LAURENT WARLOUZET Charles de Gaulle’s Idea of Europe. The Lasting Legacy Charles de Gaulle, the French President from 1959 to 1969, developed a very specific vision of Europe, which was ap- plied boldly when he was in charge. His ideas have had a lasting legacy on many historians –and not only in France- who have adopted a “de Gaulle-centered” approach to the History of Europe in the 1960s. By Laurent Warlouzet was based on a widespread belief among French policy- Two recent books on European history in the 1960s are makers and observers that France, notwithstanding her entitled “ The Gaullist Challenge” (Ludlow, 2005; Ellison, post-colonial decline, was still bound to play a leading 2007) . They have been written by English-language role in international affairs in the post-war era. The academics and are a sign of the crucial and enduring organisation of Europe through international organisa- role that is attributed to the former French president tions such as the EEC played a major role in this. In de Charles de Gaulle in such historical studies even out- Gaulle’s speeches and writings he advocated the devel- side of France. This article aims to show that this central opment of an intergovernmental Europe where the - but perhaps also excessive - position of a personality nation-state remained intact, and in opposition to the like de Gaulle is linked both to his own personal in- federal principles that some of France’s European part- volvement in trying to stage a cult around his own role ners were advocating. In his view, Europe should be in French history, and a tendency for historians of po- under French leadership in terms of foreign policy, and litical history to adopt a heroic approach, that is, to seek European cooperation should become a lever for French out heros and villains in their stories. influence in the world. Against the background of such ideas, he refused to let Great-Britain become a member De Gaulle played an important role during the Second of the EEC in 1963 and 1967. He also advocated a World War as leader of the provisional French govern- greater role for France in the framework of the North ment in London from 1940 to 1944. During the Second Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in September World War, the France Libre was the country’s provi- 1958. Unable to obtain what he wanted from the Ameri- sional government established outside France (in Lon- cans, who had a hegemonic position within NATO, he don and later in Algiers) in opposition to the official withdrew France from NATO’s integrated military French government which after the defeat of June 1940 organisation in 1966. collaborated with the Nazis. De Gaulle subsequently became the official French authority after the Liberation Drawing on recent literature on the history of France of France in 1944. He stepped down in 1946, but de- and European integration in the 1960s (Warlouzet, 2008, cided to return to the top of French policy in June 1958 2010), this article aims to address the methodological as French Président du Conseil , that is, as Prime Minister, problem of placing so much emphasis on the influence From January 1959 to 1969 he assumed the position as of a single person and his ideas. A central argument of President of the Republic. His return to power was also the article is that de Gaulle personally played a key role marked by the development of a particular set of politi- in presenting himself as a semi-mythical figure. cal ideas in French politics that was named after him - Through his own writings, he was able to shape the Gaullism - just as it coincided with the entering into collective memory of himself, and he managed to influ- force of the Treaty of Rome creating the European Eco- ence historians and political observers in France and nomic Community (EEC). abroad. Thus, there was a conjunction of two trends in Euro- Charles de Gaulle: a Mythical Figure in France pean political history: the strengthening of European It is clear in most accounts of contemporary French integration and the development of a France deeply history that De Gaulle was an exceptional character for influenced by Gaullism. Gaullism can be seen as a set of one obvious reason: he took the lead in winning two political principles that evolves around the idea of the wars for France. The first was when de Gaulle in June central role of France in the world. In terms of foreign 1940, as a general in the French armed forces, was ap- policy, the notion of “grandeur” (greatness) was typi- pointed deputy minister during the collapse of the cally translated into a strongly assertive policy. This French army against the Nazis. Notwithstanding the KONTUR nr. 19 - 2010 21 LAURENT WARLOUZET collaboration of the official French government in Vichy French state. In France, his policies resulted in an excep- with Nazi Germany, and the lack of any “official” tional popular legitimacy. From June 1958 to April 1969, French government in exile, he succeeded in creating de Gaulle won two presidential elections - namely in from scratch another French authority in London, December 1958 and December 1965, and parliamentary called France libre , with the support of British war-time elections in November 1958, November 1962, March Prime Minister, Winston Churchill. From abroad, he 1967 and in June 1968, as well as four referendums in exerted pressure, and finally managed to oust the Vichy September 1958 and October 1962 on constitutional regime, although it was the official French regime dur- reforms, and on Algerian independence in January 1961 ing most of the war, also recognised by for example the and April 1962. He finally lost the referendum over government of the United States. De Gaulle thus se- domestic constitutional reform on 27 April 1969, and cured a strong position for France in the camp of the resigned the following day. This show of popular sup- winners of the war. Although the French army was port allowed him to stay in power for 11 years, a time crushed within few weeks in 1940, France subsequently during which he also developed a set of policies to- managed to become one of the five permanent mem- wards European collaboration. bers of the United Nations Security Council, and one of the four countries to occupy Germany at the end of the De Gaulle occupies a strong position in French collec- war. Without de Gaulle’s efforts, it is certainly possible tive memory , one that developed rather quickly. In to question whether France would have been seen as polls carried out in 1980, only 10 years after his death, being on the side of the winners or losers of The Second and confirmed in 1990, more than 80 per cent of the World War. French had a positive memory of de Gaulle’s policy in general. French people from both the left and from the The subsequent war to involve de Gaulle was the Alge- far-left were in fact strongly positive towards de rian war. He returned to power in 1958, at a time when Gaulle’s achievements, pointing mainly to his role dur- France was on the brink of losing this war. Algeria was ing the Second World War. Only far-right French peo- a French colonial territory where more than one million ple were more sceptical because they opposed the in- Europeans lived. In spring 1958, the French army sta- dependence of Algeria (Institut Charles de Gaulle, tioned in Algeria did not want this territory to be left to 1992a:16). The collective memory of de Gaulle’s the Arabs. Yet it was also clear that this part of the achievements is paralleled by no other post-war politi- French army was increasingly hostile to the political cian in France (Rioux, 1991: 303). leadership in homeland France that was weak and unstable. There had been four different governments in This consensus could be explained by several factors. 1957-58 alone, and long periods of vacancy between First of all, even if de Gaulle had strong ideas about the most of them which had fostered a rather unclear line role of France in the world, he was essentially a prag- of policy towards the Algerian conflict. On 13 May matic politician in domestic policy (Berstein, 2001:7-8). 1958, the French army, which was very hostile to the He was a professional soldier brought up in a conserva- independence of Algeria, seized power in the city of tive family with a strong catholic and monarchist cul- Algiers with the support of the local European popula- ture. As head of the French state, he restored the repub- tion. It sent the message back home that it would sim- lican democratic order twice, namely in 1940-44 and in ply refuse to obey the government in Paris unless it 1958. He also made more unconventional gestures would change significantly its moderate stance on Al- including the right of vote to women in 1944, and in geria. Against this background, de Gaulle was ap- 1967 his government legalised contraception (Agulhon, pointed prime minister by the French parliament on 2 2000:140-142). When he was in power, de Gaulle re- June 1958. With his legacy from the Second World War fused to consider himself as leader of a majority of and his background as a general of the French army, it French people, and despite the term Gaullism, he saw seemed that he was the only politician at the time to himself as being above the compartmentalisation of keep the army in check.