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“We're All Fairtrade Consumers Now!” An For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex. “WE’RE ALL FAIRTRADE CONSUMERS NOW!” AN EXPLORATION OF THE MEANINGS, MORALITIES AND POLITICS OF FAIRTRADE CONSUMPTION KATHRYN MARIE WHEELER A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF PHD DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX DATE OF SUBMISSION: JANUARY 2010 1 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex CONTENTS Abstract 3 Acknowledgements 4 List of abbreviations 6 1 Introduction: We’re all Fairtrade consumers now! 7 2 When consumption and citizenship collide: the 24 construction of the Fairtrade consumer 3 Fairtrade as a continuing morality: Consumer Movements 57 in the 18th-20th Centuries 4 “Change Today, Choose Fairtrade”: Fairville and 80 the Fairtrade Fortnight Campaign 5 “Every day I have a cup of Fairtrade coffee, I’m a 116 winner”: The practice of being a Fairtrade supporter 6 “‘Mrs Jo Soap’ really doesn’t know anything about 147 Fairtrade”: The normalisation and exclusivity of Fairtrade consumption 7 “If the government can’t make a difference then what 181 difference can we make?”: Fairtrade and consumer power 8 Conclusion: The meanings, moralities and politics of 222 Fairtrade consumption Appendices 238 Appendix 1: Interviewees in Fairville 239 Appendix 2: National Omnibus Questions, 261 Module 236 Bibliography 263 2 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex Abstract: The Fairtrade movement in the UK has witnessed impressive growth over the last ten years. Fairtrade products are now available beyond the dedicated network of church halls and Oxfam shops and through the mainstream retail sector. Whilst this growth has been widely represented as the result of thousands of individual citizen-consumers ‘voting’ for fairer trade, this thesis tells a different tale. Moving away from accounts of consumption that rely on models of conscious, expressive and reflexive choice, the study demonstrates the importance of paying attention to the increasing institutionalisation of forms of collective Fairtrade purchasing, as well as the ways in which orientations towards consumer goods are guided by levels of commitment to varied social practices. Based within a Fairtrade town – a place with a community of Fairtrade supporters who are actively campaigning to switch the systems of collective provision within the town to Fairtrade-only lines – and employing a range of mixed-method research techniques, this thesis uniquely pays attention to both the ‘Fairtrade supporter’ and the ‘non-Fairtrade supporter’. In so doing it highlights why attempts to change people’s behaviour through the provision of information alone are unlikely to be successful. Consumers are not infinitely malleable and the practices that guide their routine consumption are supported by a whole range of collective structures, including cultural norms and discourses, institutional frameworks and infrastructures of provision. These are not easily transformed through interventions aimed at the individual level, in other words individuals’ behaviours, attitudes and choices. The thesis also contributes to debates about levels and types of citizen-engagement, interrogating the assumption that those who do not engage in Fairtrade consumption behaviour are apathetic or lack certain types of knowledge. Instead the findings suggest that citizen-consumers are capable of expressing reasoned objections and scepticism to the model of individual responsibility that is being directed towards them. 3 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex Acknowledgements Firstly, special thanks must go to my supervisors, Dr. Lucinda Platt and Dr. Sean Nixon, who have carefully guided me through the PhD process and have been a constant source of support. Their intuitive insights and advice have contributed to both the development of this thesis and to my development as a sociologist and I will always be grateful to them for this. Many thanks also to Dr. Peter Gurney who has sat as the chair of my biannual supervisory board meeting providing many interesting ideas and suggestions as well as invaluable support. Thanks must also go to my good friend and fellow PhD student, Jennifer Bullen, who read and commented upon my many drafts, listened to me practice conference presentations, acted as my assistant for several of my focus group discussions, shared the odd drink with me and provided me with the comfort of knowing that I was not alone. Thanks also to the Sociology Department at Essex which has provided a stimulating environment in which to work, and to Dr. Lynne Pettinger for her comments and encouragements. I am very grateful to the residents of Fairville who participated in this research. Without their willingness to discuss their consumption behaviour and commitment to varied social practices, this thesis quite simply would not have been possible. I would especially like to thank Alfred and the Fairville Fairtrade Action Group who have given me access to their minutes and have allowed me to attend their meetings. I must also thank Karen Potter who very kindly agreed to help me transcribe my interviews for a nominal fee. On a more personal level, I owe a huge thank you to my parents, Jacqui and Mick Wheeler, who have patiently and lovingly supported me throughout my many years at university and beyond. Not only have they demonstrated an unwavering belief in my ability to get the thesis completed, but they 4 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex also allowed me to use my old room as a study meaning that I could eat their food and use their warmth, and enjoy the comfort of my best friend Monty who kept my feet warm and made me go for daily walks! I would particularly like to thank my mum for acting as my focus group assistant for the majority of the groups, and both my parents for proof-reading and commenting upon my drafts. Special thanks must also go to my partner, Luke Branch, for his understanding, love, patience and shoulders to cry on. His constant support and encouragement have made me find the strength to get up every morning and face the challenges of the day. I know that I could not have completed this thesis without him and for this, any many other things, I express my eternal love and gratitude to him. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Economic and Social Research Council who funded this research on the 1+3 scheme, which has been crucial throughout the majority of my doctoral years. I would like to dedicate this thesis to my grandmother, Grace Wheeler, who has dedicated her life to her family and friends, and has taught me not to forget the importance of having fun and living your life while you still have the capacity to do so. 5 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex List of Abbreviations ASI Adam Smith Institute ATO Alternative Trading Organisation CA Consumers’ Association DFID Department for International Development ECRA Ethical Consumer Research Association EDM Early Day Motion FFAG Fairville Fairtrade Action Group FLO Fairtrade Labelling Organisation FTF Fairtrade Foundation, UK IMF International Monetary Fund LSA Ligue Sociale d’Acheteurs NCL National Consumers’ League NGO Non-Governmental Organisation RA Rainforest Alliance WFTO World Fairtrade Organisation WTO World Trade Organisation 6 For citation purposes: Wheeler, K. (2010) ‘‘We’re all Fairtrade consumers now!’ An exploration of the meanings, moralities and politics of Fairtrade consumption’, Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Essex 1 Introduction: We’re all Fairtrade consumers now! What do the BBC TV Centre, Boots the Chemist, Cadbury’s, Harrods, Interflora, Nestlé, Sainsbury’s, the town of Bristol and the Houses of Parliament have in common with one another? The answer is that they all offer or serve Fairtrade products. The small black, green, white and blue Fairtrade logo, which is sometimes thought to resemble a person waving and symbolises “a better deal for Third World Producers”, can be found on a growing number of consumer products (over 300 at the time of writing) in a diverse array of retail spaces and locations across the UK. The Fairtrade 1 movement has come a long way since its humble beginnings in the 1940s when fairly traded artisan and craft goods produced by displaced and impoverished people were sold by Christians and philanthropists on church stalls; and later in the 1960s and 70s when a small number of products and commodities, including coffee, were sold through a specialist network of ‘World Shops’ and Alternative Trading Organisations (ATOs) (see Grimes, 2005; Jaffee, 2007; WFTO, 2009). Today there are roughly 1.5 million small-scale producers and workers organised into Fairtrade schemes in 58 developing countries, and sales of Fairtrade worldwide amounted to approximately €2.3 billion in 2007 representing a 47 per cent increase over sales in 2006 (FLO, 2009). The UK is one of the world’s leading Fairtrade markets and has witnessed impressive sales figures which on average double in value every two years (FTF, 2009e; Krier, 2007). In 2008, UK sales of Fairtrade products reached a retail value of £713.6 million (FTF, 2009d) suggesting that the British public is both supportive of and actively interested in using their consumer power in order to improve the lives of farmers in the developing world.
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