StMU History Media Featuring Historical Research, Writing, and Media at St. Mary’s University

Vol. 2 No. 1 Jan-Feb 2017

Emma Goldman

By Gabriella Serrato Read about this "most dangerous woman in America"

Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show By Nelson Smithwick Discover the fascinating story of this vision of what the "West" was thought to be

Sir Francis Drake

By Cameron Adelman Fascinating look at the exploits and adventures of this swashbuckling privateer Bloody Mary in the Mirror 2 ARTICLES ARTICLES 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS STMU HISTORY MEDIA Oct. - Nov. 2016 TOP 14 ARTICLES 04 Sir Francis Drake: Knight and 27 The Intellectual Endeavors of Explorer, Slave Trader and Pirate Leonardo Da Vinci by Cameron Adelman by Christopher Repka 07 The Ghost Dance and the Wounded 30 The Son of a Watchmaker: Jean- Knee Massacre of 1890 Jacques Rousseau Leonardo Da Vinci by Gabriela Serrato by Zaraly Frasquillo 10 The US Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 32 "The Most Dangerous Woman in America" Emma Goldman by Cameron Adelman »»p 32 »»p. 27 »»p.12p. 7 by Gabriela Serrato 13 Have Fun, Will Travel: Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show 36 Sargon of Akkad by Nelson Smithwick by Erick Martinez 15 The Lynching Era: The Tragic 38 Martin Luther: Rebel or Reformer? Hanging of Laura and L.D. Nelson by Teresa Valdez by Gabriela Serrato 41 Nikola Tesla: The Man Who Gave a 20 Peter the Great: The Man who New "Light" to the World Westernized Russia by MNahim Rancharan by Mario Sosa 44 The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 »»p. 10 »»p. 23 »»p. 41 23 Bloody Mary in the Mirror by Sergio Cervantes by Nicolas McKay

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globe. belief that a hypothetical continent, referred to as Sir Francis Drake: Knight and Terra Australis, was located just south of Chile. In 1577, Queen Elizabeth dispatched Drake Returning northward, Drake began raiding the on an expedition to cross through the Strait relatively unguarded Spanish ports along Chile’s Explorer, Slave Trader and Pirate of Magellan–a passage located at the southern coast, the Spanish firm in the belief that they tip of South America that were safe so far away from connects the Atlantic and Europe. Drake reportedly By Cameron Adelman Pacific Oceans–ostensibly traveled up the coast as far Although the 1519 voyage of Ferdinand Magellan John Hawkins on two successful slave trading with the purpose of seeking as California, although some is openly acknowledged to be the first successful expeditions from Africa to the Caribbean. These trade opportunities along believe he may have reached expedition to circumnavigate the globe, it is also expeditions earned Drake and his cousin the South America’s eastern as far as Canada or Alaska. His commonly known that Magellan did not survive enmity of the Spanish, who alongside Portugal coast. However, Drake’s hold full of Spanish treasure, the undertaking, having been killed in the claimed exclusive rights to trade with the mission also had a second, Drake feared the possibility of Philippines during a local political dispute in 1521.1 Americas under the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas. secret objective: to raid as a Spanish trap waiting for him In that respect, the first man to lead an expedition And so, during Hawkins and Drake’s third slave many Spanish outposts and in the Strait of Magellan, and that successfully circumnavigated the globe– trading expedition in 1567, their convoy was set merchant vessels as possible, decided to return to England and survive the undertaking–was Sir Francis upon by Spanish warships at San Juan de Ulúa, with the goal of reducing the by way of the Pacific instead.8 Drake, the sixteenth-century English explorer Mexico. The Spanish’s raid was largely successful, vast revenue that Spain was who is frequently cited as the most famous (and and Hawkins and Drake barely escaped with their receiving from trade with the Unlike his journey thus far, notorious) explorer of the Elizabethan Era (1558- lives aboard separate vessels. Separated from his Americas and thus indirectly the remainder of Drake’s 1603).2 From a more modern perspective, Drake cousin, Drake’s vessel returned to England empty- decrease Spain’s ability to expedition was comparatively appears as quite a controversial figure in history. handed. To add insult to injury, when Hawkins fund an invasion of England. uneventful. The Golden Hind To the British, he was a living folk hero, equatable finally managed to return to England, he accused And so, Drake departed from crossed the Pacific, making to Robin Hood or King Arthur, a romantic figure Drake of cowardice and of abandoning him in England in December of 1577, stops in the Palau Islands, the who rose from the Caribbean. with a fleet of five ships and Sir Francis Drake, by Marcus Gheeraerts | Philippines, and Indonesia. He humble origins Drake protested less than two hundred men.5 Courtesy of Buckland Abbey then crossed the Indian Ocean and ascended that he had and sailed around the Cape to knighthood, been following From the beginning, the journey was fraught of Good Hope in Africa, traveling up the coast the man who Hawkins’ orders with complications. While crossing the Atlantic towards Europe. On September 26, 1580, almost circumnavigated by returning Ocean, Drake ordered two of his ships, the three years after his departure, Drake sailed the globe, and to England, Christopher and the Swan, stripped of supplies into Plymouth Harbor with just fifty-six of his a hero who but Hawkins’ and burned due to the loss of too many personnel.6 original crew. He returned to a hero’s welcome, helped repel the accusation would Additionally, while moored at Port St. Julian–in his expedition an unquestionable success in the Spanish Armada. taint Drake’s what is now Argentina–Drake tried and convicted eyes of England. The venture made both he and On the other reputation for Thomas Doughty, his friend and captain of the his investors incredibly wealthy, and in April of hand, to the years to come.3 Swan, for the crimes of treachery and incitement the following year Drake was knighted by Queen Spanish, Drake to mutiny. Doughty was executed there in Port St. Elizabeth for his service to the crown. That was a notorious These events Julian, the same spot where Magellan ironically same year, Drake was elected to Parliament and pirate who embittered had tried and convicted several mutineers of became the mayor of Plymouth. He purchased raided peaceful Drake towards his own exactly 58 years earlier during his own a large estate known as Buckland Abbey where merchant Spain, and he circumnavigation expedition.7 However, Drake’s he settled down to enjoy the riches and acclaim vessels and would spend the troubles did not end there. After reaching and he had earned.9 sacked Spanish Queen Elizabeth I knights Francis Drake | Courtesy of Baldwin H. Ward rest of his life traversing the Strait of Magellan and entering settlements. and Kathryn C. Ward/Corbis taking vengeance the Pacific Ocean, Drake’s remaining ships Fate would see Drake return to the sea sooner Drake’s reputation against the encountered powerful storms. The storms than expected, however. In 1585, tensions between has been stained by many other disreputable acts, Spanish for the theft of what he believed had separated him from the Elizabeth and sank England and Spain had escalated to the point that including multiple accusations of desertion and been his rightful property. In 1571 Drake secured a the Marigold, with the crew of the Elizabeth war had become inevitable. In response, Queen his participation in the slave trade. What no one privateer’s license from Queen Elizabeth I, which returning to England under the assumption that Elizabeth placed Drake in charge of a fleet of 25 can doubt, however, is the undeniable impact that he used to conduct a successful raid against a Drake’s sole remaining ship, the Golden Hind, warships, and ordered him to attack Spanish- Drake has had on the world’s history. Spanish silver shipment in Panama. After had sunk beneath the waves. held territories across the world. With his fleet returning to England, Drake spent the next few Drake attacked multiple settlements, capturing Francis Drake was born to Edmund Drake years assisting the Earl of Essex, Robert Devereux, With only eighty crewmen and the Golden Santiago in the Cape Verde Islands, Cartagena circa 1540, in the town of Tavistock in the county to quell an Irish rebellion, during which Drake Hind, Drake nevertheless pressed onward. The in Colombia, St. Augustine in Florida, and San of Devon, England. He was apprenticed at an forged many important political friendships that Golden Hind had been pushed southward away Domingo in Hispanola. Returning to Europe, early age to his relative, William Hawkins, with would serve him well over the course of his life.4 from Cape Horn to the southern tip of Tierra del Drake scored further victories against Spain and whom Drake learned the fundamentals of sailing, It was after this service to the crown that Drake Fuego, an archipelago at the southernmost tip of Portugal by capturing or destroying 37 merchant trade, exploration, and piracy. While he was still would embark on his most famous venture, one South America. Exploring the waters south of vessels at Cadiz, Spain and by occupying the city a young man, Drake accompanied his cousin that would result in his circumnavigation of the South America, Drake was able to debunk the of Sagres, Portugal.10 Despite these victories, the Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 6 ARTICLES ARTICLES 7

English were unable to stop the Spanish WORKS CITED 1. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference Armada from attacking England, which at Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer the time was considered to be the largest and York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 67. most powerful naval force in the world. Queen Elizabeth made Drake the vice admiral in charge 2. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference of leading the defense against the Armada, Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer making him second-in-command of the British York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 63. Navy. Ultimately, however, Drake did not play a significant role in protecting England from the 3. "Drake, Francis,” in Pirates Through the Ages Spanish Armada, despite exaggerations on his part Reference Library, edited by Jennifer Stock, Vol. 3, emphasizing his role in the defense. It is believed (Detroit: UXL, 2011), 79-81. that, against orders, Drake captured a Spanish pay ship carrying a significant shipment of gold coins 4. "Drake, Francis,” in Pirates Through the Ages in the early stages of the defense, then quarreled Reference Library, edited by Jennifer Stock, Vol. 3, with another English officer, Sir Martin Frobisher, (Detroit: UXL, 2011), 81-83. about how to split the money. Frobisher later went on to accuse Drake of withdrawing in the middle 5. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference of the attack, labeling him a coward and a traitor.11 Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 65-66. It would soon become clear that Drake’s naval career was on the decline. In 1589, Queen Elizabeth 6. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference sent Drake on a counteroffensive against Spain Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer with a fleet of 180 ships. This offensive resulted in York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 66-67. a catastrophic attempt to capture the Portuguese capital of Lisbon, leading to the death of thousands 7. Hans Kraus, “The Famous Voyage: The of English sailors. Six years later, in 1595, Drake Circumnavigation of the World, 1577-1580” in Sir set off on what would be his final voyage. Drake Francis Drake: a Pictorial Biography, (Amsterdam, led an expedition to attack Spanish settlement N. Israel, 1970), Library of Congress, https://www.loc. at San Juan, Puerto Rico; however, like his raid gov/rr/rarebook/catalog/drake/drake-4-famousvoy. against Lisbon, this assault ultimately resulted html. in failure, one that Drake would not survive. In 1596, still out at sea, Drake became ill and passed 8. "Drake, Francis,” in Pirates Through the Ages away from dysentery. His body, dressed in full Reference Library, edited by Jennifer Stock, Vol. 3, armor, was placed in a lead coffin and lowered (Detroit: UXL, 2011), 84. into the sea, to the accompaniment of trumpets and cannon fire.12 9. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference The Ghost Dance and Wounded Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer Mixed reputation or no, Drake unquestionably York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 66-67. was and is one of the most famous figures in Knee Massacre of 1890 English history. In many ways, he transcended 10. "Drake, Francis,” in Pirates Through the Ages history and became a legend in his own time, being Reference Library, edited by Jennifer Stock, Vol. 3, featured heavily in the works of Richard Hakylut (Detroit: UXL, 2011), 86. By Gabriela Serrato and Samuel Purchas, two prominent writers who also lived during Drake’s lifetime.13 Nevertheless, 11. “Drake, Francis,” in Elizabethan World Reference The Ghost Dance, introduced by the Northern control of white people, claiming that white people there are just as many who would argue that Library, edited by Sonia G. Benson and Jennifer Paiute tribe, was a ceremony that acted as a hope to would disappear altogether. This would allow Native Drake was no paragon, who would contend that York Stock, Vol. 2, (Detroit: UXL, 2007), 71-72. bring back prosperity and liveliness to all of the natives Americans to return to the life they once had before his cowardice, indecision, greed, and avarice, made who had fallen under attacks and displacements the Europeans came, and their buffalo would once him more villain than hero. Whatever the case 12. "Drake, Francis,” in Pirates Through the Ages from their homelands by white American settlers. again be plentiful. This was the wish many Indians may be, there’s no denying that Drake indisputably Reference Library, edited by Jennifer Stock, Vol. 3, These Ghost Dances sought to unify the tribe and held, to return and resume to act in their cultural had a major impact on world history, making him (Detroit: UXL, 2011), 86-88. bring their people together in the hope of returning ways with no interruption. Tävibo also claimed that quite arguably the most significant mariner of his to their previous ways of living; it was through this in introducing the Ghost Dance, he had spoken to time. 13. “Drake, Sir Francis,” in The Oxford Companion to Ghost Dance that a strong connection to the spirit their deceased ancestors. He claimed that it was these English Literature, edited by Birch, Dinah. Oxford world was maintained. Dating back to its beginning dead family members who contrived and shaped the University Press, 2009. in Nevada in 1869, the Ghost Dance was introduced dance into a circular performance dance ceremony. by the visions of the prophet Tävibo, a Northern This supposed interaction with the dead and their Paiute. He spoke of a time when Indians would once overall influence on the living is how the name of again be prosperous and no longer be under the the practice came to be called the Ghost Dance. The Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 8 ARTICLES ARTICLES 9 dance grew in popularity as it spread throughout the The dancers would see them in a place of complete simple decor, but were thought of as pieces of many of these victims being women and children. In land, over the Great Plains to Nevada and California, serenity. The lives they were living were the ones protection. It was a belief of the Lakota that these the attempt to gather all bodies, some were found and even to Oregon.1 of the past where all were happy and under no shirts would resist harm from coming to them, and even three miles away from the reservation. One- oppression, with the supply of buffalo easily at hand.3 that even bullets would not penetrate these shirts.4 hundred-forty-six Lakota were buried in a mass During the following years, other prophets grave, while the others were gathered and accounted emerged, but the Ghost Dance did not continue Those who followed the teachings of Tävibo were As more white citizens became aware of the Ghost for later.6 to see widespread appeal until the appearance of not necessarily followers of Wovoka. But in contrast Dance ceremonies being practiced by tribes around another prophet, said to be Tävibo’s son. His name to that, the Ghost Dance was welcomed among the them, they sensed a threat by them and became While the military lost only twenty-five men, it was Wovoka, but he was also known as Jack Wilson. Plain tribes across many states, including Kansas, alarmed. The U.S. Indian Policy, more specifically was celebrated among the white people as a success. Wovoka was born into the Northern Paiute tribe, but Oklahoma, Nebraska, Texas, and the Dakotas. The The Dawes Act, was believed to have been under People believed that the “savage ways” of the Indians at age fourteen his father died. This left Wovoka to words and practices of Wovoka reached as far as the attack by these dances and it created a fear among may finally be over. The Medal of Honor was be raised by a white family, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, the white people of an uprising from the Indians. It is presented to twenty individuals for their acts during on the nearby ranch. By Wichita, Caddo, and Apache even said that officials, especially those who ran the the massacre at Wounded Knee, as their actions was joining David Wilson’s tribes. reservations, saw that a war was being ignited by the seen as being extremely heroic. The Wounded Knee family, Wovoka worked on Lakota. Even the act of wearing the decorated shirts Massacre was the final blow to the Indians as this the ranch and was given The numbers of those in practice of the dance fomented the idea that the ended the four hundred year conflict between the the name of Jack Wilson. participating in a single Lakota were forming and instigating the makings of whites and the natives. In only ten years, the Indian He became accustomed ceremony often exceeded a battle. In fear, the officials of the reservations called population reached a low of 250,000 people. This to many new ways, such three thousand, as groups on the United States government. The president at massacre resulted in the Ghost Dance ceremonies as the English language gathered to dance every night the time, Benjamin Harrison, responded by sending dying out among the Lakota, but elsewhere in the and the Christian religion. for two weeks during a single the U.S. Army down to these reservations to stop the plain, the acts continued. In some areas as far away While he lived under this Ghost Dance. The greatest threat, hoping to end the potential conflict that was as Canada, the Ghost Dance was practiced well into new household for years, influence reached the Lakota believed to be rising between the Indians and whites. the 1960’s. The ceremonial Ghost Dance holds a rich as he became an adult he Sioux, who brought the This resulted in Indian leaders, such as Sitting Bull, cultural importance to all of those who were a part rejoined the Paiute tribe. dance into practice. Wovoka being arrested and, unfortunately in this act, killed.5 of it. It was an expression of native tribes longing In time, he too was said to was consulted and listened to for the return of their happy, prosperous, and experience visions from a by the Sioux, and they took On December 23, 1890, the Miniconjous Lakota unbothered lives before the introduction of white higher power, or supreme his message to heart. By 1890, fled and escaped their reservation village after being settlers. It shows the practice as being completely being, and he spread his Wovoka was speaking of the struck with fear. From the words of John Dunn, a connected with ones spirituality, in that it reunites teachings among the tribe. Ghost Dance bringing about local squatter, the military had planned to take the members to those who have passed. It highlights how Wovoka preached that his the resurrection of their Lakota men and deport them to an island in the important culture is to native Indians by the acts of people should learn to live deceased ancestors. He also Atlantic Ocean. With this news, the Miniconjous dancing, singing songs, and the clothing they put on peacefully, for the time being, claimed that herds of buffalo Lakota ran, but after five days, the tribe was found their bodies. The true purpose of these Ghost Dances with the newcomers. Just as would return in abundance, by the Seventh Cavalry, who were sent to intervene. was to inspire hope, and it continues to do so in that Tävibo had done, Wovoka and that whites would The Lakota were sent to reside in confinement it shows that even today this Indian culture should also introduced dances and not only leave, but would on Wounded Knee Creek. By the next morning, not die out as time progresses. songs thought to have been be annihilated by natural December 29, Colonel James W. Forsyth ordered passed on from their Indian disasters, leaving Indians that the tribe surrender all firearms. In back and ancestors. Wovoka expressed to their peaceful solitude forth arguments, some Lakota engaged in the songs WORKS CITED that if these ceremonies One of the four “Silverblade” novels, by Joseph Bad- once again. All wished to of the Ghost Dance. Once again, the Ghost Dance were performed, and if they ger. The novels followed Silverblade, a half-blood return to the life before any was interpreted as a threat. Some Indians began 1. Encyclopedia of The Great Plains, 2011, s.v. “Ghost exhibited their practices of Shoshone, and his knowledge of the Ghost Dance contact with the Europeans throwing handfuls of dirt in the air, and this was Dance,” by Todd M. Kerstetter. peace, then their land too | Image courtesy of River Campus Libraries, The had occurred. The message seen as a signal of attack. This ignited the soldiers would become free of white Ghost Dance in Popular Culture: Jacob Goldstein that the Ghost Dance was who were supervising the reservations. In a quarrel 2. Encyclopedia of The Great Plains, 2011, s.v. “Ghost people. Not only would a trying to fulfill was not of over a rifle, Black Coyote refused to surrender his Dance,” by Todd M. Kerstetter. banishment of the white hatred or rebellion, but one gun to a soldier who had demanded it. During the Americans come, but Wovoka also claimed there of returning their people to the culture and life they tug of war and struggle to get the gun, it accidentally 3. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 1995, s.v. would be a resurrection of the deceased, and that had enjoyed before the coming of white settlers. The fired. Because of this sudden shot, troops opened “Wovoka,” by Ronald W. Long. all would be reunited with those who had passed.2 Ghost Dance gave them hope that such times were fire because they were under the assumption that yet to come. These tribes were suffering dreadful they were indeed under attack and needed to regain 4. The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, The dance would last for four days; it was a round conditions, which had been forced on them, forcing order. The Lakota, who had no weapons, did all 2009, s.v. “Ghost Dance,” by Gloria A. Young. dance that united the entire tribe. During the dance them to reside in ever narrowing reservations. The they could do to flee the situation. The military fired some would take fans that were woven from the wings Lakota people were the ones who went beyond the their weapons and chased down all that attempted to 5. The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, of eagles and fan those partaking in the round dance. dance and even introduced adding special garments escape, killing along the way. The gunfire continued 2009, s.v. “Ghost Dance,” by Gloria A. Young. This act was said to put the dancers into a trance, to the Ghost Dance ceremony. They began wearing for hours as the military pursued the Lakota. This and while submerged, those in the trance would see ghost shirts that were adorned with symbols. But occurrence became known as the Wounded Knee 6. Encyclopedia of The Great Plains, 2011, s.v. “Wounded their relatives who had passed on to the afterworld. these shirts were not only considered a matter of Massacre. Between 145 to 300 Indian followers died, Knee Massacre,” by John E. Carter. Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 10 ARTICLES ARTICLES 11

Throughout the history of human warfare, conflict ethic known as bushido, made the prospect of a has pushed humans to innovate–to build ever larger Japanese surrender unlikely, even as the Allies began and deadlier weapons, each more lethal than the to position for an invasion of the Japanese mainland.5 last. However, it was not until World War II and the invention of the atomic bomb that humanity has been Concurrently, since as early as 1942, President able to kill on such a Franklin Delano massive and efficient Roosevelt had been scale. Case in point, in secretly sponsoring and the final days of World funding The Manhattan War II, the United Project, the code name States carried out one used for the $2 billion of the most chilling U.S. effort to develop a instances of mass nuclear weapon before murder in the history of the Germans. A team humanity: the bombing of top physicists led of the Japanese by Dr. Julius Robert cities of Hiroshima Oppenheimer were and Nagasaki. These assigned to this project, attacks ultimately a task so secret that killed an estimated not even individuals 294,000 people, the as important as then majority of whom Vice President Harry S. 2 were noncombatants. Mockup of the “Fat Man” Nuclear Warhead | Courtesy of the Truman was aware of it. In comparison, the U.S. Department of Defense (Public Domain) Shortly after Roosevelt’s Japanese attack on Pearl untimely death and Harbor killed just 2,408 Truman’s subsequent American citizens, although this is largely due to the inauguration to the presidency in April 1945, he was focused Japanese attack on military targets, namely informed that the Manhattan Project was approaching the Pacific fleet and U.S. airfields.3 To give a more success–that a nuclear weapon would be feasible in Mushroom Cloud over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 | Courtesy of the U.S. National Archives (Public Domain), modern frame of comparison, the terrorist attacks just four short months.6 Edited by Lindsay Adelman against the World Trade Center and Pentagon, considered to be by far the worst terrorist attacks Faced with the prospect of a costly and deadly against the United States, claimed the lives of 2,974 invasion of Japan, Truman and his advisors were American citizens.4 faced with a difficult choice: utilize this new atomic weapon or try to defeat Japan through conventional In the spring of 1945, World War II was entering means. In late July, the United States issued the The Weapon That Changed War: U.S. its final stages. The Allies had already achieved Postdam Declaration, a statement which gave Japan victory in Europe with Germany’s surrender on May the choice between unconditional surrender or total Bombings Of Hiroshima And Nagasa- 7th, but the conflict on annihilation. When the Pacific front was this declaration went still going strong. In ignored, President By Cameron Adelman the years leading up to Truman authorized the the two World Wars, use of the atomic bomb.7 Japan’s victories against two larger countries– On the morning of China in the Sino- August 6, 1945, Colonel Japanese War (1894– Paul Tibbets piloted the 1895) and Russia in the Enola Gay over the city Russo-Japanese War of Hiroshima, where his (1904–1905)–combined crew dropped an atomic with other factors, bomb code-named forged a strong sense of “Little Boy.” Upwards Japanese nationalism, of 70,000 people died militarism, and cultural instantly in the blast. superiority. This fervent The Sannō Shrine in Nagasaki | Author Unknown (Public Additionally, 48,000 nationalism, integrated Domain) buildings were destroyed with the Japanese warrior and another 22,000 were

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damaged, leaving only 6,000 buildings untouched. declaration of surrender to the Japanese people, thus Three days later, on August 9th, a second bomb ending World War II. The bombs’ effectiveness in was dropped onto Nagasaki, killing another 36,000 forcing the Japanese to surrender is still subject of people. In total, an estimated 295,000 were killed in popular debate among historians to this day, given that the blasts or from complications from the resulting the Russian invasion of Japan-controlled Manchuria nuclear fallout.8 occurred at the same time of Nagasaki, both of which likely impacted Japan’s will to continue fighting.9 Emperor Hirohito ordered the surrender of Japan Even so, while the political and military effects of on August 10, 1945. On August 15th, radios across these blasts may be debated, none can contest their Japan broadcasted Hirohito’s words as he read the tragedy and devastation.

Monument at Ground Zero in Nagasaki | Courtesy of Dean S. Pemberton, Edited by Lindsay Adelman

WORKS CITED 1. Jason Pontin, “Oppenheimer’s Ghost,” MIT (accessed February 5, 2017), 361. Technology Review, October 15, 2007. https:// Show poster of American Native Americans attacking pioneers in wagons. Portrait of William "Buffalo Bill" Cody on right. By www.technologyreview.com/s/408835/ 6. “An Overview of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima Courier Litho. Co., Buffalo, N.Y. c1889 | Courtesy of the Library of Congress oppenheimers-ghost/ and Nagasaki,” in The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, edited by Sylvia Engdahl, 2. Dennis W. Cheek, “Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” in Perspectives on Modern World History, Detroit: Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics, Greenhaven Press, 2011. Gale Virtual Reference edited by Carl Mitcham, Vol. 2, Detroit: Macmillan Library (accessed February 6, 2017), 13-14. Reference USA, 2005. Gale Virtual Reference Have Fun, Will Travel: Buffalo Bill's Library (accessed February 6, 2017), 923 7. “An Overview of the Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” in The Atomic Bombings of 3. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Hiroshima and Nagasaki, edited by Sylvia Engdahl, Wild West Show Rebecca Valentine, “Pearl Harbor Attack,” in UXL Perspectives on Modern World History, Detroit: Encyclopedia of U.S. History, Vol. 6, Detroit: UXL, Greenhaven Press, 2011. Gale Virtual Reference By Nelson Smithwick 2009. Gale Virtual Reference Library (accessed Library (accessed February 6, 2017), 14-15. February 6, 2017), 1208 In 1883, William “Buffalo Bill” Cody, famous already somewhat of a celebrity in the west, after 8. Dennis W. Cheek, “Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” in frontiersman, army scout, and buffalo hunter, opened having earned his moniker “Buffalo Bill” for killing 4. Stefan M. Brooks, “September 11 Attacks,” in The Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics, the doors of his Wild West Show for the first time.1 some 4,280 buffalo for the Kansas Pacific Railroad Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States edited by Carl Mitcham, Vol. 2, Detroit: Macmillan This show was a fantastical, exaggerated portrayal of Company in the 1860s.3 Bill also had the good in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts, Reference USA, 2005. Gale Virtual Reference life on the frontier, complete with reenactments of business sense to employ many of the Lakota Sioux edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Vol. 3, Santa Barbara, Library (accessed February 6, 2017), 923. famous frontier battles with natives, displays by gifted and other Native Americans, including the man CA: ABC-CLIO, 2010. Gale Virtual Reference marksmen (and one woman) and horsemen, and famous for the role he actually played at the Battle Library (accessed February 6, 2017), 1096. 9. "The United States Drops the Atomic Bomb on shows of the culture of the various Native Americans of the Little Big Horn, Chief Sitting Bull. It was in its Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” in Global Events: in Bill’s employ. This show would capture the hearts depiction of Native Americans that many of his fans 5. "The United States Drops the Atomic Bomb on Milestone Events Throughout History, edited by and minds of many people in the United States, and were drawn, enamored by the elaborate songs and Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” in Global Events: Jennifer Stock, Vol. 2, Asia and Oceania, Farmington later on even in Europe, as Buffalo Bill’s show traveled dances of these peoples, with Buffalo Bill going so far Milestone Events Throughout History, edited by Hills, MI: Gale, 2014. Gale Virtual Reference Library to many European countries between 1886 and 1906.2 as to say, “My Indians are the principal feature of this Jennifer Stock, Vol. 2, Asia and Oceania, Farmington (accessedof Cupid and Psyche,” Renascence: Essays show.”4 The depiction of the Native Americans in his Hills, MI: Gale, 2014. Gale Virtual Reference Library on Values in Literature 67, no. 4 (Fall 2015): 289. One of the reasons for the success of Buffalo show was largely of their warrior culture, war regalia, Bill’s show was its “authenticity.” Bill himself was and dances made for going into battle; however, this Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 14 ARTICLES ARTICLES 15

Leaflet showing the location of attractions at Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show in Neuilly-sur-Siene France, 1889 | Courtesy of the Bibliothèque nationale de France was taking place during the closing of the American frontier, when the death of the buffalo herds and the end of the Sioux Wars had largely ended this way of life in the west. Chief Sitting Bull in war bonnet photographed with Buffalo Bill | Photograph by David F. Barry c1885 | After roughly four months working with Cody, Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Sitting Bull grew tired of the show and left to return to the Standing Rock Reservation, where he would eventually be killed. Later in 1890, the Massacre at but rather the end of interest in the west. Although Wounded Knee would take place and many Sioux people praised Bill’s show for its authenticity, it was would be killed by the U.S. 7th Cavalry, the same not authentic to the contemporary west. The show regiment that fought with Custer years prior, at the did not feature miles-long slow rides in freezing "The Lynching of Laura Nelson and Son" | George Henry Farnum, photographer 1911 | Image courtesy of The Coli Battle of the Little Big Horn.5 With this, the way of temperatures on cattle drives, and it did not show life that was shown in Buffalo Bill’s show was all but subsistence farming. What Buffalo Bill’s Wild West destroyed. Show gave its audience was the same thing that they grew accustomed to from dime novels and stories of The Lynching Era: The Tragic Even with this, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show the west: rough and tumble cowboys, crack shots, continued to be popular up until it went bankrupt and skilled horsemen, and the Natives that made the west closed in 1916.6 By 1916, the “Wild West” had not truly so dangerous. With the closing of the frontier and Hanging of Laura and L.D. Nelson existed for quite some time; the country had been the nation looking outside of its borders to expand, rapidly industrializing, and the age of both Cowboys the west was no longer as exotic as it once was in the and Indians would soon give way to the machine public’s eye, and was anything but wild. By Gabriela Serrato guns and artillery of the First World War. However, it was not the death of the west that ended Bill’s show, The period from 1880 to 1930 is one of the darkest In the case of Laura Nelson, it was May 2, 1911. Three WORKS CITED chapters in American History for its numbers of men, under the eyes of Okfuskee County Deputy murders by lynching, and has come to be known as Sheriff George Loney, went to search the house of 1. Stephen G. Hyslop, “How the West was Spun,” 4. Stephen G. Hyslop, “How the West was Spun,” the Lynching Era.1 Acts of violence against blacks Laura Nelson. Laura and her husband Austin were American History 43, no. 4 (October 2008): 26. American History 43, no. 4 (October 2008): 33. in the South rose dramatically in the years after suspected of having stolen a cow and butchered it. the Civil War. Intimidation, beatings, and murder Austin Nelson admitted to the crime, as the meat was 2. Irene Lottini, “When Buffalo Bill crossed the ocean: 5. Stephen G. Hyslop, “How the West was Spun,” became normal occurrences during this period of found in their possession during the search. Laura’s Native American scenes in early twentieth century American History 43, no. 4 (October 2008): 33. time, where people of color were killed by hanging husband stated in regards to him steeling the cow, European culture,” European Journal Of American or other tortuous ways. The thousands who fell victim “he had nothing for his children to eat.”3 Culture 31, no. 3 (October 18, 2012): 187. 6. Douglas Seefeldt, “Buffalo Bill’s Wild West,” to unthinkable torture and death had done nothing to in America in the World, 1776 to the Present: A bring this fate upon themselves; it was a result of the While Sheriff George Loney was searching the 3. Stephen G. Hyslop, “How the West was Spun,” Supplement to the Dictionary of American History, entwined racism that was the mindset of many of the Nelson’s house, he discovered a loaded musket that American History 43, no. 4 (October 2008): 27. edited by Edward J. Blum, Vol. 1. (Farmington Hills, whites who lived in the South. In this time period, any hung on the wall of their cabin. Firmly, the Sheriff MI: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2016), 163. small “act” could bring a person of color to this fate.2 demanded it, and urged that it be unloaded. With this, Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 16 ARTICLES ARTICLES 17

monstrous photographs that were taken of Laura and People (NAACP) and even by the Communist Party to L. D. Nelson. “The Lynching of Laura Nelson and Son” highlight the tragedy and extreme horror that lynch that started off as a photograph taken by the local mobs brought to the United States. For the organizers photographer of the town, George Henry Farnum, of these exhibits, these two galleries hoped to educate soon transitioned into becoming a popular lynch the population and criminalize these acts as the postcard.6 These were widely distributed, despite the crimes they had always truly been. Woody Guthrie ban on “violent mail” by the Postal Service. These attended and witnessed these art pieces himself, and lynch postcards proved to be very profitable, and some from this he expressed, “This painting is so real I feel individuals even sold them as door to door salesmen. like I was at a lynching, and it…takes all of the fun The spread of racism and good humor and paralleled the spread good sport out of of these postcards, you to set here and as it allowed people realize that people to be “involved” could go so haywire with these lynching as to hang a human without physically body up by a gallus having to be present. pole and shoot it It heightened the full of Winchester idea that white rifle holes just for supremacists had the pastime.’’9 power and control in society, as they This interaction sought to spread their also made Guthrie bigotry throughout remember some the country.7 horrors from his own childhood. The impact of Woody Guthrie these lynching says, “It reminds have continued for me of the postcard L.D. Nelson hangs from the Canadian River Bridge many decades, and picture they sold |photograph by George Henry “Bill” Farnum | in one case, they in my home town Courtesy of The Nelson Lynching of 1911 have continued in for several years, a an irony of history. showing you a negro trial for the murder of Sheriff Deputy George Loney. Woody Guthrie, who mother, and her Laura Nelson hanging from the Canadian River Bridge | Even though Laura pleaded for her and her son’s is said to be one of two young sons, a George Henry Farnum, photographer 1911 | innocence, they remained in jail.4 the most influential hanging by the neck Image courtesy of LA Progressive modern folk music from a river bridge, While days passed for Laura and L. D. in jail, on artist, made his mark. and the wild wind a May 24, 1911, a mob of some forty men descended Through his music whistling down the officers stated that Laura reached for another gun upon the jail. Fourteen year old L. D. and his mother he portrayed his river bottom, and from the hands of her teenage son, L. D. Nelson. This Laura Nelson were dragged from their cells in that thoughts on lynching the ropes stretched is when a struggle began between the Sheriff and L. Oklahoma city, and put into wagons. They traveled by condemning it. Woody Guthrie | Image Courtesy of tight by the weight D. in trying to gain control of the gun. Unfortunately six miles outside of the city, and then they entered Guthrie was born The Journal of American History of their bodies… in L. D.’s wrestle with Sheriff Loney, the gun went a Negro settlement. Once there, the mob of men, only a year after the stretched tight like a off. The bullet hit Sheriff Loney in the leg, and killed using tow sacks, gagged both L. D. and Laura. Laura lynching of Laura and L. D. Nelson, but their story big fiddle string.”10 him. Laura’s husband Austin fully admitted to the act was then raped, and then the mob took her to the impacted him later on in his life when he began to of stealing and killing the livestock, and stated that Canadian River Bridge where she was hanged by a develop his anti-lynching music.8 The postcard that Woody Guthrie was recalling Laura was only “reaching” for this weapon to retrieve noose made of hemp. Only twenty feet away on the was indeed the one of Laura and L. D. Nelson. While it from her son before an altercation would begin. This bridge, L. D. was hanged as well, with his clothes Guthrie was struck to produce this music when Guthrie was incorrect in his claims that there had statement from Austin Nelson led him immediately partly torn from his body. Their bodies remained on inspiration hit him in an art gallery. It was the been three individuals, he let this memory and his to a penitentiary, which is what in actuality saved the bridge overnight until discovered the next day by mid 1930’s, and now the lynchings caught by the viewing of the artwork allow him to create music. him from a lynch mob. But with Austin’s statement a young boy passing by.5 photographs that were originally used to popularize Inspired by the Nelson postcards and the gruesome taking full personal blame, in the hopes of keeping them were being used in art exhibits to inspire anti- event of that May day in 1911, Guthrie wrote the song, his wife and son from punishment, he was indeed While lynchings were said to be a secretive activity, lynching actions. Artists such as Thomas Hart Benton “Don’t Kill My Baby and My Son,” which tells of disappointed; unfortunately his confession did not this one of Laura Nelson and her son seemed to prove and Jose Clemente Orozco produced paintings, Guthrie’s remembrance of his past, as he expresses keep them from harm. Both Laura and L. D. were otherwise. It was as if the perpetrators were immune drawings, and prints that were shown in two major in his lyrics that he heard the “lonesome moan” of arrested and put in the Okfuskee County jail to await from the law. This “secret” lynching is what led to the exhibits. These exhibits were sponsored by the Laura crying out, “You can stretch my neck on that National Association for the Advancement of Colored old river bridge, but don’t kill my baby and my son.”11 Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 18 ARTICLES ARTICLES 19

“As I walked down that old dark town The lives lost during this time period were lost in let them be ignored or forgotten. These thousands of In the town where I was born, a way that resembles a national demonic nightmare. lives that matter were taken because of pure racist Many Americans celebrated these acts as moments hatred, and it is crucial as a country that these acts I heard the saddest lonesome moan of white pride and power. But this fifty year period will serve as a reminder of where we once were and of agonizing murder is the longest, compared to all where we should promise never to return. I ever heard before… other countries that have faced attacks on others for their ethnicity.16 It is horrific facts like these in our O, don’t kill my baby and my son, country’s history that compel us to face them and not

O , don’t kill my baby and my son.

You can stretch my neck on that old

river bridge, WORKS CITED But don’t kill my baby and my son… 1. For the literature on lynching, see Ashraf H.A. 2016, s.v. “Woody Guthrie,” by Howard Bromberg. Then I saw a picture on a postcard Rushdy, American Lynching (Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2012); Amy Louise Woods, 9. Mark Allen Jackson, “Dark memory: a look at It showed the Canadian River Bridge, Lynching and spectacle: witnessing racial violence lynching in America through the life, times, and in America, 1890-1940 (Chapel Hill: University songs of Woody Guthrie,” Popular Music and Society Three bodies hanging to swing in the of North Carolina Press, 2009). For the most 28, no. 5 (December 2005): 663-664. important early work on American lynchings in the wind, post-Reconstruction era, see Ida B. Wells-Barnett, 10. Mark Allen Jackson, “Dark memory: a look at On Lynchings (New York: Humanity Books, 1892, lynching in America through the life, times, and A mother and two sons they’d 2002). songs of Woody Guthrie,” Popular Music and Society 28, no. 5 (December 2005): 664. lynched”12 2. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her 11. Mark Allen Jackson, “Dark memory: a look at Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling lynching in America through the life, times, and Green State University, 2015), 19. songs of Woody Guthrie,” Popular Music and Society What is most ironic and even more 28, no. 5 (December 2005): 664-665. significant about Woody Guthrie 3. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and producing a song in remembrance of Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her 12. For the full text of the song, see Woody Guthrie, Laura and her son L. D. Nelson, was The Lynching in Lee County, Georgia, January 20, 1916 | Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling “Don’t Kill My Baby and My Son;” for a recent that Woody Guthrie’s own father, Charles Image courtesy of The Crisis Green State University, 2015), 21. performance of the song, see Brooke Harvey’s Guthrie, is said to have been one of the rendition on Youtube. many men in the mob that claimed Laura the culture in America that was still strongly racist. 4. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and and L. D.’s lives. No one is certain whether Charles Guthrie took his scarred memories of being raised Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her 13. Mark Allen Jackson, “Dark memory: a look at Guthrie was a strong participation or if he was simply in a racist environment and used his experiences to Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling lynching in America through the life, times, and a witness to the crimes. While Charles Guthrie stood create a message of hope for change.13 Green State University, 2015), 21. songs of Woody Guthrie,” Popular Music and Society for lynching and proclaimed white power, his son 28, no. 5 (December 2005): 665. rose up against it all. Woody Guthrie even admits that 5. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and well into the 1920’s, his father was a long-standing Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her 14. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and member of the Ku Klux Klan. But maybe it is this as The lynching of Laura Nelson is just one of the Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her well that pushed Woody to keep making music that thousands that occurred during this era. Even more Green State University, 2015), 22. Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling stood against everything his own father practiced. despicable acts of torture came to others. Women Green State University, 2015), 20. Guthrie was shocked by all of the violence against such as Mary Turner, who committed no crime, was 6. Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty (New York: W. W. Norton black people, especially the one of L. D. and Laura doused in gasoline just before her unborn baby was & Company, 2017), 666-668. 15. Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty (New York: W. W. Norton Nelson, even when this lynching had occurred over cut from her womb to be stomped into the ground.14 & Company, 2017), 666-668. a year before Woody was born. Guthrie wanted to Sam Hose, who was killed by a mob after defending 7. Viola Ratcliffe, “To Be A Witness: Lynching and make his music powerful and wanted it to linger in himself from an attacker, had his fingers, ears, and Postmemory in LaShawnda Crowe Storm’s ‘Her 16. Eric Foner, Give Me Liberty (New York: W. W. Norton everyone’s minds. He often even included the graphic genitals cut from his body before the mob set him on Name Was Laura Nelson'” (M.A. Thesis, Bowling & Company, 2017), 666-668. images from the lynchings, especially the postcards fire. The lynch mob then fought over who got to keep Green State University, 2015), 22-23. of L. D. and Laura Nelson. Woody Guthrie took this his bones as souvenirs.15 anti-lynching movement into his music to contrast 8. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January

Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 20 ARTICLES ARTICLES 21

of ten, Peter and his half-brother Ivan V both shared Peter’s military conquests were also beneficial to the title of tsar after their father had passed away. Russia. In 1700, he waged war on Sweden in order When Ivan died in 1686, Peter became the single ruler to control the Baltic Sea. Despite some minor losses, of Russia. Around this time, he began taking great Peter managed to best Sweden by triumphantly interest in sailing, meeting foreigners, and military defending Russia against King Charles XII’s Swedish command.3 In 1695, Peter fought against the Turks, army and capturing critical Swedish ports in the and after seeing how weak his own navy was, he sent Baltic Sea. The Treaty of Nystadt in 1721 gave Russia several of his people to European maritime powers official control of several regions around the Baltic to study shipbuilding and navigation. Just two years Sea, including Livonia, Ingria, and Estonia. As a result, later, Peter himself Peter was awarded the traveled around Europe, titles Emperor, the learning about Europe’s Great, and Father of customs, military, the Fatherland. Just religion, and economy. a year later, Peter Fascinated with the started a campaign foreign customs he against Persia, and encountered, he he successfully held returned to Russia and control of the ports implemented aspects of in Baku and Derbent European culture into in the Caspian Sea. his own country.4 Intensive recruitment, home produced Upon returning to weapons, organized Russia, Peter began supplies, and having enforcing changes to foreign officers as break away from old trainers all contributed Russian traditions. He to Russia’s military ordered all of the men success. Having a in the country to shave peasant population off their beards, forcing that was willing to anyone who kept their serve, a harsh climate, beards to pay an extra and a heavily fortified tax. The old Russian navy almost seemed calendar was replaced to make Russia with the Julian calendar invincible.8 that the rest of Europe had adopted.5 Even Starting in 1712, Peter’s portraits were St. Petersburg Peter the Great | By Paul Delaroche | 1831 | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons decorated with western became the capital imagery, drawing of Russia. Peter used inspiration from the Emperor Peter the Great at work | 19th Century | Courtesy of the city to construct Romans in its allegory to Wikimedia Commons palaces, churches, and Peter the Great: The Man Who emphasize his strength government buildings and power. Peter also in western European established a new government hierarchy, allowing fashion. Its naval academy, Peter’s most successful Westernized Russia lower class citizens to rise in rank and become nobles. technical school, was taught by British instructors. Whenever Peter was away from Russia, he would have The city was provided with street lighting, and the a senate that he appointed to oversee all judicial and Chief of Police supervised the public welfare. As By Mario Sosa administrative functions. The person in charge of part of Peter’s policy, all of the townspeople were the senate was given the title “ober-procurator,” and required to wear European fashioned clothes. Peter’s Russian historian Nikolai Pogodin once said, “The a crucial role in westernizing Russia by changing its was a direct agent of the tsar. In 1717, Peter created reasoning for these changes can be summed up in his Russia of today, that is to say, European Russia, economy, government, culture, and religious affairs.2 several branches in the government that specialized own words: “Even though something may be good, diplomatic, political, military, commercial, industrial, By doing all of this, Russia was able to expand and in managing the country’s economy, navy, and foreign if it is new our people will not do it.”9 Peter did not scholastic, literary—is the creation of Peter the Great. become one of the most powerful countries in the affairs.6 Additionally, Peter came up with a more hesitate to use force when necessary to enforce these Everywhere we look, we encounter this colossal eastern hemisphere. simplified alphabet so it would be easier to learn to changes. He was very strict, and both peasants and figure, who casts a long shadow over our entire past.”1 read the Russian language. The new alphabet, called nobles worked tirelessly in their daily lives. Not only Peter I, also known as Peter the Great, was the tsar Peter Alexeyevich was born in 1672 and was the civil script, was used in printing out secular works was it mandatory for parents to teach their sons about and emperor of Russia from 1682 to 1725. He played son of Tsar Alexei Milhailovich of Russia. At the age for the public.7 service to the country, but it was also expected for Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 22 ARTICLES ARTICLES 23

there were several occurrences of revolt during his reign. For example, Peter’s son, Alexei Petrovich, was charged with treason for trying to assassinate his father; he and many of his co-conspirators were executed as a result.11 While Peter had many critics, his contributions to Russia greatly outweighed any negative effects.

Peter continued to cultivate Russia until his death in 1725.12 All in all, Peter the Great’s reign saw dramatic changes in Russia and helped make it into a wealthier and powerful country. In the end, Peter the Great had brought cultural revolution to Russia, sowing the seeds for the modern Russia that we know today.

Peter the Great interrogating his son, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich | By Nikolai Ge | 1871 | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

citizens to work their entire adult lives.10

All of these sudden cultural changes led to controversy within the nation. Some religious "Entry of Queen Mary I with Princess Elizabeth into London in 1553" by John Byam Liston traditionalists saw Peter as a sort of Antichrist, and Shaw, 1910 | Palace of Westminster collection | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons WORKS CITED

1. 1. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter 7. 7. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter I,” by James R. Millar. I,” by James R. Millar. Bloody Mary in the Mirror 2. 2. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter 8. 8. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter I,” by James R. Millar. I,” by James R. Millar. By Nicolas McKay 3. 3. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter 9. 9. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter I,” by James R. Millar. I,” by James R. Millar. No one can say who history will choose to remember, Mary Tudor was born in the year 1516 to King Henry or for what they will be remembered. Sometimes a VIII and Catherine of Aragon. Although he wanted 4. 4. Encyclopedia of European Social History, 2001, 10. 10. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter lifetime of achievement can be forgotten because of a son, King Henry was very fond and proud of Mary, s.v. “Peter I (1672-1725),” by Peter N. Stearns. I,” by James R. Millar. a single misdeed. Few historic figures relate to this whom he showed off to many people in the castle and statement more than the English Queen Mary Tudor. in the London markets. As he was showing her off to 5. 5. Encyclopedia of European Social History, 2001, 11. 11. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter Remembered today as a drink, or as a ghost story told a French envoy, King Henry was heard shouting “By s.v. “Peter I (1672-1725),” by Peter N. Stearns. I,” by James R. Millar. by young children, Queen Mary was the first self- immortal God, Master Ambassador, this girl never reigning queen of England during a time of radical cries!”1 Beginning at the tender age of six, Mary was 6. 6. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, 12. 12. Encyclopedia of Russian History, 2004, s.v. “Peter religious change within her realm. The atrocities she offered up for marriage multiple times, including to s.v. “Peter the Great,” by Surendra K. Gupta. I,” by James R. Millar. committed during her reign would forever live on, and her cousin Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, and earn her the nickname Bloody Mary. to the son of King Francis I of France, and even to Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 24 ARTICLES ARTICLES 25

King Francis himself. She was crowned by her father wife, Anne Boleyn. Angry that Mary chose to side with becoming the first regnant queen of England.7 As a did produce the desire outcome; however, the people as the first princess of Wales. Catherine instead of him, Henry separated Mary from monarch Mary worked ceaselessly in the name of her sacrificed to the flames soon became martyrs, and her mother, stripped her of her title,which she would kingdom. It was said that she woke up at dusk to pray, Protestant sentiment grew even stronger among Because Catherine had not given him a son, King never regain in her lifetime. After the birth of her then worked in government well passed midnight. its followers. Those who escaped her purge began Henry sought to annul their marriage. However, at new half sister Elizabeth, Mary became illegitimate Despite the struggles she had endured throughout referring to the queen as “bloody Mary,” because of the insistence of Catherine, Charles V and papacy in the eyes of the royal court and lost all right to the life, and the cruelty she later become known for, Mary all of the Protestant blood she had shed.10 refused to grant Henry the annulment. Henry did not throne. She was forced to live in Elizabeth’s house, was described by many as kind and caring woman. take kindly to their refusal and sought to distance where she was hated and reviled by her step mother She was known for interest in fine jewelry while Despite the loyalty she had garnered among her himself from their ecclesiastical rule to establish his Anne Boleyn until her execution years later. Scholars still insisting she remained a simple woman, with followers, many people still believed a queen would own.With his new adviser, believe Mary suffered from an inclination towards be too weak to rule on her Thomas Cromwell, a known congenital syphilis, which gambling.8 own. Many members of her Protestant, by his side, King she inherited from her council had also served Henry announced the Act father. This, coupled with Mary immediately under Lady Jane as well, of Succession, formally the psychological stress worked towards providing more obstacles separating the England she endured, caused her to reestablishing the for her to overcome. from the authority of Rome. spend the next several years papacy’s control over Mary knew she needed to He then enacted the Act of in and out of severe illness.5 England. She began a produce an heir to ensure Supremacy, which placed reverse Reformation, that Elizabeth would never him as the head of the new On 12 October 1537, undoing many of the ascend to the throne. She Church of England.2 Edward VI was born to religious laws in place and married King Phillip II King Henry and his third replacing them with new of Spain, son of Emperor Much of northern wife, Jane Seymour. Now laws meant to reestablish Charles V, a decision that England discontented with Henry finally had a son who Catholicism in England. many considered to be the current state of affairs. would succeed him upon his Many disagreed with the worst in her reign. Sir Growing ever more restless death, which happened in her efforts, and did not Thomas Wyatt, a Protestant with rising taxes, hardships, 1547. Under Edward’s rule, believe she had a right leader, staged a rebellion and now the separation Protestantism was given rule. Uprisings began as against the matter, led by from the Roman Catholic Edward’s full sponsorship, people defied many of the many other prominent Church, many villages began and an English Reformation religious laws she put into Protestants. Many years to revolt. Cromwell sought ensued, which brought a place, practicing their faith into their tumultuous to quell the rebellion by thorough-going persecution in secret as Catholics had relationship,Phillip enacting the Pilgrimage of of all things Catholic. done only a few years ago. convinced Mary to aid Grace. Many monasteries Despite this, Mary continued As her father had done Spain in his war against and places of worship were to practice her faith, holding before her, Queen Mary France. which she did, and burned to the ground while mass in her private chapel, established her power and it resulted in massive losses the government issued the which was in open defiance authority by executing all for the English navy.11 Ten Articles of Religion, of the many religious laws those who defied the new religious rules that had to put in place at Edward’s laws. Protestant prisoners Like her brother before be practiced, many of which behest. Edward’s rule, were dragged from their her, Mary’s reign was short A portrait of Queen Mary I, the first regnant Portrait of Mary I (1516-1558). By Master John. Oil heavily favored Protestant however, was short lived; he cells, tied to stakes, and lived, lasting only five years. queen of England, by Anthonis Mor, Spain 1554 | on panel, 1544. National Portrait Gallery | Courtesy of traditions. These actions only reigned only six years before burned alive for all to see. She died in the year 1558, Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons led to further uprisings that dying of illness. Before he died, Often times these prisoners after finally succumbing to eventually posed a threat to Edward altered the line of were covered in hot tar to illness.12 Elizabeth was then King Henry’s rule.3 succession to ensure that Lady Jane Gray, a Protestant make the flames burn longer. Many of the people crowned reigning monarch, devoting her time as queen and grand-daughter of King Henry’s sister, would take executed were young. Mothers were burned alongside to rebuilding the Church of England. As her father Once again under the guidance of Thomas the throne instead of his half-sister Mary. Lady Jane their children. An estimated 294 were believed to have had done before her, Elizabeth sought to establish Cromwell, King Henry executed over two-hundred became queen, and Mary was forced to flee for her died under her rule.9 a middle ground between the two warring religions. of the insurgents, effectively ending the uprising. life from the castle. She was faced with a choice: flee She instilled traditions from both Catholicism and A young Mary watched as her father sentenced his the country, or try to oppose her rule.6 For Queen Mary, these executions were not just Protestantism to establish peace among the people.13 enemies to death, establishing his power and right punishing those who broke the religious laws of the to reign through force. This display of power would To the surprise of many, Mary garnered large land, but a way of purifying England so as to restore Though a trail blazer in every sense of the word, shape Mary and her eventual reign as monarch.4 support and loyalty from many subjects, including it to its former state of communion with Rome. As Queen Mary is instead remembered as the “Tyrant East Anglian nobility. In a matter of days she had she had witnessed from her father before her, public Tudor” reviled by many for the ferocious acts she Mary was very close to her mother growing up, amassed an army strong enough to oppose the English executions were also an efficient way to establish power committed in the name of her faith. and believed very deeply in the Catholic traditions council and end the rule of the nine-day queen. At and dominance over the people, great and small. This and values instilled in her at a young age. After 37 years old, Mary Tudor ascended to the throne. In may have been a necessary power play, since many Catherine’s annulment, Mary quickly sided with her 1554 Queen Mary issued an order, which declared doubted whether she actually had the strength to mother and developed a deep hatred of Henry’s new that queens held equal power to kings, effectively rule, because she was a woman. These executions Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 26 ARTICLES ARTICLES 27

Coat of Arms of the Kingdom of England from 1554 to 1558 | The arms of Queen Mary Impaled with those of King Phillip II | Made with Inkscape | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

WORKS CITED

1. Neil Jones, “The Rise and Fall of Bloody Mary,” 8. Neil Jones, “The Rise and Fall of Bloody Mary,” Britain 84, no. 2 (April 2016): 66. Britain 84, no. 2 (April 2016): 66.

2. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 9. Niki Incorvia, “A Threshold of Genocide: 2016, s.v. “Henry VIII,” by William T. Walker. Microgenocide in Mary Tudor’s Revenge on Protestant England and Catherine de Medici’s 3. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, January 2016, Massacre of the Huguenots,” International Journal of The hepatic blood vessels illustrated by Leonardo Da Vinci | s.v. “Pilgrimage of Grace,” by Sharon L. Arnoult. Religion & Spirituality in Society 5, no. 3 (September Courtesy of WikiCommons 2015): 54–55. 4. Niki Incorvia, “A Threshold of Genocide: Microgenocide in Mary Tudor’s Revenge on 10. Niki Incorvia, “A Threshold of Genocide: The Intellectual Endeavors Of Leonardo Da Vinci Protestant England and Catherine de Medici’s Microgenocide in Mary Tudor’s Revenge on Massacre of the Huguenots,” International Journal of Protestant England and Catherine de Medici’s Religion & Spirituality in Society 5, no. 3, (September Massacre of the Huguenots,” International Journal of By Christopher Repka 2015): 54. Religion & Spirituality in Society 5, no. 3 (September In the year 1300, Pope Boniface VIII issued anatomical dissections regained popularity and 2015): 54–55. a papal decree, De Sepulturis, which outlawed became important not only to scientists of the 5. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, April 2016, s.v. various methods of lightening the bodies of the body, but also to artists like Michelangelo and “1516–58 Mary I, Queen of England.” 11. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, April 2016, s.v. diseased for the ease of transport. These methods– Leonardo Da Vinci. However, even into the 1500’s, “1516–58 Mary I, Queen of England.” common among the Crusaders in the Near East– anatomical sketches were considered distractions 6. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. included the removal of flesh by boiling as well as unworthy of publication in anatomy textbooks.1 “Mary I.,” by Ann Weikel. 12. Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, April 2016, s.v. dismemberment, which also allowed for bodies to “1516–58 Mary I, Queen of England.” be stored in more compact containers. For years Nevertheless, despite the intellectual schism 7. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. after, De Sepulturis was misinterpreted to include between the illustrator and the anatomist, “Mary I,” by Ann Weikel. 13. Neil Jones, “The Rise and Fall of Bloody Mary,” the condemnation of anatomical dissection, and the two classes were often found in the same Britain 84, no. 2 (April 3, 2016): 66. for years the study of anatomy would suffer place: the apothecary. Artists, who frequented from this misconception. Over time, however, apothecaries to purchase pigments, were also 28 ARTICLES ARTICLES 29 in the midst of the influential popularization of and interests, Da Vinci was drawn to many around the year 1503. artistic realism. For this reason, artists frequently occupations, and in 1478, after recommending At the age of sixty- used their relationships with apothecaries to himself to the Duke of Milan, he was made a three, he was appointed attend dissections, which helped artists deepen royal appointee to the duke, Lodovico Sforza, to the company of the their understandings of the superficial structures as chief military engineer. In his letter of self- king of France, near of the human body and therefore make more recommendation, Da Vinci referred to himself Ambroise, where his lifelike illustrations and sculptures. That being not only as an artist, but also as a mathematician, chief duty was to keep said, most artists never ventured into a dissection architect, and engineer. One of Da Vinci’s first good company to the to obtain a deeper understanding of the human tasks in Milan was to supervise the construction of king. Leonardo spent body’s functions. Their concerns were simply for the Cathedral at Pavia, which would become one the last ten years of appearance, and perhaps that was the reason of the largest cathedrals in the world. However, his life continuing his many of their illustrations were not suitable as it is reported that Da Vinci became so immersed research in the realm visual aides within textbooks.3 in the theoretical aspects of the physical laws of the physical sciences, and mechanics involved in the construction of and died on May 2, Leonardo Da Vinci, the the cathedral that his 1519.6 famous Italian polymath subordinate had to most commonly known assume leadership on today for his painting Mona the practical matters Lisa, was not renowned for of construction. During his anatomical diagrams this time, Da Vinci also in his time; but unlike his began a practice that has artist peers, his illustrations allowed historians and of the human structure went enthusiasts to obtain far beyond the superficial much deeper insight into arteries and musculature. the course of Da Vinci’s While his diagrams do not intellectual studies; like indicate formal training or many intellectuals of the even first-hand experience Renaissance, Da Vinci at dissection, Da Vinci began cataloging and began sketching the human recording his studies Leonardo da Vinci’s Madonna of the Rocks | Courtesy of anatomy at four different in notebooks. Many of Wikimedia Commons perspectives, simulating a the anatomical sketches three-dimensional model. that still survive today WORKS CITED Furthermore, Da Vinci were contained in such sketched the bodily organs, notebooks. Regardless 1. Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo Da Vinci on the and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo Da and even wrote about their of his official position as Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, Vinci, eds. Charles Donald O’Malley and John anatomical functions. It chief military engineer, and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo Da Bertrand de Cusance Morant Saunders (New seems that it was Da Vinci’s however, Da Vinci’s Vinci, eds. Charles Donald O’Malley and John York: H. Schuman, 1952), 14-19. unquenchable thirst for primary modes of Bertrand de Cusance Morant Saunders (New knowledge and inquiry creation were artistic. York: H. Schuman, 1952), 13. 5. Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo Da Vinci on the that drove him to observe Indeed, it was in Milan Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, deeper than what most that Da Vinci finished 2. Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo Da Vinci on the and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo Da deemed necessary. This was the paintings Madonna Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, Vinci, eds. Charles Donald O’Malley and John characteristic of Leonardo of the Rocks, and The and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo Da Bertrand de Cusance Morant Saunders (New from a young age. Indeed, in Last Supper; both are Vinci, eds. Charles Donald O’Malley and John York: H. Schuman, 1952), 18-21; Toby Lester, 1478, when Leonardo began masterpieces of human Bertrand de Cusance Morant Saunders (New Da Vinci’s Ghost : Genius, Obsession, and How his career in Florence under expression and artistic York: H. Schuman, 1952), 131. Leonardo Created the World in His Own Image the Compagnia de San Luca, style and technique.5 (New York : Free Press, 2012), 117-121; Salem Press he was just sixteen. His early 3. Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo Da Vinci on the Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Leonardo loves for mathematics and In 1500, Da Vinci left Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, Da Vinci,” by James Livingston. mechanics were maintained Milan and continued to and Embryological Drawings of Leonardo Da throughout his life and paint. He spent several Vinci, eds. Charles Donald O’Malley and John 6. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2016, consistently influenced his years as a vagabond and Bertrand de Cusance Morant Saunders (New s.v. “Leonardo Da Vinci,” by James Livingston. vision of the world.4 finished few paintings York: H. Schuman, 1952), 14-16. during these years, Vision was a key aspect to Sketch by Leonardo Da Vinci of artificial vascu- although the famous 4. Leonardo da Vinci, Leonardo Da Vinci on the human knowledge to Da Vinci. lar system2 Mona Lisa was among Human Body: The Anatomical, Physiological, Being a man of many talents those left unfinished Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 30 ARTICLES ARTICLES 31

or Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of point of view with his typical wit. The Son Of A Watch- Inequality among Men. This was a followup to his First Discourse, and it argued many new points, one of Another interesting and controversial work of them being that the best Rousseau’s was The maker: Jean-Jacques political system is that of Social Contract (1762), a small city-state in which in which he talks about Rousseau the body of patriotic how everyone is born citizens is sovereign. In free, but that freedom this discourse he also is taken away when contradicted Thomas one enters into civil By Zaraly Frasquillo Hobbes, an English society. He suggests philosopher. Rousseau that legitimate authority stated that Hobbes was comes from a social “Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains.” wrong in supposing that contract agreed upon -Jean-Jacques Rousseau1 a natural state of war ever by all citizens for their existed among men. He mutual preservation. He Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born in the independent also stated that Hobbes’ calls the grouping of all Calvinist city-state of Geneva on June 28, 1712. His “war of all against all” citizens the “sovereign,” mother, Suzanne Bernard, died exactly nine days after was rather the product and suggests that it his birth, and as a result his father, Isaac Rousseau, was of historical development should be considered as responsible for raising and educating Jean-Jacques, and not a theoretical a person, with a general which he did until he was ten years old.2 state of nature among will. This was by far one men. Rousseau raised of the most controversial Discours sur l’origine et les fondemens de l’inégalité parmi les When Rousseau was ten, his father fled Geneva to the question of whether hommes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Page of The Discourse of but open-minded works avoid imprisonment. Rousseau was left to live with or not society itself is good Inequality by Jean-Jacques Rousseau) | Courtesy of Wikimedia by Rousseau.10 his aunt and uncle. While living there, he acquired a for the human species. He Commons passion for music from his aunt, but no one would have Portrait of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, by Maurice Quentin de La then states that at earlier Rousseau was one thought that he would ever be able to make a living from Tour, 1753 | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons points in humanity’s of the most incredible music; after all, he was the son of a watchmaker. By natural development, humans were good, but as writers and thinkers of his time. He proposed a thirteen, Rousseau was sent to work as a notary, which society developed, human nature became corrupted.9 different way of thinking, and although he knew that did not last long, because again he was only seen as the for all of humanity. Rousseau argued that all advances Rousseau’s Second Discourse did not receive very his thinking was not going to be liked by a lot of son of a watchmaker.3 His only option was to work as of knowledge were harmful and would take men into positive criticism from his fellow Enlightenment people, he went on. He also helped invent modern a watchmaker, so he spent three years of his life there, further corruption. thinkers, but there is evidence of letters that were anthropology, as well as an approach toward education which in his autobiography, Confessions, he describes exchanged back and forth between Voltaire and that remains challenging and inspiring to this day.11 as his “miserable years.”4 He spent the next twenty years Rousseau’s First Discourse surprised everyone; no Rousseau, Philopis and Rousseau, and he responded Jean-Jacques Rousseau passed away on July 2, 1778 in of his life working in various menial jobs in order to one would have ever thought that a person who fled to the observations made by Charles-George LeRoy. Ermenonville, France, but will always live in history. make a living. But then in 1750, when he was thirty- his hometown of Geneva with only the shirt on his In those letters and responses Rousseau defended his seven years old, his life took a radical turn. back would have been able to challenge the intellectual establishment of mid-eighteenth-century Europe. But WORKS CITED Rousseau wrote music for one of the operas that Rousseau knew that his First Discourse was going to 1. Jean-Jacque Rousseau, Social Contract & Discourses (New 7. Encyclopædia Britannica, June 2015, s.v. “Jean-Jacques he composed, Le Devin du village (“The Village create a storm, with his open hostility to prevailing York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1913), Rousseau”, by Maurice Cranston. Soothsayer”).5 This opera was so successful that it caught opinions. He knew that there was not going to be many the attention of King Louis XV. Many say that Rousseau people that would agree with him, but he felt that it 2. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, November 2012, 8. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Confessions of Jean-Jacques could have lived an easy life thereafter, but his Calvinist was necessary to challenge civilization itself. This was s.v. “Jean-Jacques Rousseau,” by Christopher Bertram. Rousseau (New York: Random House, 1945), 45, 48, 57. blood would not let him live with that worldly glory.6 the start of his fame as one of the most influential but When Rousseau was thirty-seven, he had what he called controversial writers in the Enlightenment period. 3. Maurice Cranston, Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work 9. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discourse on the Origin of a “terrible flash” (an illumination), that modern progress Unlike the rest of the Enlightenment thinkers, Jean- of Jean-Jacques Rousseau (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), Inequality Polemics, and Political Economy, transl. Rodger had corrupted people instead of improving them.7 So, Jacques Rousseau was different. For example, unlike 23. D. Masters and Christopher Kelly (New York: St. Martin’s he started writing his first important work, an essay Montesquieu and Voltaire, Rousseau had not received Press , 1964), 21, 27, 40, 42. called Discours sur les sciences et les arts, or Discourse a formal education; instead, he was self-taught. But 4. Maurice Cranston, The Noble Savage: Jean-Jacques on the Sciences and Arts, also known as his First knowing that he was not as educated as the rest of the Rousseau, 1754–1762 (Chicago: University of Chicago 10. David Lay Williams, Rousseau’s Social Contract: An Discourse; and he entered it in a contest at the Dijon Enlightenment thinkers did not stop him from writing Press, 1991.), 22. Introduction (New York: Cambridge University Press, Academy of Science in 1750, in which his essay won.8 what he felt had to be written. He continued to write and 2014), 14, 17. He had already started writing articles for Diderot’s to change the way everyone thought in the eighteenth 5. Encyclopædia Britannica, June 2015, s.v. “Jean-Jacques Encyclopedie, but his Discourse rejected the main idea century. Rousseau”, by Maurice Cranston. 11. Leopold Damrosch, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (New York: of the Enlightenment, which was that technology and Houghton Mifflin Company, 2005), 33. science would gradually make the world a better place In 1755, Rousseau published his Second Discourse, 6. Encyclopædia Britannica, June 2015, s.v. “Jean-Jacques Rousseau”, by Maurice Cranston. Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 32 ARTICLES ARTICLES 33

after returning to her parents, they again. She had read about the all moved to Königsberg, Germany, four men who had been executed where Emma was luckily able to for the 1886 bombings that had attend school. While she attended killed several people in Haymarket school in Germany, she became close Square in Chicago. Emma believed friends with a teacher who gave her that these men had been executed a first look into a new world she because they were merely suspected had never known of before. Music of being anarchists, and that there and literature came into Emma’s was no proof that they had actually life and both proved to be lifelong been the ones who had thrown the loves of hers.1Emma’s life took a bombs. This enraged Emma, as she drastic turn in 1881, when her family saw this as an injustice brought decided to move again, this time to upon these men. Emma saw a clear St. Petersburg, Russia. In Russia, the parallel in the way the United Goldmans suffered financially and States was behaving toward radicals because of this drawback, Emma Emma Goldman in 1886 | Im- and the way Russia also dealt with could no longer attend school. Money age courtesy of UC Berkeley radicals. With this fuse lit, Emma aside, her father did not support became a companion to those who Emma’s schooling, as he believed there was no need opposed capitalism and the state.4 for a woman to have any schooling. Emma’s love for learning and hope of becoming a doctor had been Emma Goldman, now living in New York’s Lower shattered right in front of her, yet she still remained East Side, became acquainted with two men: Johann on a path like no other. She became rebellious of her Most, the editor of the anarchist newspaper Die father’s ideals and his cultural traditions, including the Freiheit (Freedom), and Alexander Berkman, a known Jewish faith. Emma Goldman had become introduced anarchist figure in the United States. Emma came to the ideas of radicalism and she became further to see the idea of Anarchism as a “promised society knowledgeable on a wider based on judgement and variety of subjects. A main reason.”5 source of inspiration for Emma was reading Nikolay Emma Goldman opposed Chernyshevsky’s novel the idea that corporations What Is to Be Done? A and states should hold all character in the novel, Vera of the power and control Pavlovna, gave inspiration in society. Schooled on and hope to Emma. Emma’s Johann Most’s teachings father had begun arranging on anarchism, Emma took Emma Goldman, c1911 | Photo by T. Kajuwara | for her to be married, but to public speaking. In 1890, Image courtesy of The Library of Congress as Emma read of Vera’s idea Emma was elated to find that “rejected this practice how effective she was at as it is the auctioning of inspiring others. Emma a sex object,” Emma, too, spoke in both Yiddish and “The Most Dangerous Woman In became a strong believer German, and one of her in rejecting arranged driving purposes was to Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman | Image marriages.2 provoke change in workers’ courtesy of Wikimedia Commons America,” Emma Goldman working conditions. She By Gabriela Serrato Emma was in despair at spoke of how miserable life the life she had set out before her, so in 1885, she and was for these workers, working for companies with Emma Goldman, who would later in life be a marriage with Abraham Goldman, resulting in her sister Helena moved to the United States. While managers that saw them as merely interchangeable known anarchist and women’s rights activist, had a the birth of Emma. During Emma’s childhood, she Emma hoped for a new world to open up for her in parts in a big machine.6 very dismal beginning to life. Emma Goldman was endured beatings from her father frequently, and her Rochester, New York, her hopes were not met. Her born on June 27, 1869 in Kaunas, Lithuania, which mother offered her no comfort. With this constant parents had followed her and her sister to the United In time Emma became a natural speaker, and was then known as Kovno, Lithuania. The dynamic abuse and no support, Emma felt no sense of security States, and more talk of an arranged marriage was she branched out into discussing even more topics. of the family was unique as well, as Emma had two in her household. This brought Emma into being still being discussed. Emma felt trapped. She was still She began to speak out about women in a way that older sisters who were born from her mother, Taube raised with relatives in Königsberg, Germany. But subject to nearly the same low-paying factory work had rarely been vocalized in public. She became an Binowitz Zodikow, from her first marriage. Taube’s in time Emma returned to the house of her parents that she had wished to escape by coming to America.3 advocate for sexual and reproductive freedom for first husband and father to her two eldest daughters, Taube and Abraham, as being raised by the relatives in women. By 1900, birth control was becoming more Helena and Lena, passed away leaving Taube a widow. Germany was, if anything, worse by Emma’s standards, Then inspiration struck Emma Goldman once openly discussed in public, and this discussion of From this death, Taube entered into an arranged as she endured further neglect and abuse. But shortly 34 ARTICLES ARTICLES 35 birth control drew criticism. Many viewed discussing for the striking rise of Nazism. Emma took to writing birth control in public as being obscene and indecent, about this now because of her shock in learning and some women were even punished for speaking about Adolf Hitler and all that he proposed. She about this “indecency.” Emma Goldman let her voice wanted to exclaim how she had fought so hard for be heard in this area, and she began to address larger the right of a good life for the Jewish community, and larger crowds. The more concerns she brought to and she wanted to emphasize how Jewish culture her listeners’ attention, the more ears she attracted. was not to be annihilated, but appreciated for its She was a woman, center stage, and this made her contributions. She dreaded the future that was to stand out even more, as men could not speak so come, and she urged the need for countries to take personally and intimately on this issue as she could.7 in Jewish refugees. Only three years later, in 1940, Emma Goldman unfortunately died from a stroke in One thing limiting Goldman’s audiences was her Toronto, Canada where she lived in hopes that she choice in addressing them in German and Yiddish. would be allowed to visit the United States.13 When she began addressing them in English, she attracted even more listeners, and from a wider Emma Goldman stood up for many things variety of backgrounds as well. With this growth in throughout her life, and did not hide her voice from popularity, her name also became known to the police. the crowd. She persevered, she never gave up on her They attempted to silence Emma, and even sentenced ideas and beliefs. She stood up for those who needed her to a full year in prison in 1893 for doing nothing to be heard and she did not apologize for it. She more than speaking at a rally for the unemployed. Emma Goldman standing and speaking about birth was feared, and she was adored. She, in herself, is This arrest did not silence Goldman, as she exclaimed control at Union Square Park in 1916 | Image courtesy of a symbol of free expression and through this she that these government authorities “can never stop a Corbis Images for Education wanted people to follow in her footsteps. She wished woman from talking.”8This year of detainment put for a better world for those who were oppressed. no damper on Goldman’s goals, as she swore her life threat and took action. She now began to lecture on She wanted a world where women were looked at as to teaching the principles of anarchism, and foremost totalitarianism, and how she identified it in the forms being more than their physical bodies. She fought to encourage others to question authority. To make it had been taking in Italy and Germany.10 for equality and she fought for fair treatment. Emma matters worse for Emma’s standing, the population at Goldman was a woman who was not afraid to speak large believed that anarchists were simply provoking “The most violent element in society is ignorance.” when so many tried to silence her. senseless violence, as seen in the assassination attempt Published in the Chicago Daily Tribune, propaganda tying on Henry Clay Frick in 1892 by Emma’s close friend, Emma Goldman could not escape the title people Emma Goldman to the assassination of President McKin- Alexander Berkman, and the actual assassination of gave her as being just another “Jewish woman.” ley. September 8, 1901 | Image Courtesy of Chicago Daily President William McKinley in 1901, who was shot by Criticism came to her because of this and she even Tribune anarchist Leon Czolgosz. Goldman did not want this stated, “life was linked with that of the race.”11 On image of anarchism to be the accepted image, and she the contrary, Emma Goldman kept her head up. continued to speak openly in defense of anarchism. Candace Falk says Emma envisioned herself as “a To make matters even worse, Goldman, who had woman who could transcend the boundaries imposed WORKS CITED been acquainted with Czolgosz, was being held in by the stereotypical social constructions of religion.”12 police custody for her supposed involvement in the Emma would express herself through written word 1. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2008, s.v. 8. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma assassination of McKinley. She was detained for two as time progressed. Nearing the last few years of her “Emma Goldman,” by Lloyd J. Graybar. Goldman,” by Candace Falk. weeks before her release, as no evidence was found life, in 1937, Emma showed her concern even more linking her to the crime.9 2. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2008, s.v. 9. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma “Emma Goldman,” by Lloyd J. Graybar. Goldman,” by Candace Falk. She continued to lecture, but with each arrival she did not know whether an arrest was imminent, or if 3. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2008, s.v. 10. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma she would simply be locked out of the premises she “Emma Goldman,” by Lloyd J. Graybar. Goldman,” by Candace Falk. was meant to speak in. As the United States entered World War I, Emma Goldman’s lectures were seen as 4. Salem Press Biographical Encyclopedia, 2008, s.v. 11. Emma Goldman, Living My Life (New York: Alfred a threat to national security. After spending eighteen “Emma Goldman,” by Lloyd J. Graybar. A. Knopf, 1931), 704. months in prison, she faced immediate deportation to Russia. Back in Russia, Goldman found herself 5. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma 12. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma practically and completely miserable. Her anarchist Goldman,” by Candace Falk. Goldman,” by Candace Falk. ideas were not accepted in Leninist Russia, and she felt betrayed and rejected. And now Emma faced 6. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma 13. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma another hatred: antisemitism. Emma was now being Goldman,” by Candace Falk. Goldman,” by Candace Falk. viewed and looked at solely because of her Jewish Emma Goldman 1901 mugshot | Image Courtesy of background. With the rise of anti-semitism came Wikimedia Commons 7. Jewish Women’s Archive, March 2009, s.v. “Emma another threat: totalitarianism. Goldman saw this Goldman,” by Candace Falk.

Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 36 ARTICLES ARTICLES 37

as the first Mesopotamian Empire. The Old Akkadian against Sargon and his administration. Being forced Dynasty ruled for about a century after his death, to stay under the rule of an emperor who defeated until the Gutian conquest of Sumer. Historians believe various groups, taking their land and goods, fueled the that the Gutians were tribes of mountain people people to rebel. By 2150 B.C.E., the Akkadian Empire who, combined had collapsed in the with the revolting midst of rebellion people of the various from within and conquered cities, from outside invaders were responsible for attempting to take the downfall of the the fertile land of Akkadian Empire Mesopotamia. The around 2150 B.C.E.2 story of Sargon loosing his empire As the first to inside rebellion emperor in history, is only one of many. Sargon of Akkad had When a group of much success. Despite conquered people are having no prior forced to live under example to follow, another’s rule, it is he was able to take common for them to over and maintain look for ways to strike Mesopotamia for back, overthrow over fifty years. He those kings who financed his empire often attempt to by seizing control of Map of Akkadian Empire 2300 B.C.E. rule them well. Later trade routes, taking rulers would improve all goods that crossed Sargon’s administrative Bronze of Sargon of Akkad | 26th century BCE | National Museum of Iraq, Baghdad | Courtesy of Wikipedia Commons through his realm. This allowed his capital of techniques by relying on centralized bureaucratic rule Akkad (or Agade) to become the wealthiest and most and regular taxation.4 powerful city in the world. He was able to maintain his empire by placing his best and most trusted men Sargon created the very first political entity on a Sargon of Akkad: The World's First in positions of power in various cities. They would large scale and set the standards for all future rulers be appointed by Sargon himself to serve as governors of empires. Through his unique upbringing, never and administrators in over 65 different cities. These meeting or knowing his parents, he was able to rise Emperor leaders were referred to as the “Citizens of Akkad” to power. Initially he was nothing but the king’s in later Babylonian texts. Anytime Sargon took over cupbearer (a butler); none expected that he would one By Erick Martinez a city, it rapidly became an Akkadian stronghold, day come to conquer and maintain the land wanted full of Akkadian officials and troops.3 This stability by all. Sargon of Akkad would become the topic of throughout the empire allowed the construction of legendary narratives in later Assyrian and Babylonian Twelve thousand years ago, humans transitioned This child would come to be Sargon of Akkad roads, a wider influence of trade, improved irrigation, literature, focusing on his rise to power from humble from hunter-gatherer societies to agriculture-based (Sargon the Great). He would grow to one day usurp as well as developments in arts and in science. Sargon origins and his conquest of Mesopotamia. These societies. Humans began to settle in ever larger the kingship of his own city of Agade, which would standardized weights and measures for trade and memories of his successful deeds would later inspire communities, and gradually created civilizations. come to be the capital of his empire. After developing daily commerce. He also managed to initiate a system conquerors to follow his example and would provide Neolithic villages began to flourish in Mesopotamia his Akkadian city of Agade and building a strong of taxation and created the first postal system. all the future people of Mesopotamia with a powerful after 6000 B.C.E., due to its rich soil and water military, after 2350 B.C.E., he began to conquer. Many hero to idolize. sources (Tigris and Euphrates rivers). The first of city-states located around Mesopotamia were involved These various improvements to the lives of the the civilizations that developed was the Sumerian. in trading and attempting to aid one another, which people of Mesopotamia were not enough to prevent Many other civilizations would follow, including the often led to conflicts and war. Sargon used his army the various conquered peoples from gathering to rebel Akkadian city-states, which would form to the north to bring these small conflicts to an end by conquering of the Sumerians. each Sumerian city-state one by one. He was viewed WORKS CITED as a talented administrator and brilliant warrior. According to Akkadian legend, a woman of Akkad Sargon was wise in going on the offensive against the 1. Ancient History Encyclopedia, September 2009, s.v. on Sargon of Akkad’s Empire,” Journal of the became pregnant, carrying the illegitimate child of a Sumerian city-states, conquering each, destroying all “Sargon of Akkad,” by Joshua J. Mark. American Oriental Society, Vol. 45 (1905): 193-201. temple priest. Unable to keep the child, she was forced their defensive walls, as well as any enemy who stood to set her son adrift in a basket on the Euphrates before him. His empire is thought to have included 2. Ancient History Encyclopedia, September 2009, s.v. 4. The Macmillan Encyclopedia, 2003, s.v. “Sargon of River, where he was later found by a man named most of Mesopotamia and parts of the Levant, besides “Sargon of Akkad,” by Joshua J. Mark. Akkad,” by Alan Isaacs. Akki, a gardener for Ur-Zababa, the King of the incursions into Hurrite and Elamite territory, making Sumerian city of Kish.1 him the founder of the Old Akkadian Dynasty as well 3. W. F. Albright, “A Babylonian Geographical Treatise Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 38 ARTICLES ARTICLES 39

his accusations against the Church. Luther refused, but agreed to stop commenting on indulgences and listen to the Church. Although this was not Cajetan’s desired result, Frederick allowed Luther to return to Wittenberg.5

The following year, 1519, Luther agreed to debate the theologian Johann Eck. Eck instigated the debate by comparing Luther’s positions to Jan Hus, a well- known heretic that had been excommunicated and executed a hundred years earlier. This forced Luther to declare that the Church had been wrong to condemn Hus, opening himself to charges of heresy.6 Eck had given the pope the opportunity to bring excommunication charges against Luther. However, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, not wanting to upset Frederick the Wise, forced the pope to subject Luther to a hearing at the Diet of Worms. At this time, Luther’s cause was gaining popularity among Germans. The emperor could not afford to upset the German prince, needing his support to fight an ongoing war with France and keep the Ottoman Empire from Austrian lands.7

During the trial, Luther was led into a room where The Imperial Diet at Worms by Hans Abel the Younger, 1540-1570 | Courtesy of the British Museum his accusers had piled his works on a table, read the titles aloud, and asked if these books belonged to Luther. Luther replied that the books belonged to him. He was then asked to renounce them. Luther Portrait of Martin Luther by Lucas Cranach the Elder then asked for time to consider. When he returned | Courtesy of the British Museum the next day he refused to reject anything, saying that unless he was disproved by Scripture, he was bound this by writing to the archbishop, admonishing him by his conscience to defend his work.8 He felt that by asserting that simply paying money to the Church he was strongly supported by the Bible. However, does not purify the soul. Church officials saw this as a rejection of their authority rather than an appeal to Scripture. Charles When his protestations went unanswered, Luther posted his 95 Theses. Martin Luther: Rebel or Reformer? The theses were arguments opposing the manner in which indulgences were being sold.3 Most of the theses did not By Teresa Valdez contradict Catholic doctrine, so it is widely believed that Luther wrote them to spark In 1517, when the 95 Theses were first posted, Luther was an Augustinian monk teaching at the a theological academic debate. The theses, Martin Luther had no intention of breaking from University of Wittenberg in Germany. In 1517, Pope originally written in Latin, were translated the Roman Catholic Church. Rather, he sought to Leo X sanctioned indulgences to be sold to raise into German and put into wide circulation; reform the Church’s view on indulgences, believing money for the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica in this caught the attention of Rome. Fearing that no one could buy their way into heaven. Believing Rome. An indulgence consisted of money given to the that the funding for St. Peter’s Basilica that his view was deeply rooted in Scripture, he was Church in exchange for less time in purgatory, which was under threat, Leo ordered Luther to confident that Church scholars would agree with him. was conceived as a theological waiting room where be investigated. In response, Luther sought Instead, the Church hierarchy responded by accusing imperfect souls were purified after death before they the support of a Germanic prince, Frederick Luther of heresy, wanting to quell any question of enter heaven. People essentially believed that this the Wise. Frederick granted Luther their authority. As a result, what was initially an effort meant they could buy a way into heaven for themselves support and protection, insisting that the to reform the Catholic faith eventually transformed and their loved ones.1 As a result of the Pope’s decree, investigation take place in Germany.4 In into a major schism in Christianity itself. a Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, began preaching response, Leo asked the papal legate in Statue of Martin Luther in Wittenberg, Germany | in favor of these indulgences in the towns of Jüterbog Augsburg, Cardinal Cajetan, to investigate Courtesy of the BBC Prior to sparking the Protestant movement, Martin and Zerbst near the university.2 Luther responded to Luther. Brought before Cajetan, Luther was asked to renounce his theses and recant Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 40 ARTICLES ARTICLES 41

V, though angered, could do nothing to condemn Luther as long as he remained at war. Instead, he planned to send Luther back to Wittenberg marked as a heretic.9 However, before he reached the university, Frederick the Wise secretly had Luther taken to Wartburg Castle.10

Throughout the next few years, Luther continued to defend his works. One of his biggest achievement during this time was the translation of the Bible from Latin into German. Still, he was forced to remain hidden. Charles V, after securing an alliance with the pope in the war against France, no longer needed ties with Frederick the Wise. This allowed the papal bull, proclaiming Luther’s excommunication, to be issued, adding a decree which ordered that no one give Luther refuge.11 It was ultimately his refusal to retract his works that prevented Luther from reforming the Church. Pope Leo X, Charles V, The Augustinian Cloister at Wittenberg | and other high Church officials perceived Luther’s Courtesy of the British Museum passion for reform as a challenge to authority. In contrast, Luther believed that his works were strongly him a heretic, Luther had no choice but to begin his supported in Scripture. The miscommunication and own branch of Christianity, Lutheranism, so that he stubbornness of both parties ultimately led to a major could continue to practice the faith to which he had schism within Christianity. When the Church labeled dedicated his life.

Tesla holding one of the first ever Fluorescent Lightbulbs

WORKS CITED

1. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July edited by Julie L. Carnegie. 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” edited by Julie L. Carnegie. 7. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July Nikola Tesla: The Man Who Gave A 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” 2. New Catholic Encyclopedia, September 2003, s.v. edited by Julie L. Carnegie. “Luther, Martin” by Bill Ditewig. New "Light" to the World 8. Encyclopedia of World Biography, December 2004, 3. Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, s.v. “Martin Luther,” by Andrea Henderson. By Nahim Rancharan s.v. “Luther, Martin” 9. Julius Koestlin, Life of Luther (Project Gutenberg Nikola Tesla, more commonly remembered as the opportunity.1 In June of that same year, Tesla finally 4. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July Literary Archive Foundation, 2006), 105-116. inventor of technologies such as the Tesla Coil, was set foot in the United States, penniless, but still full 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” a Serbian-American Scientist, inventor, physicist, of ambition fueled by his dream to revolutionize the edited by Julie L. Carnegie. 10. Funk and Wagnalls New World Encyclopedia, 2016, mechanical and electrical engineer. Tesla was born on world through advancements in electricity. s.v. “Luther, Martin” July 10, 1856, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which 5. New Catholic Encyclopedia, September 2003, s.v. is now known as present-day Luka, Croatia. As an In the days following his arrival, Tesla was given “Luther, Martin” by Bill Ditewig. 11. Julius Koestlin, Life of Luther (Project Gutenberg adult, he studied both Mathematics and Physics at the the opportunity to meet with none other than Thomas Literary Archive Foundation, 2006), 105-116. University of Graz and philosophy at the University of Alva Edison, the inventor of the phonograph, the 6. Renaissance and Reformation Reference Library, July Prague. In 1884, at the age of 28, Tesla immigrated to incandescent lightbulb, and the early motion picture 2002, s.v. “Martin Luther: Founder of Lutheranism” the United States in the search of both freedom and camera, just to name a few. More notably, Edison Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 42 ARTICLES ARTICLES 43

x-rays in a great deal of medical procedures that require the need to further analyze the condition of patients in areas that are not immediately visible to the human eye. This breakthrough in medicine was made possible by the development of radio, wireless transitions of energy, the discovery of rays that could help penetrate the human tissue, and the use of Tesla currents in medical procedures.8 With these various types of practices and inventions, Nikola Tesla was able to effectively make his mark on the medical industry, most of which still exists in the equipment and practices we use today.

It is no secret that Nikola Tesla represents an ideal example of the American dream; a poor Siberian immigrant leaving everything behind and moving to America to pursue his dreams and making a difference. Undoubtedly, Nikola Tesla has proven to be one of the most influential scientific minds in the fields of medicine, physics, mathematics, and engineering. In his lifetime, he managed to do the things that many of wish to be able to do, which is to revolutionize the way we view the world through ingenuity, innovation, and persistence. Tesla has managed to make his mark on the world and leave his legacy in Nikola Tesla working in his Laboratory in Colorado Springs on June 17, 1901. The card reading, “To my illustrious American History. friend Sir William Crookes of whom I always think and whose letters I never answer -Nikola Tesla” | Image Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons

was recognized for the invention of direct current, electricity drove him to establish a new form, known which was at the time the most popularly used form as the practical alternating current (AC) motor. This Nikola Tesla on the cover of TIME Magazine, Volume 18 Issue of electricity.2His newfound fame distinguished him type of current functioned using two sources of 3 published on July 20 in 1931, honoring his 75th Birthday | as a very important and influential person during alternating current that worked out of phase with Image Courtesy of Time Magazine Archive that time. And Edison recognized the potential that one another by creating a rotating magnetic field Nikola Tesla possessed, and employed him to work that would serve as a motor.4 In addition to this, under his supervision. Tesla also introduced his own version of lightbulbs, commonly known as fluorescent light bulbs.5 With After months of working under Edison, Tesla the introduction of the AC motor, a lighting system WORKS CITED began to form a close bond with him, earning the that proved to be more efficient than Edison’s, and a position and title of Edison’s apprentice. Being an new type of lightbulb, Tesla had managed to slowly 1. L F. Haas, “Nikola Tesla (1856-1943),” Journal Of 6. Bernard Carlson, “Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical apprentice and working closely on research and take out the competition that he had with Edison. Neurology, Neurosurgery, And Psychiatry 72, no. 4 Age,” Publishers Weekly 260, no. 14 (April 8, 2013): inventions with Edison himself, Tesla was able to As more people started investing in AC networks, (Feb 2017): 526. 54-55. test and further his knowledge on scientific inventions the less people remained with Edison’s “alternate” and eventually was able to test theories and inventions direct current. With the help of investors such as 2. Guillaume de Syon, “Tesla: Inventor of the Electrical 7. Danijela Vučević , Drago Đorđević, and Tatjana of his own. Unfortunately, with this expansion in Westinghouse and J.P. Morgan Jr., Tesla was able to Age,” Canadian Journal Of History 49, no. 2 (August Radosavljević, “Nikola Tesla and medicine: 160th his capacity of understanding, Tesla was able to dominate the market for electricity and rise to fame.6 2014): 347. anniversary of the birth of the genius who gave analyze certain faults and options for improvements light to the world – part I,” Medicinski Pregled, Vol in Edison’s inventions. When he confronted Edison Other advancements made by Nikola Tesla were in 3. Jill Jonnes, Empires of light: Edison, Tesla, 69, No 9-10 (2016): 313. about possible improvements that could have been the medical field, namely, with medical practices using Westinghouse, and the race to electrify the world (New made to the functioning of direct current, Edison “Tesla Currents,” which used a form of electrotherapy York: Random House, 2003), 50-79. 8. Vladimir and Milan Baltić, “Nikola Tesla discovered blatantly opposed any of the claims suggested by to produce heat in tissues of the human body; and ‘very special radiation’ or X-radiation,” Archive Of Tesla. Consequently, both men got caught up in an in other procedures such as “teslinization,” which is 4. Ronald H. Bailey, “Tesla: the wizard who electrified Oncology 15, no. 3-4 (Feb 2017): 100-105. argument, and Tesla was coerced into resigning from where Tesla Coils were used on patients to stimulate the world,” American History, no. 2 (2010): 52. working with Edison.3 high frequencies of electric fields within the body. One of the more recognized inventions made by Tesla are 5. Oliver Graydon, “Master of electrons and photons,” However, Nikola Tesla’s improvements in terms of the earliest forms of X-Ray machines.7 Today, we use Nature Photonics 9, no. 6 (June 2015): 345. Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 44 ARTICLES ARTICLES 45

Christopher Columbus. to these lands.

Upon his arrival to the The Supreme Pontiff Americas, Columbus claimed all Alexander VI (Roderic Borgia), of the lands he visited for Spain. a native of Aragon and personal On his return, the Italian explorer friend of Ferdinand II, agreed stopped in Portugal and met with with the Spanish monarchs and John II. After having learned of recognized their claims to these Columbus’ discoveries and the “new” territories.3 On May 4, 1493, claims he had made for Spain, in an effort to forestall future the Portuguese monarch grew territorial disputes between Spain upset and made his own claims and Portugal, he issued a new to these lands. The king cited two papal bull, Inter Caetera Divinae, pieces of writing as justification: which formed an imaginary line the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) running straight from the North and the papal bull, Aeterni Regis and South poles. This line was (1481). These documents declared located 100 leagues (345 miles) that Spain would control the west of the Cape Verde Islands, surrounding area of the Canary which gave Spain control over all Islands (near the coast of present- the territories west of this line, day Morocco) and Portugal would and Portugal gained control over possess all of the lands to the those east of the line. The pope, west and south of this location.2 Portrait of Pope Alexander VI, by however, specified that those King John II believed that the lands Cristofano dell’Altissimo | Courtesy of lands already claimed by Christian discovered by Columbus were in the Wikimedia Commons sovereign powers would remain areas under Portuguese control as under their control.4 set forth by the 1479 treaty and the 1481 papal document. However, the Spanish monarchs, Spanish interests in the spice trade heavily worried about their neighboring country’s claims, influenced the position of the line since the monarchs petitioned the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, believed the islands rich in spices were west of where Pope Alexander VI, to acknowledge their own claims Columbus had landed.5 If this had been the case, then

Treaty of Tordesillas | Courtesy of 123RF

The Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494

By Sergio Cervantes

The fifteenth century saw many changes for the numerous advantages was the treaty of Tordesillas. nations of the “Old World.” It was the beginning of the age of exploration, and with that exploration The story, however, begins with Portugal taking the came the exportation of their cultures, religion, and initial lead. In the early-fifteenth century, Portugal had political power across vast, unexplored territories. begun to colonize several small islands in the Atlantic What followed would be centuries of wars, treaties, Ocean and some islands along the West African coast. and technological improvements that accelerated It was not until 1488 that Bartolomeu Dias, appointed European dominance over Africa, the Americas, and by King John II of Portugal, rounded the Cape of parts of Asia. Two specific powers emerged during Good Hope and opened the way for Portuguese this early period as rivals: Portugal and Spain, with merchants to trade directly with India, and eventually the latter eventually eclipsing the former through with the East Indies.1 Spain also sought to establish economic and political means. One event that helped trade with the East Indies, but only after a different propel Spain ahead of its competitor and gain route became possible subsequent to the voyages of The lines of demarcation | Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Visit us online at http://www.stmuhistorymedia.org 46 ARTICLES 47 ARTICLES ARTICLES 47

Portugal would have effectively been excluded from recognized by Pope Julius II (successor of Alexander trade with East Asia, giving all access to Spain. But VI) in a papal bull in 1506.7 The treaty did have some Pope Alexander VI went even further with another flaws though, since it never clarified a standard for Follow the StMU papal bull, Dudum Siquidem, issued September a league, (units of measure varied among the two 26, 1493, which gave Spain the right to claim lands countries), and it failed to mention which side of the discovered while traveling westward even if they fell Cape Verde Islands the measuring distance would in the Portuguese areas but had not yet been possessed start from.8 This led to a difficulty when establishing by Portugal.6 John II was made furious by these bulls borders between the two colonial powers, because no History Media project and threatened to send a fleet to Hispaniola to prevent one knew where the exact location of the line lay. The the Spanish from colonizing those new areas. Thus, Treaty of Tordesillas was also rejected by England, began new negotiations overseen by the same pope France, and the Netherlands since the treaty excluded in 1494. them from exploring the New World.9 As history later revealed, the treaty greatly benefited the Spanish on social media . . . After much discussion and debate, the two Catholic monarchs and their economy. King Ferdinand II and powers agreed to place the imaginary line 370 leagues Queen Isabella I gained vast amounts of colonial (1,277 miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands. Just like territory, which included colossal deposits of silver in Inter Caetera Divinae, Spain would possess all areas and gold. All of this eventually raised the prestige of west of the line and Portugal all those east of the line. Spain and made it the dominant power in Central The treaty was ratified June 7, 1494 by both parties and South America for centuries. in the Castilian town of Tordesillas, and it was later

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WORKS CITED 1. Global Events: Milestone Events Throughout History, s.v. “Treaty of Tordesillas,” by Alexander M. Zukas. 2014, s.v. “Spain and Portugal Sign the Treaty of Tordesillas.” 6. Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, 2005, s.v. “Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494).” 2. Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History, 2000, s.v. “Tordesillas, Treaty of.” 7. American Eras: Primary Sources, 2015, s.v. “Treaty of and visit us online at Tordesillas (Excerpt).” 3. Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, 2005, s.v. “Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494).” 8. Iberia and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, 2005, s.v. “Tordesillas, Treaty of (1494).” 4. Global Events: Milestone Events Throughout History, www.stmuhistorymedia.org 2014, s.v. “Spain and Portugal Sign the Treaty of 9. American Eras: Primary Sources, 2015, s.v. “Treaty of Tordesillas.” Tordesillas (Excerpt).” 5. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism since 1450, 2007, for more student publications!