cD in o o OO CO CO ••-ococo cocpoin in O -^ CN CO T^ CNJ CO T-^csic\ico T^cvicdco d d + CI CM CD •^ in CM O OQ •>- CM CO r^ •^ b: t: g o T- CD CM U} 1° ? CO 8 Jo O CD 00 t^ S 5 8 8 T- d d d O O O o o o d d d •r- r- T- d f CD CO .^ 5 CM P 8 CM r<- CO 9 -^•^ CO J5? CM E "^ •^ •* 00 CL I oooo oooo oooo oooo "5 B & i2 CD in h- ^ c3, 5 r:r- : CCO2 C5M^ c/) ^ in in in in * o oooo oooo •D o 1^ c CM CO I I~^ TT CM 00 CD 00 in T- O) -sr CM (D ro •>- OO T- ro -<}• CO COCOCOCM COCOCMCM CO CM CM C\i CM CM CM -r^ •r^ d d "o •c: o CO in •»!• CO incO'^O) cM-r-oor-- ror^co-^ I T^ -r^ -r^ d T^'-^dd d d d d d (D -o ^ '« 5 CO 1 cMOC35t~~ T-ooi^(D 0)oocDin t^com-^ CO CM CM T-' -r-' CM T-" •r-' T-: ^ ^ T-' T-' -r-' •^' •.-• T- d Q. " to CM O 0) C ^ l^oocM^^ a> \D T- (D coooom OO I •vo^'* po-^r^ oqcooflo •^ocO'O; CO Tj- xf N-coSS ScDinur) 5i8iS5> SS?^ « '- CM o E ^ 0) TO E 00 CD o O) •* o in TT oq m m "^ oo m o co u OO o :E Q. T-^cjIcjicD dcJ)^~*• T- CM jr T- C>4 TT 1- £ ifll cocotocS wcowco wcoww (owww ro ^ CO 0) 0) o o CD 8 •o d d s II II E o E O II E "55 (2 0} (0 Vi c Q d S z: o o 3 d d iS I •0 7 and soil treatment with different organic amendments but maximum dr> weight and length was found in neem cake treated plants grown from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract followed by other treatments with organic amendments in a similar manner as in case of fresh weight (Table 31). The lowest dry weight and length was found in untreated plants. Chlorophyll content: In the untreated plants the chlorophyll content was noted as 0.561 mg/g leaf. However, chlorophyll content increased significantly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Maximum chlorophyll content was found in neem cake treated plants (1.082 mg/ g) raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract. It was followed by castor cake (1.065), neem leaf (1.032) and castor leaf (1.015 treated plants (Table 31). Seed soaking in other concentrations of rice polish extract alongwith soil amendment also caused improvement in chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent (Table 31). 4.5.5.1 Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) solution on root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. The present experiment was conducted to study the effect of seed treatment with different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride 208 (Vitamin B,) for different durations on the root-knot development caused by Melotdogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Root-knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot index was noted as 5.0 on 0- 5 scale (Table 32). However, as a result of seed soaking treatment with different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) there was a significant decrease in the root-knot development. The inhibiton in root-knot development greatly increased with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride and seed soaking duration The least root-knot index (RKI=1.0) was observed with 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and after 12h seed soaking duration. It was followedby 0.3% (RKI=1.6), 0.2% (RKI=2.6) and 0.1% (RKI=3.0) concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 32). Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of okra cv. Prvani kranti improved significantly with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (0.1-0.5%) and seed soaking duration (6-12h). Maximum plant weight was observed with 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (8.8g) and after 12h seed soaking duration followed by 0.3% (8.3g), 0.2% (7.8g) and 2 09 I? 2^ I in s ^ Q. CO o CO CO O CD CD o o CO (J) II CO CO c\i -^ CO csi T- T- iri d d ^ ? f 00 CD en in h- 00 CM P3 CM CO (0 00 35 O £ s I a d 00 en s d d CD .t; I- •^ •^ o —; c E o CM m O s o o JC ro s m CM (J O d o o O c c: o '^ CO (D OO C3> CO 2$ CO •c ^ in ^ § - B c: I if5 CD CO o ^ O o odd (/) Di CN o 00 en CM CO OJ -g CO CO CO CO CO CO csi d d o (b c CM CO in CO CO CD en I T-; T^ T-; C) o <1J ^ I •o o I CM CO m CO in 00 O (0 CNJ rsi csi CM CM CM CM csi csi (0 0 E C 05 CO in CM CO OO CO 00 CM in CD CO 00 ocj od CD d d o o o a •o '« CD CO oo CD o CO C\i Q- *^ 7S e CNJ CM CM rvi csi CO CO CM ^ O ^ .tr »- 3 CO § 0) >^ (o CO CD CM CM oo CM CD en o en Cji 'J CO o 5 in o -^ -D -c: s 2 S CM CO CM CO (D O II 0) 3 CO 0.1% (7.3g) concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 32). Dry weight and length of plants showed the same trend as that of fresh plant weight . These parameters also increased with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride and seed soaking duration Maximum dry weight and length was observed in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution followed by 0.3%, 0.2% and 0.1% concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride (Table 32). Chlorophyll content: There was significant increase in the chlorophyll content of okra leaves with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride and seed soaking duration. Highest chlorophyll content was found with 0.5% concentration (1.177 mg/g) of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and after 12h seed soaking duration. It was followed by 0.3% (1.089). 0.2% (0.922) and 0.1% (0.871) concentrations ofpyridoxine hydrochloride solution as compared to untreated (0.581)control (Table 32). 4.5.5.2 Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochioride (vitamin B^) solution on the root-knot development caused by theroot-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.5.5.1 to study the effect of seed treatment with different concentrations of 211 pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B^) solution for different duration on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot index was noted as 5.0 on 0- 5 scale (Table 33). However, as a result of seed soaking treatment with different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride (vit. B^) solution there was a significant suppression in root-knot development. The inhibition in the root-knot index greatly increased with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and seed soaking duration. Minimum root-knot index was found in plants raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (RKI=1.3) for 12h duration. It was followed by 0.3% (RKI=2.0), 0.2% (RKI=2.3) andO. 1%(RKI=2.6) concentrations ofpyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 33). Seed soaking for 6h duration in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride also caused reduction in root-knot index but it was lower than in 12h seed soaking duration. Root-nodule development: The root-nodule index (RNI) also increased with an increase in the concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and seed soaking duration. A root-nodule index (RNI) of 1.0 was observed in untreated 2]2 i.2 I CD en P o CD O CO CO O CO CD K Ic I CM CO CO CM CO CO CO d o O CJ) Csi 2 c 0) I M CL O CD CO CD CD CO O CO o 5 ^ CO CM CM CM csi CM T^ in d •^ + If CO in CM T- CO 5 o f: ^ 8 8 o -t 00 CO CJ> 00 O OS s I d d d d d d d o o CD CJ) CD CM IQ S 5 in CM > 8 d d odd d i d d o f 00 3; CO in 00 0) CO _3 5 ? 'Q CM c o d d d o C3) c/) O 00 CO o in r- o CO 00 I T^ cvi CM csi CM CM CM d d -g o CD CO o T- in 11 I d d d d d d d o . 'i O oj I CM CM CO CO CD oo CM Q (0 •C CO o E % CO O) en -t o o V CD CO CO CO CO Tt iri CO £ d d -o o . a '• CM CM in h~ o CM 5 I T— CM c •^ o (I '5. o •<- £ I in CO o 00 £ CM csi CM c\i CM CM CM CO s (0 ^ 0 O CD CO CD (O o Q in in cj) CD CD CM <0 ?) CO -^ ^ CD OCi 0) 3 :3 ^ (/) o CD CO CO o CD CO CO CO CO o6 CO 00 d CO -D " to I CM c: e CO 00 CO a> CM CO O CO VI— C 2 I C>j csi CO o6 d 5 csi CO CM CM CM CO CM a. CM CM CO CO O Q.= •«— CM CO m T- CM CO m II d d d d d d d d 1 CO Lll T3 O in rr CO P o •D Qi B .to CM jfl CO d d 213 plants The highest root-nodule index was found in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride (RNI=3.6) after 12h seed soaking duration It was followed by 0.3% (RNI=3.3), 0.2% (3.0) and 0.1% (2.3) concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 33). Plant growth: There was significant improvement in the plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and seed soaking duration. Greatest improvement in plant weight was found in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (plant weight=5.0g)after 12h seed soaking duration. It was followed by 0.3% (4.7g), 0.2% (4.4g) and 0.1% (3.9g) concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 33). Dry weight and length of the plants showed the same trend as that of fresh plant weight. These parameters also increased with an increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride and seed soaking duration. The highest improvement in dry weight and length was observed in 0.5% concentration followed by 0.3%, 0.2% and 0.1% concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 33). Chlorophyll content: The chlorophyll content in untreated plants was noted as 0.505 mg/ g leaf. However, chlorophyll content increased significantly with an 2]4 increase in the concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and seed soaking duration. The highest chlorophyll content was observed in 0.5% concentration (1.103mg/g leaQ of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution after 12h seed soaking duration. It was followed by 0.3% (0.960), 0.2% (0.934) and 0.1% (0.877) concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (Table 33). 4.5.6.1 Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride (vit. B^) solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelmoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. Pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B^) one of the major constituent of rice polish was found to have nematode control properties. Therefore, present investigation was undertaken to study the combined effect of seed soaking in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Root-Knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot index (RKI)was noted as 5.0 on 0-5 scale (Table 34). However, a significant reduction in root-knot development was observed in plants raised from the seeds soaked in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. Further 731 1 CO o _2 o -3? C CO o to >> I (D 0 I ID >< cr CQ (O CD o CO O C^ n o in n tn CD in in in o O o •D :3 I r> IN b CM CO CN - CO rsi in •f 0 ^ 3 >^ to to o in CD o CO CO (0 CN 0) CO in o CO CD 5" r- CN CO CD CD o o 00 00 O oo o c» o CO 00 a q C3) in c: o B o o o O o o o o o o O o O o Qi CD o c: E CM CN •^^ (U -Q in in in 0) CD CD CD CD r- in in oo CO o in CD 3 ^ in in CO in en CO 5 CN E O o Q. ^ o o o 6 o o o o o d d o o o o o o o o d o o o o d o O o O o o I— Q) I4~ o 6 o o T3 jO o ^ ^ ^ OO OD (N • ^_ O CO CO CD CO ^ (0 :5 q o CO 0) O in 00 O •^ 00 O o (/i OO O CD rsi in h- Cjj r\i CN in CD m CD hi CD CO CD in •>!• o o CD in § CD in in m in CN CO = O r^ TT O in o in O in CO O) in •t CD CO o O ^ 5 CN m r^ CO CO 0) CO r^ i~^ 00 •sr in CD CO 0 ~ f\i CN CN •^ •o 2 I CN 0 ^ CO .- f % •^ CO CO O CO CO ^ CO r- o in T- m r^ 00 E ^ n ^ TT CD 1^' CO CO CO CO CD CO 0 5 a tn ^ § ? s •* • Other concentrations also caused reduction in root-knot development but to a lesser extent. Plant growth: The seed soaking treatment in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and lea\es of neem and castor greatly improved the plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length ) of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Maximum plant weight was observed in neem cake treated plants (11.5g) after seed soaking in 0.5% concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. It was followed by castor cake (11.2g), neem leaf (9.4g) and castor leaf (9.0g) treated plants respectively (Table 34). Seed soaking in other concentrations and soil treatments with different organic amendments also caused improvement in plant weight but to lesser extent. Lowest plant weight was noted in untreated plants (6.4g). 217 Likewise, dry weight and length of plants also improved considerably due to seed soaking in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest dry weight and length was found in neem cake treated plants where seeds were also soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution followed by other treatments of organic amendments (Table 34). Chlorophyll content: In the untreated plants the chlorophyll content of leaves was noted as 0.569 mg/g leaf. However, there was improvement in the chlorophyll content in the treated plants. Highest chlorophyll content was found in neem cake treated plants (1.144 mg/g) which were raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. It was followed by castor cake (1.101), neem leaf (1.041) and castor leaf (0.962) treated plants respectively. (Table 34). Other concentrations, viz. 0.3%,0.2% and 0.1% of all the treatments also showed increase in the chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent (Table 34). 4.5.6.2 Effect of seed treatment with pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B^) solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv. K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.5.6.1 to evaluate the effect of seed treatment in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves 218 of neem and castor on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth parameters of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: The root-knot index (RKI) was noted as 5.0 on 0-5 scale in the untreated plants (Table 35). But significant inhibition in the root-galling was found in the plants raised from seeds soaked in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. Further decline in root-knot development was found when the seeds soaked in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution were sown in pots amended with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Maximum decline in root-knot index was observed in plants raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and grown in neem cake treated pots (RKI=1.0). It was followed by castor cake (RKI=1.3), neem leaf (RKI= 1.5) and castor leaf (RKI= 1.6) treated plants (Table 35). Other concentrations, viz. 0.3%, 0.2% and 0.1% of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution also showed suppression in root-knot development but to a lesser extent (Table 35). Root-nodule development: In the untreated plants the root-nodule index (RNI) was noted as 1.0 on 0-5 scale, but seed treatment with different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution alongwith soil amendment with oil ;' J •* O o ^ i o ^ o CO (D o 0' fi (D r) o o ro CD to to to o o to ro o rxi r-i ro CM ro to •^ ro o - ? 0 " ill CNI CO •^ •- ^ *- ^~ ^~ ro :£ (0 ? o eg u") in o in CD oo to in in in CD o CD CD o ^ CD "O ic: III •T CO CN .,- •t CO CN ^ • •o ^ n • 1 1 (N ^ in CD o CN (0 •<1- 0) CN •<»• o CO oo c oc tN CNJ rsi rvi CN csi CM CN ^ CNi CM CN CN Csi CN CM ,_ .^ "O "^ CO c - n •"a- CD CM CN h- CO •^ ^— in 0) to o in m to N. h- ,- 1- (D OO r^ o (N • cakes and leaves of ueem and castor caused significant increase in the root-nodule development. Highest increase in the root-nodule index was observed in neem cake treated plants (RNI=4.0) raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride. It was followed by castor cake (3.3), neem leaf (3.3) and castor cake (3.0) treated plants (Table 35). Seed soaking in other concentrations, viz 0 3%, 0.2% and 0.1% of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused increase in root-nodule development but to a lesser extent. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved considerably due to seed soaking treatment in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest plant weight was found in neem cake treated plants (6.7g) raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. It was followed by castor cake (6. Ig), neem leaf (5.8g) castor leaf (5.6g) treated plants (Table 25). Seed soaking in other treatments and soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused improvement in plant weight but to a lesser extent. Similarly, dry weight and plant length of lentil also improved greatly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of pyridoxine 22J hydrochloride and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neeni and castor. The dry weight and length was highest in neem cake treated plants grown from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride followed by other treatments with organic amendment (Table 35). Lowest dry weight and length was observed in untreated plants. Chloropyll content: The chlorophyll content was noted as 0.570 mg/g leaf in the untreated plants. However, chlorophyll content increased greatly due to seed soaking in different concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil amendment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Maximum chlorophyll content was found in neem cake treated plants (1.133 mg/g) raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. It was followed by castor cake (1.122). neem leaf (1.059) and castor leaf (1.025) treated plants (Table 35). Seed treatment in other concentrations, viz. 0.3%, 0.2% and 0.1% of pyridoxine hydrochloride and soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused improvement in chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent (Table 35). Summary of results (Exp. No. 4.5): Seed soaking alone and in combination with organic amendment proved to be most effective method for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita {Exp.t^o. 4.5.1.1 to 4.5.6.2). 222 It was revealed from the present study that seed soaking in leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad brought about significant reduction in the root-knot development caused by M. incognita, as a consequence of which there was an improvement in the root-nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content of lentil cv. K-75 (Exp. No. 4.5.1.1, 45.2.1). The inhibition in root-galling increased with an increase in the concentration of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad and seed soaking duration The highest suppression in the root-knot development was observed in 'S' concentration after 24h duration of seed soaking. It was followed by seed soaking in S/2 and S/10 concentrations of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad. In a similar study efficacy of seed soaking in different concentrations of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad alongwith soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor were investigated for the control of root-knot nematode, M. incognita on lentil cv. K-75 (Exp. No. 4.5.1.2, 4.5.2.2). It was found that seed treatment with different concentrations of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendments brought about significant decline in the root-knot development as a result of which root-nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content of the lentil plants improved greatly. Highest inhibition in the root-knot development was observed in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S" concentration of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad followed by 223 castor cake, neeni leaf and castor leaf treated plants. Likewise, highest improvement in root-nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content was found in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad followed by other treatments with organic amendment. The seed soaking in other concentrations, viz. S/2 and S/10 of leaf extract of mustard and rocket- salad alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root- nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent than in 'S' concentration. In a similar experiment the seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution (vitamin B^) for different durations also caused significant suppression in the root- knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil (Exp. No. 4.5.3.1, 4.5.3.2, 4.5.5.1, 4.5.5.2). The efficacy increased with an increase in the concentration of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. Highest inhibition in the root-knot development was observed in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution after 12 h duration of seed soaking. It was followed by seed soaking with other concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution for different durations. 224 Investigations were also undertaken to study the efficacy of seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution alongwith soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on okra and lentil (Exp. No.4.5.4.1,4.5.4.2, 4.5.6.1,4.5.6.2). It was observed that seed treatment with different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendments brought about significant reduction in the root-knot development and improvement in root- nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil. Highest suppression in the root-knot development was found in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution followed by castor cake, neem leaf and castor leaf treated plants respectively. The seed soaking in other concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution alongwith soil treatment with different organic amendments also caused decline in the root-knot development but to a lesser extent. Likewise, highest plant weight and chlorophyll content was observed in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution followed by other treatments with organic amendments. l^'J 4.6 Integrated control of nematodes with urea coated >vith "Nimin" and different plant oils (pot study). 4.6.1 Effect of soil amendment with urea coated with "Nimin" ( a triterpene rich neem product) and plant oils on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra, Abelntoschus esculentus cv. Prvani Kranti. 'Nirain a triterpene rich neem based product is used by farmers as urea coating agent in order to avoid loss of nitrogen by leaching. The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate nematicidal potential of'Nimin" and oils of neem, castor and rocket-salad as urea coating agent against the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti. Root-knot development: The root-knot index (RKI) was noted as 4.0 on 0-5 scale in the plants grown in pots amended with urea alone, but suppression in root- knot development was noted when urea coated with 'Nimin' and plant oils was used. Nimin' coated urea (RNI=0.60) at higher doses (triple strength) was found to be most efficacious in reducing the root-knot development followed by neem oil (RKI=1.0), castor oil (RKI=1.3) and rocket-salad oil (RKI=1.6) coated urea (Table 36). Other doses (double and single strength) for all the treatments also caused reduction in the root-knot development but to a lesser extent. Highest root-knot index (RKIs4.6) was found in untreated plants. '2b o % ^ o ', I— o O) o .^^ 2 u- c CD O CD O CO O CO ID CO ° c CM c2 O) CM Q CO O r> •«t iinn in 5 in IT) in Tj- m is ^ § § £ 8 d o d odd d d d d d d o o CO r^ oQ r^ CD CO 00 00 1^ oo CM C5 OQ 00 r^ c\i n CM i?5 r- O CM in CD CD S tn S in m in uj ID in i75 CO -D c: d d d d d d CO o d d d odd d d CD a> (J) (O o -- CO in q CM -^ CD O CO in oo •<- •V CO T- CM o "I CO CO CO CO CO CO CM CO CO CM oi CO CM c\i d d E -2 "5) c ^ '^ CO .E ^ c •<- CJ CM O ^ CM (^ O "- r-- o> ^ oo 00 d •«-' T^ d d -r^ £ d d 0» C 'S J >. I O •^ CO O •>- CM CJ) O CM oo CJ) O to in =* CO CO (0 csi Csi CNi CM CM CM •r^ CM CM •r^ T-^ CM Q. ^ CO CO C •>- r- cj) CJ> CO CD t^ CM in CM (J) T- o r- h- CD CD (b in CD CD ID CD CO iri ID CD in -^ O H- o cc o o 13 CO ^ 00 C3) 0 1 :3 CM CO -^ O •^ CO CJ) CO in •<- CM CO O CM CM CM CM CM CM •r^ CM CM CM CM CM o r^ 13 O c; CM T^ o CO I CM I ^ o I O) -«*• in CJ) CM CO 00 O) O •^ -^ 00 o o CO Tf •»!•• CO •^' -^^ CO CO -^^ CO CO CO CO CO •B ^ c 0) ^ i: O E ^ 00 O) '- 00 N- CD oo CO m 00 CO ^ s s s? s§ § ^ ? !^ s ^ ? CO CO in K •q o D CM ^ ^ § CJ) O CD CO -^ O in oo CM II II CO CD E CO P d •<^ CM o> d •^ in CO O) •^ CD (J> ^ ^ CM CM CM Q ••!= CO O -i: T- CM CM CO — ^ ^ ID 1? I o o) m in CO CD CO in CO r- CO o 00 CM Q. O) CD ° ^^ I CD •^ 0> Q •^ CD OC) in in od CO IT) oo CM CM Q P CO CM CM (O rj CM CM O Q. W CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CM CO -r- O ^ x- O) S § ° o ^ >^ CD «_ to i: <0 O) LU -D O c CO CO (0 CO CO (0 co CO to CO CO CO E CO D (- 1) CD* li CO Q H CO Q H CO Q H I I (0 w CO CO CO in •<- •~ m o o CI) CO cu •o do 3 r "6 O) II It CD CO + E + > .CO CO fe + I 0) 0) o CO 11 I 1- 1 i 8 _ •g QJOJ to (0 3 Z Z) Z D a: 5 D 13 d d 227 Plant growth Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of the okra cv. Prvani Kranti improved significantly due to the application of urea coated with 'Nimin', neem oil, castor oil and rocket-salad oil Maximum plant weight was found in case of plants raised from pots amended with urea coated with 'Nimin' (plant weight= 6.9g) at higher doses (triple strength). It was followed by neem oil (6.6g). castor oil (6.5g) and rocket-salad oil (6.1g) treated plants compared to plants treated with urea (5.0g) alone (Table 36). Lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (4.7g). Similarly, dry weight and length of plants also impro\ ed greatly by the application of urea coated with different doses of 'Nimin' and plant oils compared to plants treated with urea only. Maximum dry weight and length was noted at higher doses (triple strength) for all the treatments followed by lower doses (double and single strength) respectively (Table 36). Chlorophyll content: The chlorophyll content also improved considerably due to soil amendment with urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils compared to plants treated with urea only (0.942 mg/g leaf). Highest chlorophyll content was noted in plants raised from pots amended with urea coated with 'Nimin' (1.197 mg/g leaf) at higher doses (triple strength). It was 22fc followed by neem oil (1.174), castor oil (1.124) and rocket-salad oil (1.098) treated plants (Table 36). Lowest chlorophyll content was noted in untreated plants (0.633). Soil amendment with urea coated with lower doses (double and single strength) for all the treatments also caused improvement in chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent. 4.6.2 Effect of soil amendment with urea coated with 'Nimin' and plant oils on the root-knot development caused by the root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil, Lens culinaris cv K-75. This experiment was conducted on the same lines as in 4.6.1 to study the effect of soil amendment with urea alone and urea coated with 'Nimin' and oils of neem,castor and rocket-salad on the root-knot development caused \iy Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of lentil cv. K-75. Root-knot development: In the untreated plants the root-knot development (RKI=4.6) was highest than the treated plants. However, as compared to plants treated with urea alone (RKIs4.0) there was found suppression in the root-knot development due to the application of urea coated with 'Nimin' and plant oils. 'Nimin' coated urea (RKI=1.0) at higher doses (triple strength) proved to be highly efficacious in reducing the root-knot development followed by neem oil (RKI=1.1), castor oil (RKI=1.3) and rocket-salad oil (RKI=1.6) coated urea (Table 37). The lower doses (double and single o •9 \ i! o •9 CM ^ *' ^ "it ro E rf^ CfQi Ot): $ TT TJ- TJ- CO OJ \ 8 odd d d «•— in 00 -^ oQ CSI in c>g in •^ o cQ>: S o in in M ^ 2 CO d d d d d d in m •<• a> o •^ r- CJ) O CD oo C3) in r^ CD ?5 8 cvj c\i Csi csi Csi csi t-^ csj csi ^ T-' csi d d E -5 "as CO CO CD O CD CD O) in in C3) •^ in CO CO CO d d T^ d d d odd d d d d d 05 l§ c (V '^% 1° r^ oo O) •c in 00 •^ in r^ •^ r- •^ CO a > CO m It CO T- CO 1^ CD -^ CO CD CO r- in o CO CO Csl I -<•' Tf in CO Tf in CO T}-' Tf CO T}- Tf CO CO d d O H- (0 o o V— CD 5 :: in t~- CO -^ m o CO in oo CSI CO in o •^ o o =3 O ^ •r^ •>-; c^j T-^ •<-• Csj ,- O ' CSI :£ •- ^ CO (J) -V •sj- c:^ CO CO OO (35 CO t^ 00 CSJ csi og CNJ CO csi csi CO csj csi csi csi csi csi ^ -B > m csi csj c iz O o ^ to r- Oi in CO csj in o o T- in CO •<- CSI oo m CD E c: 1 a? c>i h~ r-^ cii c>j ai T^ in K IQ CD O) TF in in • strength) for all the treatments also caused reduction in root-galling but to a lesser extent. Root-nodule development: In the untreated plants the root-nodule development was noted as 1.3 on 0-5 scale, However, root-nodule index increased significantly due to soil amendment with urea coated with 'Nimin' and plant oils compared to plants treated with urea alone (RNI=1.3). The application of 'Nimin' coated urea (RNI=4.0) at higher doses (triple strength) caused highest increase in root-nodule index followed by neem oil (RNI=3.6), castor oil (RNI=3.6) and rocket-salad oil (3.3) coated urea respectively (Table 37). Lower doses (double and single strength) for all the treatments also caused improvement in root-nodulation but to a lesser extent. Plant growth: Plant growth parameters (fresh and dry weight and length) of lentil cv. K-75 improved greatly due to the application of urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils compared to plants treated with urea alone (plant weight = 3.3g). The highest plant weight was found in plants raised from pots amended with urea coated with 'Nimin' (5.7g) at higher doses (triple strength) followed by neem oil (5.3g), castor oil (4.7g) and rocket-salad oil (4.3g) treated plants (Table 37). Lower doses also caused improvement in plant weight but to a lesser extent. Lowest plant weight was found in untreated plants (3.2g). 231 Dry weight and length increased greatly by the application of urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils compared to plants treated with urea only. Highest dry weight and plants length was found at higher doses (triple strength) for all the treatments followed by lower doses (double and single strength) respectively (Table 37). Chlorophyll content: Chlorophyll content increased considerably due to the application of urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils compared to plants treated with urea only (0.852 mg/g leaf). However, maximum chlorophyll content was found in plants grown from pots amended with urea coated with 'Nimin' (1.05 1 mg/g) at higher doses (triple strength). It was followed by neem oil (1.003 ). castor oil (0.982) and rocket-salad oil (0.977) treated plants (Table 37) Soil amendment with urea coated with lower doses of (double and single strength) for all the treatments also caused increase in the chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent. Lowest chlorophyll content was noted in untreated plants (0.500 mg/g). Summary of results (Exp. No. 4.6): The present study were undertaken to evaluate the effect of soil amendment with urea coated with 'Nimin' and different plant oils on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and plant growth of okra and lentil (Exp. No. 4.6.1, 4.6.2). There was significant 232 reduction in the root-knot development due to soil amendment with urea coated with different doses of 'Nimin' and plant oils as compared to plants treated with urea only. Plant growth, root nodulations (in case of lentil) and chlorophyll content also increased significantly due to soil amendment with urea coated with different doses of'Nimin' and plant oils. Highest efficacy was observed at higher doses (triple strength) of the treatments followed by lower doses (double and single strength) respectively. DISCUSSION 5. DISCUSSION Nematodes are considered one of the worst enemies of mankind because of the devastations they cause to economic crops including tlie cereals, pulses, vegetables, etc. Recently Sasser & Frechman (1^87) reported a loss of 100 billion dollars due to nematodes on world wide basis. Similarly for India Van Berkum and Seshadri (1971) reported crop loss of 10 million dollars due to "Earcockle" disease on wheat and 8 million dollars due to "'Molya" disease on barley. This grim situation warents a serious approach for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Traditionally nematodes are controlled b\ physical, chemical, cultural, biological and regulatory methods-each of them have their own merits and demerits. Physical methods such as hot water treatment andsoil solarization are somewhat difficult to operate The nematicidal chemicals though controlling nematode pests more efficiently and instantaneously provide a rather short term solution. The recent awareness of their potential threat to environment and health has led to rethinking for alternate nematode management strategy, lu the developed countries many of the chemicals have been banned because of their hazardous effects. However, some of the chemicals still ha\e reliance in integrated pest management (IPM) strategies. The non-chemical nematode control technologies have gained much interest of the scientists in the recent times. However, many cultural 2 34 practices, e.g. fallowing, flooding, etc. have lost their importance because of the monetary losses they cause to the growers. It is also very difficult to raise a biological control agent and othernematode antagonists on mass scale. Use of biocontrol agent is rather difficult in field conditions Therefore, cultural practices, viz. organic amendments, intercropping with antagonistic crops and ploughing with or without chemicals may proxide an effective alternative for practical management of the nematodes. These approaches form the focal theme of the present thesis with the emphasis on their use for integrated nematode management (INM). The aim of the INM is to maintain the nematode population below the threshold level so that economic damage is a\ oided and environmental threat is eliminated. It also aims to use many compatible methods in combination for nematode control. Thus, the use of organic amendments which are available in plenty in developed countries for nematode control pro\ides a new channel for their safe disposal. The materials used in the present study as soil amendment are agro-byproducts and industrial wastes, e.g. neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf. Persian lilac bakain leaf and dry crop residues of marigold, mustard and rocket-salad Neem {Azadirachta indica) has multidimentional uses. It has been used since time immemorial for medicinal purposes against large number of ailments. Its various constituents, viz. oil cakes, leaves, root exudates, extracts, etc. were used by several workers for nematode control (Khan et a/., 1966; Husain, 1977; Vijayalakshmi e/a/., 1985; Acharya & Padhi. 1988; Alam, 1990, 1991a). Castor {Ricinus communis) is grown for its 2 3b inxaluablc oil vvhicli is used in industry as well as in medicine Oil cakes and lea\cs of castor were also used for nematode control by man\ workers(Khane/o/., 1974:Alamf/a/., 1977; Goswami & Vijayalakslmii 1987) Similarly, oil cakes and leaves of Persian lilac/bakain (Mclui azedarach) were also used for nematode control (Verma. 1986; Akhiar &. Alam. 1990). The extract of mustard, rocket-salad, rice polish and pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B^) were used as seed treatment The present study embodies five broad aspects of nematode control, each of which has been discussed separately in the present chapter. (i) Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendents. intercropping and ploughing (field study). (ii) Integrated control of nematodes with cropping sequences and ploughing (field study). (iii) Integrated control of nematodes with plant resistance and organic amendment. (iv) Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendments in different combinations. (\ ) Integrated control of nematodes with seed treatmentand organic amendments. (vi) Integrated control of nematodes with urea coated with "Nimin" and different plant oils. I. Integrated control of nematodes with organic amendments, intercropping and ploughing. 2 3 (> A comprehensive study was undertaken to exaluate tlio combined efficat\ of organic amendment, carbofuran, intercropping of vvlieat and barley with mustard and rocket-salad and deep ploughing for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes in field conditions (Exp. 4.1.1.1. 4.1.2 i. 4.1.3.1. 4.1.4.1). The population of plant-parasitic nematodes decreased in all the treatments with organic amendments, viz. oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor/carbofuran. However, carbofuran proved to be most effective in reducing the nematode population followed by neem cake. castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf and inorganic fertilizer. Highest reduction in nematode population was observed in beds where mustard or rocket-salad was grown alone in both normal and deep ploughed fields It was followed by mix-crops, viz. mustard+ wheat or rocket-salad+wheat. mustard+barley or rocket-salad+barley in that order. However, deep ploughing proved to be most effective than normal ploughing. The yield of all the test crops when grown singly increased significantly in neem cake treated beds and it was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer treated beds, indicating the nematode suppressant as well as manurial effects of the that organic additives acts as manures. However, the yield of mixed crops was comparatively less. This might be due to the fact that two crops when grown together shared the nutrients present in the soil. The deep ploughing (40 cm deep) was found to be significantly better than normal ploughing (20 cm deep) in improving the yield of all the test crops. 237 The results of the present study are in agreement with those of Akhiar &. Alani ( I 99 I) who have reported the integrated control of plant- parasitic nematodes on potato with organic amendments, nematicides and mix- cropping with mustard. They have also noted highest reduction in nematode population in carbofuran treated beds followed by organic amendment with other treatments. Mani (1988) has reported that interculture of acidlime with mustard (B. campestris) reduced the rate of multiplication of Tylenchulus semipenetrans population. In a similar study satisfactory control of Meloidogyne incognita and Rotylenchiilus renifornns was observed on tomato and eggplant and that of Tylenchorhynchus brassicae on cabbage and cauliflower by interplautiijg of these plants with neem and chinaberry/bakain (Siddiqui and Saxena. 1987a,b). The antagonistic nature of mustard and rocket-salad might be due to nematicidal principles of root-exudates. Alam et al. (1976) suggested toxic nature of root-exudates responsible for nematode control on wheat and barley with mustard {B. campestris) and rocket-salad {Eruca sativa). Morgan (1925) discovered that white mustard grown with potato caused reduction in cyst population and yield. Similar results were also observed when white mustard {B. hirta) and black mustard {B. nigra) were grown with potato (Ellenby, 1945a). This effect was considered due to the presence of isothiocyanates in root-exudates of mustard and other cruciferous plants (Triffit, 1929, 1930; Ellenby. 1945b; Forrest. 1989). Verma (1991) has reported the effect of interculture of mustard with rapeseed against earcockle disease affecting wheat. 238 Depth of ploughing has great influence on the population of plant- parasitic nematodes (Jain &Bhatti, 1987. 1990; Jain & Gupta. 1990; AJam, 1991c). Siddiqui & Alam (1991) revealed that deep ploughing (40cm) brought about significant reduction in nematode population over normal ploughing (20 cm) treatment. They also suggested that combined effect of neem cake and deep ploughing was more effective than that of neem cake applied in normal ploughed soil. Soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor and the nematicide. carbofuran further reduced the nematode population and enhanced the plant growth and yield of test crops. Our results with respect to efficacy of oil cakes and leaves are in agreement with those of Lear (1959), Khan (1969), Gour & Prasad (1971),Alam & Khan (1974). Alam et al. (1982),Alam (1991a,b) Alam (1993), Tiyagi & Alam (1995). Nematodes associated with cereals and legumes were reduced by oil cakes on mung and wheat (Prasad et al., \911\ Mishra & Prasad, 1974; Sharma et al., 1981). It is very difficult to determine the exact mode of action of organic amendments because df the complexicity of the soil atmosphere. The information regarding the mode of action is rather scattered . The nematode control in amended soil is not a result of one factor but of different factors. Three basic principles are involved in such control of nematodes habitate management, host modification and direct toxicity of 239 alleloclicmicals. wliicli are released during decomposition of plant residues. These affect the disease severity through their effect on soil host and the pathogen. The addition of organic matter modifies the soil atmosphere thus making it unfavourable for nematodes. Metabolites and decomposition products produced during decompositon of organic matter induce physiological resistance in the plant and ultimateh increase the crop yield and plant growth. Various theories have been put forward from time to time to explain the mode of action of organic amendments on plant-parasitic nematodes. Alam (1 976) suggested that with the liberal supply of water. oil cakes undergo decomposition and release many compounds including ammonia, phenols and aldehydes, the nematicidal nature of which has been proved by many workers (Khan el al., 1974; Alam et al.. 1978; Sitaramaiah &. Singh, 1978a,b; Alam et al., 1979). They also released water soluble fractions during decomposition which are highly deleterious to nematodes (Goswami & Vijayalakshmi, 1987). The metabolites of the orgnisms which become active during oil cake decomposition are also released (Kirmani. 1977; Singh et al., 1985; Kirmani. er o/.. 1978). In all probability the toxic principles occupy the soil pore spaces where most of the noxious populations of the nematodes occur thus kill these nematodes and keep their population below the economic threshold levels. Alam (1976) pointed out that due to their solubility the toxic principles can reach into the soil beyond the rhizosphere region of plants 240 and eitliei kill or limit the mobility of nematodes in populations which arc left in the field from the preceding crops. Hasan (1977) have indicated the release of fatty acids and carbohydrates during decomposition of oil cakes. These chemicals ha\c been reported to be highly deleterious to nematodes (Eno et oL. 1955: Walker f/o/.. 1 967; Vassalo, 1969; Khan £-/a/., 1974a; Alam t'/a/.. 1979. Badra et al.. 1979; Singh & Singh, 1988). The addition of organic matter to soil stimulates the activity of bacteria, fungi, algae, and other microorganisms (Rodriguez-Kabana et al., 1987). Increased microbial activity in amended soil caused enhanced enzymatic activity (Rodriguez-Kabana etal., 1983) and accumulation of decompositon end products and microbial metabolites which are deleterious to plant-parasitic nematodes (Johnson, 1959. Mankau &. Minteer, 1962: Rodriguez-Kabana et a!., 1965; Walker. 1971; Burger ei ol., 1979; Bhattacharya & Goswami, 1987). Linford (1937) and Linford et al. (1938) used pine apple leaves as soil amendment and obtained significant control of root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. attacking cowpea but noticed an increase in the population of saprozoic nematodes and microbial and animal species inimical to plant-parasitic nematodes The oil cake amendment influence the physical and chemical properties of soil (Ahmad e/«/., 1972; Bhattacharya & Goswami, 1987a) and thus render it unfavourable for nematodes. The host plant become 241 unfavourable for nematode development due to physiological changes that occur as a result of organic soil amendment. This resistance might be due to increased level of phenolic contents in the host roots (Alam ei al . lQ77c. 1P79: Silaramaiah & Singh, 1978a: Akhtar and Alam. 1990). Due to organic matter amendments the nutrients are released for fa\ ourable root-development and overall plant growth and thus help the plants to escape nematode attack. The nematode control efficiency by organic amendment/nematicide, intercropping and ploughing in integration has been reported for the first time in field condition. In the present study when okra was grown as subsequent crop in the same plot where wheat, barley, mustard and rocket-salad were grown in the preceding season, the beneficial effects of oil cakes and lea\ es of neem and castor persisted for longer duration as they remained effecti\ e e\ en in the subsequent okra crop (Exp. 4.1.1.2, 4.1.2.2, 4.1.3.2. 4.1.4.2). Here again neem cake of the preceding crop remained most effective both with respect to nematode control and impro\ement in plant growth and pod yield. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf, castor leaf, carbofuran and inorganic fertilizer respectively. In this case also deep ploughing (40 cm) proved to be most effective than normal ploughing (20 cm). This may be due to the fact that oil cakes decompose rather slowly and thus gradually release nema-toxic substances (allelochemicals) for longer duration as it remained effecti\e against plant-parasitic nematodes even in the subsequent crop (Prasad et al.. 242 lt)72; Mishra & Prasad. 1«~4. Alam c1 al.. 1977; Hasan IQQl. Akhtar & Alam. IQQl; Siddiqui & Alam. 1991; Hossain et al.. 1992). Singh & Sitaramaiali (1966) claimed that root-knot nematode on tomatoes grown after okra can be checked by residual effects of oil cakes in the same field without amendment. Alam (1976) suggested that oil cakes are cheaper and thus provided a favourable cost-return ratio He further suggested that feasibility of oil cakes is that they reduce the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and increased growth and yield under diverse soil and envrionmental conditions. The nematode population on okra reduced significantly in the field where mustard or rocket-salad was grown singly in the preceding season followed by mustard+wheat or rocket-salad+wheat , mustard+barley or rocket-salad+barley and wheat or barley alone in that order. This might be due to chemicals released by the residues of preceding crop. Residual effects of treatments of the preceding crop in relation to normal and deep ploughing have been reported for the first time. It is thus clear from above that integrated control strategies are beneficial against plant-parasitic nematodes. Oostenbrink (1972) pointd out that there is scope of combining different control methods in a complementary manner. Thomson et al. (1983) suggested that integrated pest management would be the best strategy for nematode management. 243 I or this clear understanding of biology of crop, pests and ilicir natural enemies is essential. Ralf & Guthrie (1970) and Lucknian & Metcalf ( 1975) suggested that single factor approaches are inadequate and hence should he replaced by Integrated Pest management (IPM). Brader (1988) is of view that future development depend largely on IPM. Ferris ( 1978) is of the veiu that integrated nematode management (INM) should be to maximise the nematode management. There are several reports of INM from developed countries (Alphey et al., 1988; Ruelo. 1983; Egunjobi. 1987, 1990; Roberts, 1990, 1993; El. Guindy, 1991). Many attempts have been made in India for combining more than one method in order to reduce the population of nematodes below the threshold level (Sundresh et al., 1977; Kuriyan & Sheela, 1981; Gaur & Mishra. 1983; Nand & Gill, 1984; Ravichandra &Krishnappa, 1985; Gaur & Prasad. 1986; Jain & Bhatti, 1988b; Rao etal., 1993a.b; Wani & Alam. 1995). Thus^the present study clearly indicates that integrated control of nematodes with organic amendment/nematicide, intercropping and ploughing brought about significant reduction in nematode population and improved the yield of all the test crops. The residual effects of the treatments of the preceding crops were also beneficial in reducing the nematode population in the following season and in improving the yield and plant growth of the subsequent okra crop. 244 The ncmaiodc control efficiency by organic ainendnient/nematicidc intercropping and ploughing in integration and their residual effect on subsequent crop in the following season have been undertaken for the first time. II. Integrated control of nematodes with cropping sequences and ploughing. The selection of proper cropping sequences is an effective method for reducing nematode population and limiting the crop damage (Nausbaun &. Ferris, 1973). Use of non-host crops may be beneficial in managing nematode population in intensive cropping system and reducing the dependance on nematicides. The objective of the present study is to assess the effect of selected cropping sequences and ploughing on the population densities of plant-parasitic nematodes and plant growth under field conditions (Exp. 4.2.1). It is clear from the results (Exp.4.2.1) that various cropping sequences alongwith ploughing brought about significant reduction in the population of plant-parasitic nematodes and impro\ement in the growth of crop plants. The deep ploughing proved to be highly effecti\ e than normal ploughing. Among different cropping sequences, the cropping sequence wheai-chiUi-fallow caused greatest reduction in the total population of nematodes followed in order of efficiency by the cropping sequences lentH-coMpea-mung,chickpea-okra-chilli, mustard-mutig- tomato and tomato-fallow-okra. In the sequence tomato-falloM-okro 245 wlieii tomato was grown in the first year of cropping there was an increase in the nematode population in normal ploughed field but in case of deep ploughing suppression in nematode population was noticed Similarly,highest reduction in the root-knot nematode (Me/oidogyne incognita) population was observed in the cropping sequence wheat-chilli-fallow. It was followed by the sequences lentil- coMpea-mung, mustard-mung-tomato, chickpea-okra-chilli and tomato- fal loM-okra. Likewise, the population of stunt nematode (Tylenchorhynchus brassicae) declined significantly due to combined effect of cropping sequences and ploughing. Highest suppression in the population of nematodes was found in the sequence lentil-cowpea-mung. followed by cropping sequences wheat-chilli-fa 11 OM'. chickpea-okra- chilli and tomato-fallow-okra. By and large the different cropping sequences had a similar effect on other nematodes, viz. the reniform nematode {Rotylenchulus reniformis), the lance nematode {Hoplolaimus indicus), the spiral nematode (Helicotylenchus indicus) and the filiform nematode (Tylenchus filiformis) but to a varying extent. The plant growth improved significantly due to combined effect of cropping sequences and ploughing. When tomato was grown again after mung in the 2nd season of cropping a significant improvement in plant weight was observed in both normal and deep ploughed field Similarly,when mung was grown after cowpea in the 3rd season of 2 4G cropping better improvement in plant growth was obser\ ed in normal and deep ploughed Tield than the plants grown in the first season of cropping Likewise, different crops when grown again in the following season after other crops showed better improvement in plant growth. The beneficial effects of different cropping sequences might be due to the fact that nematode population is maintained below the threshold level either by growing non-host crop or cultivar in the cropping sequence (Oostenbrink. 1954, 1960; Stone, 1960; Rohde & Jenkins. 1957;Goode/a/.. 1965;Good, 1968; Khan e/a/., 1976. 1984; Alam ?/a/.. 1977b, 1981, 1988; Rodriguez-Kabana, 1990 and Rodriguez-kabana & Canullo, 1992; Kanwar & Bhatti, 1992). Seinhorst (1957) and Oostenbrink (1961) provided evidence that population of Prafylenchuspenetrans could be reduced b}' growing non- host crops. Khan et al. (1975) revealed that rotation of non-host crops with host crops results in appreciable decrease in the population of nematodes to a safe level. Guy Blair (1992) reported the effect of \arious cropping sequences on the population densities of M. hap/a and crop yield in organic soils and found good results. Fallowing brought about significant decrease in the population of all the nematodes. Fallowing after susceptible crops like tomato and chilli in the 2nd and 3rd season of cropping sequences caused significant reduction in the population of all the nematodes. Similar results were 247 obtained by Brown (1^61). Peacock (1957) and Cudra r/a/. ( I 990) Khan et al. (1971) reported that population of Tylenchorhytichus hrassiccn- remained very low when the field remained fallow. Depth of ploughing played important role in reducing the population of plant-parasitic nematodes as the nematodes are exposed to solar heat (Mathur, 1969; Handa ^r a/., 1975; Jain & Bhatti 1 985: Mathur e/o/.. I 99 1). Mathur et al. (1987) observed that 1-5 deep summer ploughings in May-June resulted in reduction in population of cereal cyst nematodes and increased yield of wheat crops. Thus the present study clearly indicated that the cropping sequences alongwith fallowing and deep ploughing brought about reduction in nematode population and improvement in plant growth. But care must be exercised in selecting appropriate crops; these must be poor hostsor non-hosts for the prevailing nematode species and also economicalh feasible. The nematode control efficiency by cropping sequences alongwith deep ploughing and fallowing have been undertaken for the first time. III. Integrated control of root-knot nematode with plant resistance and organic amendment (pot study). The present study was undertaken to evaluate the response of 12 culti\ars/ accessions of lentil to root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita in presence of organic amendment, viz. neem cake (Exp 2 4H 4 3 1) Two cultivars (DFM,-34 and DPI.-25) were found to be highh resistant and three cultivars (DPL-32. DPL-23 and DPL-29) moderate]\ resistant. Rest of the cultivars showed varying degree of susceptibilit\ depending upon the degree of root-galling, root-nodulation and plant growth. The resistant cultivars show ed less root-galling and better plant growth than susceptible cultivars. The cultivars/accessions DPL-32, DPL-23. and DPL-29 showed moderate root-galling and were considered as moderately resistant. Whereas, susceptible cultivars showed high degree of root-galling, low plant growth and root-nodulation and were considered either moderatly susceptible or highly susceptible. Further reduction in root-knot development was observed in ,T11 the suceptible cultivars/accessions when they were grown in pots amended with neem cake. The nematicidal potential of neem cake as organic amendment is understandable as has been discussed earlier in section - L The neem cake as soil amendment is well known to provide some sort of resistance in susceptible plants (Alam e/a/., 1976, 1980, 1990; Singh er al., 1985; Sitaramaiah and Singh. 1978). However, this \ ery capabilit\ of neem cake of providing resistance has been integrated with genetic resistance for the first time. In this kind of approach much better nematode control as well as plant growth has been achieved. In this way e\ en moderately resistant plants could be used in nematode infested fields with additional use of neem cake. 249 l\. Integrated control of nematodes with soil organic amendments in different combinations. In the present study (Exp. 4.4.1.1, 4.4.2.2) oil cakes of neeni and castor and leaves of neem, castor and Persian lilac/bakain were used alone and in different combinations for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogviie incognita infecting okra, Abelmoschus esculenliis and lentil, Letis culinaris. A significant reduction in the root-knot development wa-s observed in all the treatments with the organic amendments. Howe\er. highest reduction in root-knot development was observed in plants treated with neem cake+castor cake. It was followed by neem cake+neem leaf, neera cake+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake+castor leaf, castor cake-neem leaf/bakain leaf, castor cake+ Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf, castor cake+castor leaf, neem leaf+castor leaf/bakain leaf, neem leaf-^Persian lilac leaf/bakain leaf, castor leaf+Persian lilac leaf, neem cake, castor cake, neem leaf, Persian lilac leaf and castor leaf treated plants. As a ce^isequence of reduction in the root-knot nematode population there was great improvement in root-nodule de\'elopment (in case of lentil), the plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil. Highest improvement was found in neem cake+castor cake treated plants followed by soil treatments with other organic amendments. This is the first report where oil cakes and leaves were used in different combinations for nematode control. The principle underlaying the mode of action of different organic amendments have been discussed earlier 2 50 Many reports confirmed the individual application of oil cakes and leaves of neem. castor and Persian lilac as organic amendments for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes (Khan et al. 1966; Singh & Sitaramaiah. 1966. 1967. 1971; Zaiyd, 1977; Gaur & Mishra. 1989. Mishra & Gaur. 1989; Sen & Dasgupta, 1989; Akhtar & Alam, 1989. 1990.1991; Alam. 1990. 1991; Akhtar et at., 1990; Tiyagi & Alam. 1995). Similarly Egunjobi & Larinde (1975) and Zaki & Bhatti (1989) used neem and castor leaves for nematode control. Alam (1991) revealed that oil cakes of mahua. castor, mustard, neem and groundnut singly or in combination significantly controlled population of plant-parasitic nematodes and improved plant growth of tomato {Lycopersicon esculentiim Mill.), egg plant {Solanuni melongena L.). chilli {Capsicum annuum L.), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus Moench.). cabbage (Brassica oleraceae capitata L.) and cauliflower {Brassica oleraceae botrytis L.). It is well known that the decomposable organic matter should be allowed to decompose in a field in such a way and for such as period that the process of decomposition and its associated activities suppress or destroy the pathogen while it should not interfare with normal cultural practices and after planting of the crop there should be no harmful effects on the plants. Since decomposition product of organic matter may harm roots, such treatments should be applied some time before planting and hence a waiting period is necessary. 251 DIN crop residues of marigold ( Tagetes erecto). rocket-salad (Enu a sativa) and mustard (Brassica juncea when incorporated into the soil alone and in different combination brought about significant reduction in the root-knot development caused by Meloidogync incognita and improNement in the plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra c\ Pr\aui Kranti and lentil cv. K-75 (Exp. 4.4.3. 4.4.4). The combined applications of dry crop residues proved to be more effective than individual application. Similarly, higher doses of dry crop residues were more effective than lower doses. The plants raised from pots amended with dry crop residue of marigold+rocket-salad showed highest reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content. It was followed by dry crop residues of marigold+mustard, mustard+rocket-salad. marigold, rocket- salad and mustard respectively. The nematicidal effect of these residues might be due to bitter principles present in these plants (Zechmeister & Sease. 1947). Johnson (1959. 1971, 1972) observed that every type of crop residue was effective in suppressing plant-parasitic nematodes. Yuhara (1971) also noted a significant reduction in the population build up of A/, hap/o b> addition of various plant parts of marigold to soil. Alam et al. (1976) reported that marigold and mustard plants are not only antagonistic to nematodes but their crop residues have nematode suppressant properties Therefore, antagonistic nature of these plants may be further enhanced 252 incorporation of dry crop residue of marigold, rocket-salad and mustard into the field after harvest (Siddiqui, 1986; Siddiqui & Alam. 1987c. 1988b,c). All these additives did not showed any phytotoxic effects Recently, Akhtar & Alam (1992) reported a significant reduction in the development of plant-parasitic nematodes by the addition of crop residues of marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) to soil after harvest. The efficacy of organic additixes depends OD the chemical composition and type of microorganisms that develop during the degradation of additives (Rodriguez-Kabana el al., 1987). The marigold roots contain alpha- terthienyle (2. 2'-5-2"-terthienyle together with biogenetically related 5- (3-butene-l-ynyl)-2-2'-bithienyle that exhibit high nematicidal activity against several plant-parasitic nematodes (Zechmeister & Sease. 1947) This is the first report where the dry crop residues were used in different combinations for the control of root-knot nematode on lentil and okra V. Integrated control of nematodes with seed treatment and soil amendment in pots. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of seed treatment with different concentrations of mustard and rocket-salad extracts for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita on lentil (Exp. 4.5.1.1, 4.5.2.1). A significant reduction in root-knot development was observed due to seed soaking in different concentrations of both the extracts. However, inhibition in the root-knot development increased with an increase in the concentration of the extracts and seed 2 53 soaking duration Highest suppression in the root-knot dexelonient was found in S" concentration after 12h duration of seed soaking followed b> S 2 and S/10 concentrations. The root-nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content increased with an increase in the concentrations of the extracts. These effects might be due to toxic nature of the leaf extracts (Morgan. 1925; Alam et al., 1976; Forrest, 1989) or emerging seedlings from the soaked seeds might have acquired resistance against plant- parasitic nematodes (Siddiqui & Alam, 1989d,e; Anver & Alam. 1992) The seed treatment might have influenced the metabolism of the germinating seedlings rendering the seedlings unfavourable for nematode multiplication as well as stimulating plant growth (Egunjobi & Onayemi. 1981; Singh et al.. 1985; Siddiqui & Alam, 1988a,d, 1989d; Akhtar & Alam. 1990; Alam et al., 1990; Dash & Padhi, 1990; Kathirval et al.. 1992; Wani, 1992). The effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad for the control of root-knot nematode has been studied for the first time. In another study combined effect of seed treatment with leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad and soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor were evaluated for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognita (Exp. 4.5.1.2. 4.5.2.2) on lentil cv. K- 75. There was significant reduction in the root-knot development due to seed soaking in different concentrations of the extracts and soil treatment with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor. Highest reduction in the 254 root-knot dc\elopmcnt was found in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of leaf extract of mustard and rocket-salad followed by soil treatiTjent with castor cake, neem leaf and castor leaf. As a consequence of reduction in the root-knot development due to combined effect of the seed and soil treatments, the root nodulation. plant growth and chlorophyll content of lentil improved significantly Highest improvement was found in neem cake treated plants followed by castor cake, neem leaf, and castor leaf treated plants. The beneficial effects of both kinds of treatments (seed treatment and soil drench) is understandable as has been discussed earlier separately in section-I and section -V. Thus,the seed soaking together with soil organic amendment served as an effectixe control measure of plant-parasitic nematodes This kind of observation have been reported for the first time. Similarly.investigations were also undertaken to study the efficiency of seed soaking in rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B^) for the control of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne incognito on okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75 (Exp. 4.5.3.1. 4 5.3 2. 4.5.5.1, 4.5.5.2). Rice polish is known to be rich in water soluble pyridoxine (Vit. B^) which has been shown to cause improvement in plant growth and yield when used as seed treatment (Barbieri, 1959; Ahmad et al., 1982; Afridi^/a/., 1985; Samiullah ^/of/., 1988, 1992). In the present study, however, the rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution were used as seed treatment for nematode control. 25' B-vitamins arc organic compounds present in entire plant kingdom and are required in small quantities for the normal growth and development of plants. They constitute a heterogenous group of varied compounds, referred to as vitamin B-complex. The \itamins isolated and identified from this B-complex were designated as thiamin (Vitamin B,). riboflavin (Vitamin B,), niacin, pyridoxine (Vitamin B^), pantothenic acid, folic acid, inositol, biotin, cyanocobalamine. They act not only as co enzymes and phytohormones (Bonner & Bonner, 1948;Aberg. 1961) but also play a regulatory role in various physical processes. Respiratory actixity of many plants have been promoted by some members of B- vitamins (DeCapita,l949; Lijima, 1952). B-vitamins have been found to play role in chlorophyll synthesis (Kodandaramaiah & Gopala Rao. 19 84) and protein synthesis either at transcriptional or translational level (Gopala Rao, 1973). B-vitamins regulates the activity of enzymes (Lehninger, 1982) and there was found an increrse in stomatal index due to the application of some vitamins of B-complex group, Pyridoxine was isolated in crystalline form from yeast by Khun & Wendt. Gyorgy & Eckardt (1959). It is a colourless crystalline powder which has a slightly bitter taste and melts at 160°C. It crystallises in the form of various salts, for example, as pyridoxine hydrochloride m.p 204-206"C and is readily soluble in water and alcohol. It occurs in three forms: pyridoxine, pyridoxal phosphate and pyridoxine phosphate. It may be added that pyridoxine hydrochloride (vitamin B^) is necessary for 2 56 plants, ilicrefore. its effects with lespecl to nematode control and plant growth were investigated. It was observed that seed soaking in different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solutions for different duration brought about significant reduction in the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita and improvement in root-nodulation. plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil. The reduction in root-knot development increased with an increase in the concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B^) solution and seed soaking duration. Plant growth also imporved with an increase in the concentrations of rice polish extract and seed soaking duration. The maximum reduction in the root-knot development was found in plants raised from seeds soaked in 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract after 12h duration of seed soaking followed by seed treatment with other concentrations of pyridoxine hydrochloride and rice polish extract for different durations. This might be due to the plant response to the exogenous application of the different growth regulating substances including B-vitamins which may improve the germination of seeds Growth of seedlings depends on its need for these substances. Improved plant growth due to application of different vitamins have been obtained by many workers. Sinkovics (1974) applied seven different vitamins to two cultivars of Capsicums through seed soaking and secured high seed 257 germination rates coupled with improved seedlings growth Barbien (1959) noted that application of Vitamins B, and B^ enhanced plant height, leaf number, fresh and dry weight of pea, broad bean, beet and wheat in pot culture. Radzevicious and Bluznianas (1975) revealed that plants grown from vitamin treated seeds (thiamin and nicotinic acid) produced 23.1-30.2% higher yield than control plants. Afridi et aj. (1979) found that seed treatment with pyridoxine at various concentrations brought about improvement in plant growth and grain yield. Ahmad et al. (198 1, 1982) revealed that pre-sowing treatment of grain with pyridoxine at different concentrations significantly affected the tiller number, leaf number, shoot length, fresh and dry weight and improved the grain and straw yield of different barley varieties. Anasari ^/o/. (1984) observed that seed soaking in different concentration of pyridoxine resulted in significant improvement in growth and yield parameters of lentil, Le)!s culinaris cv. T-36. Afridi et al. (1985) and Ansari & Khan (1986) •a reportedpyridoxine mediated enhancement in plant growth in J'igna radiata. The pre-sowing seed treatment of mustard and lentil with different concentrations of pyridoxine for different durations brought about significant improvement in growth/yield parameters and leaf NPK (Ansari el al., 1990; Simiullah et al., 1987, 1991, 1992). The seed treatment with very dilute solution of B-vitamins enhanced the growth of roots and thus helped many plants to grow efficiently (Ahmed, 1975; Afridi e/a/. 1979). Kodandaramaiah & Gopala Rao (1984. 1Q85) observed that B-vilamins participated in plant growth and development by enhancing the endogenous levels of various factors (hormones) such as cytokinins and gibberellins. It may thus be concluded from the above reports that enhanced plant growth due to seed soaking in rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride may help the plant to escape nematode attack or ha\ e a key role in the defence mechanisms of the plants to pathogens directly Lower concentration of ascorbic acid (Vit.C) have been found in susceptible cultivars than in resistant cultivars (Arrigoni et al.. 1979) They have also reported that in a diseased plant, ascorbic acid content can increase the resistance in tomato to nematode infection. Melillo ef al. (1983) observed that plants treated with ascorbic acid have fewer giant cells. Al-Sayed (1990) noted the inhibitory effect of ascorbic acid on A/. incognita on tomato. Recently, Montasser (1990) reported ascorbic acid. nicotinic acid and riboflavin to be effective in reproduction of M. incognita on tomato plants. The amino acids (alpha-glutamine, etc.) and ascorbic acid caused reduction in M.javanica population, mature females and eggmasses in tomato roots (Osman, 1993). Siddiqui & Mahmood (1993) used ascorbic acid for the control of Rotylenchulus reniformis on tomato. Wani and Alam (1995) noted nematicidal potential of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. They have observed highest mortality of M ///cog/j/7o juveniles (J^) in 'S' concentrations of rice polish extract and in 0.5% solution of pyridoxine hydrochloride after 12h duration of seed soaking. 259 Tlie present study suggests a simple, easy and cost effective way of nematode management. The effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vit. B^) solution for nematode control on okra and lentil have been investigated for the first time In another study combined effect of seed treatment with different concentrations of rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride and soil treatment with oil cakes of neem and castor were investigated on the root-knot development caused by Meloidogyne incognita on okra c\ . Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75 (Table 4.5.4.1, 4.5.4.2, 4,5.6.1 and 4.5.6.2). A significant reduction in the root-knot development was found due to the combined effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution and soil treatments with oil cakes and leaves of neem and castor as a consequence of which an improvement in root-nodulation, plant growth and chlorophyll content was observed Highest reduction in root-knot development was observed in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride. The highest improvement in plant growth and chlorophyll content was also observed in neem cake treated plants raised from seeds soaked in 'S' concentration of rice polish extract and 0.5% concentration of pyridoxine hydrochloride solution. It was followed by castor cake, neem leaf and castor leaf treated plants. Other concentrations also caused reduction in root-knot development and improvement in root-nodulation (in case of lentil), plant 2 GO growth and chlorophyll content but to a lesser extent The reduction in root-knot development and improvement in chlorophyll content might contribute towards plant vigour (Hasan & Jain. 1984; Singh et al.. 1987; Ahmad & Kumar. 1990; Ahmad et al.. 1990). The present sutdy was aimed to investigate the effect of seed treatment with rice polish extract and pyridoxine hydrochloride solution alongwith soil organic amendment for the control of root-knot nematode. M. incognita on okra and lentil and has been undertaken for the first time. The mechanism of action of the two treatments, viz. seed treatment and soil treatment has been discussed separately above in this section as also in the section-I. VI. Integrated control of nematodes with urea coated with "Nimin" and plant oils. "Nimin" a neem based product recommended by Godrej Soaps Ltd. is used by farmers in India as urea coating agent for preventing loss of nitrogen by leaching. It is triterpene rich material considered to have some nematicidal properties. With this background "Nimin" was used as urea coating agent for the control of plant-parasitic nematodes. Similarly, neem oil, castor oil, rocket-salad oil were also used as urea-coating for nematode control. The recommended dose of "Nimin" coating on urea is 500 g 'Nimin'/50 kg urea (=lg NiminVlOO g urea). Likewise, oils of neem, castor and rocket-salad were also used at the same dose as that of 'Nimin' as urea coating agent. 2(.l 'Niniin' was found to be highly efficacious in reducing the root- knot development caused by hjeloidogyne incognita and in improving the plant growth of okra cv. Prvani Kranti and lentil cv. K-75 followed b> neem oil. castor oil and rocket-salad oil respectively (Exp. 4,6.1. 4.62) Higher doses (triple strength) of all the treatments were found to be most effective in reducing the root-knot development and increasing the root- nodulation (in case of lentil), plant growth and chlorophyll content of okra and lentil. It was followed by lower doses (double and single strengths) for all the treatments. Nematode control with 'Nimin' and neem oil is understandable because, neem is known to be rich in nematode toxic chemicals, eg azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbidine, kemferol, etc. The improved plant growth is also due to sustained release of nitrogen from urea in presence of "Nimin' and plant oils. Akhtar & Alam (1993) revealed that Nimin" an different oils when used as urea coating agent brought about significant reduction in the root-knot nematode population and nematode multiplication thereby improved the growth of tomato and chilli. 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