ERT cover 30-3 8/6/06 10:37 Page 1

CONTENTS E V Theme: With Heart and Mind A N G

Editorial – With Heart and Mind E L I page 195 C A

Universalism and Evangelical L R

DAVID HILBORN AND DON HORROCKS E V I page 196 E W

Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New O

Biotechnologies F T

BRIAN EDGAR H E

page 219 O L Glossolalia in Korean : An Historical Survey O G

BONJOUR BAY Y

page 237 V O Articles and book reviews reflecting L

Contextualization and Discipleship U

M global evangelical theology for the purpose MINHO SONG E

page 249 3 of discerning the obedience of faith 0 ,

Farewell Gerasenes: A Bible Study on Mark 5:1-20 N JOHN LEWIS O 3 page 264 , J u l Book Reviews y 2

page 271 0 0 6

Volume 30 No. 3 July 2006 Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 30 • Number 3 • July 2006 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 30 No. 3 July 2006

Copyright © 2006 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Executive Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/theological.htm

Typeset by Toucan, Carnegie House, Western Way, Exeter EX1 2DB and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2006) 30:3, 195 Editorial: With Heart and Mind

In this issue we have pleasure in pre- presses for new creative theological senting a second group of papers from thinking to reconcile official doctrinal the joint Theological Commission- positions on this matter with the reali- Korea Evangelical Theological Society ties of church practice—a process consultation held in Korea, Sept 30-Oct which has wider applicability than this 1, 2005. This Third International Con- particular topic. ference on Evangelical Theology fea- Then we have a paper by Dr Minho tured a large number of papers, some Song on discipleship. Although not of which appeared in our April 2006 presented at our Conference, it pro- issue. Our opening article is an impor- vides soundly based practical advice on tant presentation by Theological Com- an issue that faces Christians every- mission member, Dr David Hilborn and where. He argues that ‘Discipleship in his co-author David Horrocks, of a context calls for an astute examination topic of contemporary interest—uni- of the needs and issues of the context versalism, revealing the interesting in light of the timeless and unchanging history which this viewpoint has had in message of the Bible…. Discipleship in Evangelicalism. context is not an option, but an imper- In a rather different area, but just as ative.’ important, is the groundbreaking Concluding with this theme, our exploration by another TC member, Dr Bible study article by John Lewis Brian Edgar, of a new and comprehen- focuses on the need for mission and sive approach to bio-ethics. Dr Edgar witness to be related to our cultural takes account of the vastly increased context. So whether we look at views scope that this quite new discipline of the afterlife, the consequences of needs to cover due to the extremely adventurous science or issues of spiri- rapid growth of science recently in tuality and the call of discipleship, we areas such as gene manipulation and know that ‘What is needed is God’s stem cell research, rendering the older powerful love proclaimed and lived by parameters of bio-ethics far too lim- God’s people as they live their faith in ited. Accordingly he presents an dialogue with surrounding communi- expanded set of guidelines for deci- ties, as they proclaim the Word and sion-making. witnesses to the Spirit in prayer and We then follow with two articles ministry… We will only impact our focusing on the Korean situation—first communities so long as we proclaim an informative survey of the develop- and live the transformative, freeing ment of glossolalia in the Korean con- and renewing power of God, which is text by Dr Bonjour Bay, casting a fas- the love of God in Jesus Christ.’ cinating light on this phenomenon in his home country. In particular, he David Parker, Editor ERT (2006) 30:3, 196-218 Universalism and Evangelical Theology: An Historical Theological Perspective

David Hilborn and Don Horrocks

KEYWORDS: Missions, evangelism, vey of universalism published for the conversion, Pietism, Arminianism, British evangelical journal Themelios in Reformed Theology, Evangelical 1979, Richard Bauckham associated Alliance, Darwinism, election, salva- the doctrine with ‘less conservative’ tion, final restitution theologians, and barely mentioned anyone who could be classed as an evangelical.2 Likewise, while charting Introduction: Thomas the recent growth of more radical sote- Talbott and The Possibility of riologies among evangelicals, Daniel Strange has nevertheless concluded ‘Evangelical Universalism’ that ‘even those evangelicals who are THE traditional view of universalism and evangelicalism is that they are 1 mutually exclusive. In a historical sur- Donald R. Dunavant, ‘Universalism’ in A. Scott Moreau (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of World Missions (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1 Among numerous expressions of this tradi- 2000), pp. 988-89; James Davison Hunter, tional view, see Derek J. Tidball, Who Are the Evangelicalism: The Coming Generation Evangelicals? Tracing the Roots of Today’s (Chicago/: University of Chicago Movements (London: Marshall Pickering, Press, 1987), p. 47. 1994), pp. 151-52;, Alister McGrath, A Passion 2 Richard J. Bauckham, ‘Universalism: A His- for Truth: The Intellectual Coherence of Evangel- torical Survey’, Themelios 4:2 (1979), pp. 48- icalism (Leicester: Apollos, 1996), pp. 236-40; 54.

Dr David Hilborn (PhD Nottingham) is Theological Adviser to the UK Evangelical Alliance and an Associate Research Fellow of the London School of Theology. He has co-edited and co-authored several works, including One Body in Christ, Faith Hope and Homosexuality, ‘Toronto’ in Perspective and The Nature of Hell. He is an ordained Anglican minister and a member of the WEA Theological Commission. Don Horrocks, a former banker and management consultant, is Public Affairs Manager for the EA UK, and editor of Transsexuality and Modifying Creation. He holds a PhD in Historical Theology. This is a slightly edited version of a paper presented at the Third International Conference of Evangelical Theology, held at SungKyul University, Anyang, Korea, Sept 30-Oct 1, 2005 and was originally published in Universal Salvation: the Current Debate (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2003) edited by Robin A. Parry and Christopher H. Partridge (used here by permission of the publisher). Universalism and Evangelical Theology 197 very optimistic about the numbers of broadly Arminian emphasis on freewill people who will eventually be saved beyond the grave for those who do not still do not believe in universalism; for hear the gospel in this life, Talbott ‘it is not a matter of degree to move maintains a Reformed emphasis on the from the belief that the majority of fixed and eternal nature of God’s humanity will be saved to a belief that salvific decrees, but dismisses the idea all will be saved, but a matter of kind’. that these decrees entail a so-called In fact, Strange’s assessment of the ‘double predestination’—that is, the current scene leads him to declare that election of some to everlasting life and he knows ‘of no published evangelical others to hell. Talbott echoes familiar who holds to the doctrine of universal- Reformed thinking when he states that ism’.3 while our choices in respect of the Plainly, however, Strange’s assess- gospel ‘most assuredly can affect our ment begs the question whether there chances for happiness in the present are any conditions under which an and in the near term future’, they ‘can- evangelical who did embrace univer- not alter our final destiny’. But he salism could continue to be classed as starkly departs from Reformed under- ‘evangelical’—and if so, what those standing when he suggests that this conditions might be. One such case is ‘final destiny’ is the same for all— Thomas Talbott who teaches philoso- namely, a universally ‘glorious inheri- phy at Willamette University in Salem, tance’ of ‘union with God and reconcil- Oregon. Formed in a deeply conserva- iation with others’. As Talbott tive evangelical church community, he expresses it in his main treatise on this pursued graduate work at Fuller Semi- topic, The Inescapable Love of God, nary. Talbott’s years at Fuller saw him ‘when the Hound of Heaven has finally radically reject the in which closed off every alternative to such a he had been schooled—a rejection union, we shall then, each of us, finally which led, in time, to the formulation of embrace the destiny that is ours’.5 a dogmatic universalism driven by the Now it should be acknowledged eschatological imperative of ‘love’s from the outset that Talbott himself final victory’.4 does not offer a straightforward ‘test Where, as we shall see, certain case’ for the possibility of ‘evangelical evangelicals have tentatively envis- universalism’—not only because he is aged a ‘wider hope’ for the unevange- relatively so dogmatic about the salva- lised and others have extended a tion of all, but also because he now seems fairly unconcerned about whether his own belief in universal sal- vation would disqualify him ipso facto 3 Daniel Strange, The Possibility of Salvation from being categorized as an evangeli- among the Unevangelised: An Analysis of Inclu- sivism in Recent Evangelical Theology (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2002), p. 31. 4 Thomas Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God (Salem: Universal Publishers, 1999), pp. 5 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. 1-22, 219. 219-20. 198 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks cal.6 Even so, it is noteworthy that Tal- grounds be defined as ‘evangelical’ bott’s various articles on universalism have, in practice, held either universal- for Faith and Philosophy, Religious ist or universalistically-inclined views. Studies and The Reformed Journal during Granted, it will also become clear that the past decade have been concerned the grounds in question, and the pre- to engage and dialogue above all with cise mode or shade of universalism evangelical scholars, and above all, to adopted in each case, may be debat- influence evangelical thinking on this able: as Jerry Root notes in a review of topic.7 As such, Talbott’s work the subject for the Evangelical Dictio- prompts reflection not only on current nary of Theology, there are ‘about as evangelical theological thinking about many varieties of universalism as there universalism, but on the historical con- are people writing about it’.8 Granted, text of such thinking. In particular, it too, we shall see that opinions differ as prompts consideration of whether to which of these varieties, if any, there are precedents within the evan- might be compatible with an authentic gelical tradition both for the more spe- evangelical theology. Yet since Talbott cific universalist arguments which Tal- has been so active in provoking pre- bott adduces, and for universalist sote- sent-day evangelical debate on univer- riology in general. salism, it would be helpful to examine I shall show here that from time to ideas from his own evangelical lineage time, some who might on certain which to one degree or another might be said to prefigure the ideas that he is now propounding. 6 An attitude borne out, for instance, by Tal- bott’s avowed dislike of institutional Christian labels, and by his decidedly unevangelical Evangelicals and Universalism equivocation in describing the Christian faith as ‘one of the principal sources—if not the in the Post- principal source—of moral and spiritual Period enlightenment in the world’. (The Inescapable Love of God, p. 33) Indeed, Talbott’s published Just as Augustine laid the ground for work does not occupy itself much at all with the anathematising of universalism at the question of evangelical identity and its the Second Council of Constantinople parameters. (553),9 the magisterial Reformers 7 E.g. with John Piper in ‘God’s Uncondi- revealed their own considerable debt to tional Mercy: A Reply to John Piper’, The Augustine when they robustly repudi- Reformed Journal, June 1983, p. 13; William Lane Craig in ‘Craig on the Possibility of Eter- ated universalism. For Luther in par- nal Damnation’, Religious Studies, 28 (1992), pp. 495-519; Lorraine Boettner in ‘Punish- ment, Forgiveness and Divine Justice’, Reli- gious Studies, 29 (1993), p. 157; Michael Mur- 8 J.R. Root, ‘Universalism’, in Walter A. ray in ‘Universalism and the Supposed Oddity Elwell (ed.), Evangelical Dictionary of Theology of Our Earthly Life: Reply to Michael Murray’, (second ed) (Grand Rapids: Baker Book Acad- Faith and Philosophy 18:1 (January 2001), pp. emic, 2001), p. 1233. 102-109; Jerry Walls in ‘Freedom, Damnation 9 John. H. Leith (ed.), Creeds of the Churches and the Power to Sin with Impunity’, Religious (Third Edition) (Louisville: Press, Studies 37 (2001), pp. 417-434, (n.1, n.19 ). 1982), p. 50. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 199 ticular, universalism represented an centred on the idea of the church as a offence against the cardinal principle covenanting community of the faith- of justification by faith alone. Without ful.12 Generally, this ecclesiology went such justification by faith, he was hand-in-hand with the doctrine that adamant that it would be impossible only some, and not all, would be saved. for anyone to escape ‘sin, death [and] Yet it was on the fringes of the same hell’.10 Inasmuch as it had located sal- radical Reformation that universalism vation in cosmic restitution rather than would re-emerge as a force to be reck- the victory of Christ on the cross, the oned with. universalism systematised in the third The South German Anabaptist Hans century by in his doctrine of Denck (c.1495-1527), not only apokatastasis contrasted starkly with opposed paedobaptism: even before he Luther’s theological foundations. formally joined the Anabaptist move- Calvin’s rejection of universal salva- ment he was imprisoned at Schwyz in tion took a somewhat different form, 1525 for promoting the Origenist doc- but the contrast was equally sharp. For trine that at the Last Judgement even Calvin, it denied that biblical process of Satan will be spared. On his release, election whereby God had chosen Denck is reported to have been bap- Israel from among the nations under tised by the German Anabaptist leader the old dispensation, and had decreed Balthasaar Hübmaier. Hübmaier him- in the new that only some had been pre- self never embraced universalism, but destined for everlasting bliss.11 does seem to have been more generally In noting all this, however, we influenced by Denck’s emphasis on the should remember that the Reformation universality of God’s salvific will, and by his commensurate stress on the had a radical as well as a magisterial 13 wing. This radical wing, as exemplified freedom of all to choose salvation. On by the Anabaptists, did much to shape some assessments, indeed, this is evangelicalism’s distinctive practical closer to what Denck himself actually taught.14 emphases on personal conversion, As it turned out, Denck’s soteriol- holiness and discipleship. Indeed, as George Hunston Williams has shown, even among paedobaptist evangelicals in the magisterial Reformation tradi- tions, it contributed to an ecclesiology 12 George Huntston Williams, The Radical Reformation, (Third Edition) (Kirksville: Tru- man State University Press, 2000), pp. 1289- 1311; Keith G. Jones, A Believing Church: Learning from Some Contemporary Anabaptist 10 Martin Luther, ‘Preface to the New Testa- and Baptist Perspectives (Didcot: Baptist Union ment’, in John Dillenberger, (ed.), Martin of Great Britain, 1998). Luther: Selections from His Writings (New York: 13 Williams, The Radical Reformation, pp. Anchor Books, 1961), pp. 15-17. 256-57. 11 , Institutes of Christian Religion, 14 Morwenna Ludlow, Universal Salvation: Trans. F.L. Battles (Philadelphia: The West- Eschatology in the Thought of minster Press, 1960), III:24:xii-xvii, pp. 978- and (Oxford: Oxford University 87. Press, 2000), p. 2. 200 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks ogy failed in any decisive way to pene- of his creatures.18 Boehme would have trate those Mennonite and Hutterite an even greater impact, however, on movements which would subsequently the Pietists. develop as the main strands of Anabap- tism. However, traces of it did resur- face in the mystical writings of the Ger- Universalism and Pietism man Lutheran, Jakob Boehme (1575- Pietism emerged in mid-seventeenth 1624). Coloured by a theosophical century Germany as a reaction against interest in alchemy and astrology, the increasing scholasticism of the Boehme’s work attacked the Reformed Lutheran church, and the religious doctrines of election and reprobation entanglements of the Thirty Years War as incompatible with Scripture’s por- (1618-48).19 This context helps to trayal of a God engaged in universal explain why some Pietists were revelation and renewal.15 It would be inclined to explore the universalising hard to construe Boehme’s idiosyn- visions of Boehme, even if they typi- cratic writings as ‘evangelical’, or even cally declined to infer universal salva- systematically universalist,16 but he tion as such from them. Certainly, lead- was read extensively by others who did ing Pietists such as Philip Jakob operate within more thoroughly evan- Spener, August Hermann Franke and gelical theological contexts. Hence Nikolas von Zinzendorf all drew on Peter Sterrey (1613-72), an English Boehme’s work.20 Moreover, under the Independent minister who served as a influence of such Pietists, and also chaplain to Oliver Cromwell, sought to prompted by one of Boehme’s greatest co-opt Boehme’s concepts into a champions, the English spiritual writer detailed scheme of universal redemp- William Law (1686-1761), John Wes- tion, as did his protégé, Jeremiah White (1630-1707).17 Like Thomas Talbott today, both men insisted that the God whose supreme attribute is love would 18 White, The Restoration of All Things, p. not finally withhold that love from any 910; Sterrey, cit. D.P. Walker, The Decline of Hell (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964), p. 111. Compare Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. 200-220. 19 For more detail on the origins and devel- opment of Pietism see W.R. Ward, ‘German 15 Robin Waterfield (ed.), Jacob Boehme: Pietism, 1670-1750’, Journal of Ecclesiastical Essential Readings (Wellingborough: Crucible History, 44 (1993), pp. 476-504. Books for the Aquarian Press, 1989). 20 The precise effect of Boehme on these 16 Morwenna Ludlow, ‘Universal Salvation Churchly Pietists is, however, a matter of and a Soteriology of Divine Punishment’, Scot- scholarly dispute: see Rufus S. Jones, Spiritual tish Journal of Theology, 53:4 (2000), p. 459. Reformers of the 16th and 17th Centuries (Lon- 17 Jeremiah White, The Restoration of All don: Macmillan, 1914), pp. 153ff; Chauncey Things: or, A Vindication of the Goodness and David Ensign, ‘Radical German Pietism’ Grace of God, to be Manifested at Last, in the (Boston: Boston University Th.D. thesis, Recovery of his Whole Creation out of Their Fall 1955), p. 21; Ernst Stoeffler, The Rise of Evan- (Third Edition, with additional preface) (Lon- gelical Pietism (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1965), pp. don, 1779 [1712]). 10ff. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 201 ley would go on to study him in some same as that of untimely preaching of depth. Admittedly, Wesley was far predestination. Improperly under- from convinced by Boehme’s mysti- stood, this too could be taken fatalisti- cism, and followed Spener, Franke and cally…’23 von Zinzendorf in resisting his univer- The same tension between private salist tendencies.21 universalism and public orthodoxy was Yet Wesley did strongly promote the a feature of the moderate German work of another Lutheran Churchly Pietist grouping founded in 1708 by Pietist who was at least discreetly pre- Alexander Mack and known as the pared to embrace universalism—the New Baptists, or Brethren (now called biblical critic Johannes Albrecht Ben- the Church of the Brethren). Particu- gel (1687-1752). Bengel’s ground- larly among those of this grouping who breaking exegetical study Gnomon settled in colonial America from 1719 Novi Testamenti was much consulted onwards, universal restoration was 22 and admired by Wesley. What was well known. Yet as Donald Durnbaugh less well known was that while pub- notes, it was never officially preached, licly upholding orthodox Lutheran lest it detract from the Brethren’s tra- soteriology, Bengel privately inclined ditional evangelical emphases on con- towards a doctrine of universal recon- version, personal sanctification and ciliation. Bengel’s reticence to publish social activism.24 Insofar as it was dis- his views is explained by Helmut seminated at all, it seems to have been Thielicke as stemming from the con- promoted on the Brethren’s behalf by viction that ‘not everybody was ready’ leaders belonging to a more overtly for such a doctrine: ‘If it came into the radical stream of Pietism. hands of the wrong person—the per- son who would construe it legalisti- Here, figures such as Johann Wil- cally—it would have a devastating helm Peterson (1649-1727), Ernst effect. This effect would be much the Christoph Hochmann von Hochenau (1670-1721) and George de Benneville (1703-93) married a more separatist mindset with more explicitly Boehmist 21 Writing in 1752, Wesley reflected: ‘The ideas, and were happy on this basis to mystic divinity was never the Methodists’ doc- promulgate final cosmic restoration— trine. They could never swallow…Jacob a doctrine which, as David Ensign Behmen [aka Boehme], although they often advised with one that did [William Law]’. , Letter to Bishop Lavington (Exeter), 8 May 1752, in John Telford (ed.). The Letters of John Wesley, A.M., (8 Vols.) (London: 23 Helmut Thielicke, The Evangelical Faith: Epworth Press, 1931), Vol. 3, p. 321. Volume III—The Holy Spirit, the Church, 22 Richard P. Heitzenrater, Wesley and the Eschatology (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1982 People Called Methodists (Nashville: Abingdon [1973]), p. 455. Press, 1995), p. 188; ‘Bengel, Johannes 24 Donald F. Durnbaugh (ed.), Meet the Albrecht’, in F.L. Cross and E.A. Livingstone Brethren (Elgin, Ill.: The Brethren Press for (eds.), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian the Brethren Encyclopaedia Inc., 1984), p. 9. Church (Second Edition) (Oxford: Oxford Uni- 25 Ensign, Radical German Pietism, pp. 285- versity Press, 1983), p. 158. 86. 202 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks notes, would become a ‘major distinc- and publish to the people of the world tive’ of Radical Pietism.25 Another a Universal Gospel that shall restore, member of this set, the German writer in time, all the human species without George Klein-Nicolai, pseudonymously exception’. To leave people ignorant of penned in 1700 a pamphlet entitled this grand divine plan was, for De Ben- The Everlasting Gospel, which appears neville, to deprive them of the essential to have been taken to America by the ground, joy and purpose of their life. first Brethren émigrés, and which was Hence, as he put it: ‘My happiness will in effect the first universalist tract pub- be incomplete while one creature lished in the New World.26 remains miserable’.28 If the Brethren formed something of A similar conversionist zeal charac- a bridge between moderate and radical terised two English universalists who Pietism, this role was confirmed by the emerged from the archetypally evan- fact that although Hochmann would gelical stable of Methodism. James later plough his own ecclesial furrow, Relly (1722-78) and his disciple John he worked closely with Mack at the Murray (1741-1815) reflected John inception of the movement, and drafted Wesley’s interest in Pietism, but a statement of faith which it used unlike Wesley, followed those strains extensively in both Germany and of it which pointed to the final redemp- America for several decades.27 Simi- tion and restitution of all. Wesley’s larly, while De Benneville was an embrace of Arminian soteriology may avowed separatist who went on to emi- have led him to assert that in God’s grate and found his own independent providence all could be saved because house church in Oley, Pennsylvania, Christ died for all and not, as in classi- his services nevertheless attracted a cal Calvinism, for the elect alone; Relly wide range of Pietists—right wing, left and Murray, however, interpreted wing and moderate alike. Romans 5:18 and 1 Corinthians 15:22 No doubt, part of his appeal to the to mean that Christ’s death had in fact more ‘evangelical’ members of his con- atoned for all, and saved all, on the gregations was his own tireless evan- grounds that the universality of gelistic zeal. Confounding the later Adam’s sin in humanity must be stereotype that universalists lack matched by nothing less than the uni- motivation for mission, De Benneville versality of humanity’s salvation in the insisted on the obligation of any who New Adam, Jesus Christ.29 In this, they believe in final restitution to ‘proclaim

28 Cit. Bell, The Life and Times of Dr. George 26 James Alexander, ‘Universalism among De Benneville, 1953, p. 62. the Early Brethren’, Brethren Life and Thought, 29 James Relly, Union: Or a Treatise of the XXXII, Winter 1987, p. 29. Consanguinity and Affinity Between Christ and 27 Richard V. Pierard, ‘Hochmann Von His Church, (London 1759); John Murray, The Hochenau, Ernst Christoph’, in J.D. Douglas Life of Rev. John Murray, Preacher of Universal (ed.), The New International Dictionary of the Salvation, Written by Himself, with a Continua- Christian Church (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, tion by Judith Sargent Murray (Boston: Univer- 1978), p. 473. salist Publishing House, 1870). Universalism and Evangelical Theology 203 foreshadowed the treatment of the isterial students, influenced them same Pauline texts offered by Thomas towards Unitarianism.’31 This conflu- Talbott in chapter 5 of The Inescapable ence of Universalism with Unitarian- Love of God.30 ism—culminating as it did much later Relly was expelled from the with the formation of the Unitarian Uni- Methodist Connexion for these views versalist Association in 1961—can be in 1751, and established a sect which seen to account in no small measure Murray joined. In 1770, Murray emi- for the growing resistance of evangeli- grated to New , and at cals to universalism and final restitu- Barnegat Light, New Jersey, later that tion through the nineteenth century. year preached a sermon which paved the way for the establishment of the first church to style itself as explicitly Universalism and ‘Universalist’, rather than as inciden- Evangelicalism in the tally or implicitly drawn to universal Nineteenth Century restoration—a church which he helped While various seventeenth and eigh- to found in 1793 as the Universalist teenth century universalists came from Society of Boston. evangelical backgrounds, and while Once officially formed in this way, some managed to remain discreetly the Universalist Church appears to within mainstream evangelical have been less inclined to check itself churches, universalism itself was against the doctrinal orthodoxy of hardly seen as compatible with evan- mainline in general, and gelical belief. Indeed, as intentional of evangelical Protestantism in partic- universalist churches multiplied, and ular. This turn from orthodoxy was as universalist thought gained influ- embodied by Hosea Ballou (1771- ence through the succeeding century, 1852)—a former Calvinistic Baptist evangelicals distinguished themselves who was ordained as a Universalist as those most vigorously opposed to minister in 1794. Freed from catholic incipient universalism, and to the uni- and credal constraints, Ballou’s theo- tarian theology with which it became logical explorations led him, in time, increasingly yoked. not only to deny the punitive fires of There is not time here to rehearse hell, but also to disavow the Trinity, the many polemics written by tradi- the deity of Christ and vicarious atone- tionalist evangelicals against univer- ment. salism in the nineteenth century.32 As Harry Skilton has observed, However, one momentous episode ‘When Ballou arrived on the scene, from the history of the organisation for most Universalists were orthodox in theology, except for their belief that all men would be saved. But his extensive preaching, writing, and training of min- 31 Harry Skilton, ‘Ballou, Hosea’, in J.D. Douglas (ed.), The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church (Grand Rapids: Zonder- van, 1978), p. 98. 30 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. 32 But see Geoffrey Rowell, Hell and the Vic- 55-80, esp. 56-66. torians (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974). 204 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks which I work illustrates very clearly for his views.35 the depth of evangelicalism’s retrench- If the ‘Birks Affair’ typified main- ment on this and related issues during stream evangelical hostility to even this era. Keen to establish its doctrinal quasi-universalist theology during this rectitude from the outset, the inau- era, Birks was not quite alone among gural conference of the World’s Evan- evangelicals in seeking to apply the gelical Alliance in 1846 included a spe- benefits of the gospel to those who cific affirmation of ‘the eternal punish- have died without professing Christ. ment of the wicked’ in its Basis of More positive evangelical responses to Faith. This clause was inserted partly universalism were certainly rare, but in response to universalism, and partly there were exceptions, and these to repudiate the spread of annihilation- exceptions are important—not least ist views under unitarian sponsor- insofar as they offer pointers to the ship.33 Yet in 1869-70 the Alliance was modern-day debate which Thomas Tal- shaken to its core after one of its Hon- bott has stoked up. orary Secretaries, T.R. Birks, pub- Like Birks, F.W. Robertson of lished an esoteric study called The Vic- Brighton (1816-53) was an evangelical tory of Divine Goodness.34 who came to favour a ‘remedial’ An Anglican , Birks had dis- process of purgatorial sanctification tinguished himself as a leading oppo- over penal retribution—a process nent of Darwinism. In this volume, which he saw as extending beyond the however, he argued for a ‘semi-restitu- grave, and which he defended on the tionist’ view in which those consigned premise that ‘the law of the universe is to hell might yet develop some sense of progress’.36 More significant, however, the new divine order, eventually pos- was the similarly ‘progressivist’ sote- sessing part, if not all, of its glory. riology developed by the Scottish lay Placed under intense pressure after a theologian Thomas Erskine of Linla- succession of fraught Alliance debates then (1788-1864). Along with his on the matter, Birks resigned his sec- friend John MacLeod Campbell, Ersk- retaryship. Even this, however, was ine was honoured by the respected not enough to prevent the departure of Tübingen scholar Otto Pfleiderer for a significant number of the Alliance’s having made the ‘best contribution in Council, in protest at the fact that dogmatics’ from Britain between 1825 Birks was not also publicly censured and the early 1890s.37 More pertinently for our present topic, however, he stands out as one of the very few seri- 33 Hilborn and Johnston, The Nature of Hell (ACUTE Report) (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2000), pp. 63-4. 34 T.R. Birks, The Victory of Divine Goodness 36 A. Brooke Stopford (ed.), Life and Letters (London: Rivingtons, 1867). of Fred. W. Robertson, Vol. II (London: Kegan 35 For a full account of the ‘Birks Affair’ see Paul, Trench, & Co., 1882), pp. 155-6. Ian Randall and David Hilborn, One Body in 37 Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of Theol- Christ: The History and Significance of the Evan- ogy in Germany Since Kant and its Progress in gelical Alliance (Carlisle: Paternoster, 2001), Great Britain Since 1825 (2nd Edition) (Lon- pp. 122-133. don: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., 1893), p. 382. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 205 ous, consistent, self-declared univer- included the essays of the General Bap- salists of the nineteenth century who tist theologian, John Foster (1770- nevertheless sought to maintain an 1843). One of the most intellectually evangelical identity.38 gifted evangelicals of his time, Foster Erskine was one of the first British regarded eternal punishment as theologians to undertake theological unjust, and developed a doctrine of pro- fact-finding tours of Europe following gressive universal redemption based the end of the Napoleonic wars, and it on God’s unfolding ‘education’ of all was on these trips that he came under those made in his image.41 Certainly, the influence of key German theolo- Erskine read Foster’s Book, On a Man gians who were following in the foot- Writing Memoirs of Himself, at the age steps of .39 of 17, and realized, as a kind of spiri- Rejecting the Augustinian-Calvinist tual awakening, that life was a school, defence of eternal damnation, Schleier- and that education was for eternity.42 macher asserted a new eschatology If Foster was an early inspiration, based on the election of all humanity to Erskine’s soteriology was also pro- salvation in Christ. More specifically, foundly shaped by William Law.43 We he sought to assimilate Platonist, have already seen how influentially Romantic and pantheist concepts Law championed Boehmist and Pietist within a doctrine of final restoration thought in the eighteenth century, and which stressed the ability of human have noted his importance as a mentor 44 beings ultimately to recover from the to John Wesley. Erskine read Law deleterious effects of sin. In this assiduously, quoting from his later respect, he effectively further radi- mystical works and tracking down his calised that ‘left wing’ German Pietist sources—not least in the writings of 45 tradition which had leant towards uni- Boehme. Indeed, having been thus versalism in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.40 Erskine’s theological formation was 41 Nicholas R. Needham, Thomas Erskine of not, however, exclusively continental. Linlathen: His Life and Theology, 1788-1837 His preferred reading as a youth had (Edinburgh: Rutherford House Books, 1990), p.29; Leroy Edwin Froom, The Conditionalist Faith of Our Fathers: Volume 2 (Washington: Review and Herald, 1966), pp. 318-20. 38 For more on Erskine’s evangelical creden- 42 John Foster, Essays (London: The Reli- tials see Don Horrocks, ‘The Soteriological gious Tract Society: nd). Eclecticism of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen: 43 Horrocks, ‘Soteriological Eclecticism’, Theological Innovation in an Age of Recon- pp. 207-13. struction’, (Ph.D., Brunel University, 2001) 44 Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought (due for publication by T&T Clark, 2003.) in the Eighteenth Century (Third Edition) (Lon- 39 Horrocks, ‘Soteriological Eclecticism’, p. don: Harbinger Books, 1962 [1867]), Vol. 2I, 254ff. pp. 331, 344. 40 Friedrich Schleiermacher, The Christian 45 See e.g., Henry F. Henderson, Erskine of Faith (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1989), §5, 18- Linlathen: Selections and Biography (Edinburgh 26; §76. 3, 317; §81. 1, esp. 333; §81.4, 338, and London: Oliphant Anderson & Ferrier, §89. 1, 366. 1899), pp. 26-30. 206 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks inspired to read Boehme in the original One of the more intriguing trends in German, Erskine developed a notice- current evangelical theology is the ably Boehmist theodicy, which cast the growing number of evangelical theolo- religious life as a universal, moment- gians since the 1960s who have either by-moment struggle between good and endorsed or seriously entertained the evil instincts, played out in a process of concept of ‘second chance’ or ‘post- purification and reconciliation with mortem’ evangelism. This group now God. This process was presented by includes, at least, George Beasley Mur- Erskine as culminating in the eventual ray, Charles Cranfield, Donald defeat of evil by good, and the victory Bloesch, Clark Pinnock, Gabriel of God’s final purpose. Fackre and Nigel Wright.49 Like Mil- Following Law, Erskine invoked lard Erickson, I suspect that the group Romans 5:18 and 1 Corinthians 15:22 will grow—although whether any its to argue that corporate humanity living members move on to fuse the should be understood in terms of the wider hope which their sympathies terms of ‘the two heads, Adam and represent with actual universalism— Christ,—each being the head of all as Erskine did—remains to be seen.50 men, and therefore all men having a In addition to his ‘softening’ of Scot- part in each; Adam being the corrupt tish Reformed soteriology, Erskine fountain, and therefore rejected, Christ also significantly influenced the later being the renewed fountain, and there- fore elected’.46 In this, he anticipated Thomas Talbott’s plain assertion that ‘the very same “all” who died in Adam 49 G.R. Beasley-Murray, Baptism in the New 47 Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962), p. shall be made alive in Christ’. 258; C.E.B. Cranfield, First Epistle of Peter Even more pertinent for present-day (London: SCM, 1954), p. 91; C.E.B. Cranfield, evangelical debates about the scope of ‘The Interpretation of 1 Peter 3:19 and 4:6’, salvation, however, was Erskine’s con- Expository Times, 69 (September 1958), p. cept of a ‘post-mortem dimension’, in 372; Donald Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology, Volume 2 (San Fransisco: Harper & which the journey of faith was seen as Row, 1978), pp. 226-28; Clark H. Pinnock, 48 continuing for all beyond the grave. ‘The Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Reli- gions’, in Mark A. Noll & David F. Wells (eds), Christian Faith and Practice in the Modern World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1988), pp. 165-67; 46 Thomas Erskine, The Doctrine of Election Gabriel Fackre, ‘Divine Perseverance’, in John (London: James Duncan, 1837), p.305. Sanders (ed.), What about Those Who Have 47 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, p. 64. Never Heard? Three Views on the Destiny of the 48 Thomas Erskine, Essay on Faith (Edin- Unevangelized (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, burgh, 1822), p. 91. Erskine admitted that, 1995), pp. 71-95; Nigel Wright, The Radical because from everyday observation the divine Evangelical: Seeking a Place to Stand (London: process of education into righteousness was SPCK, 1996), pp. 99-102. not generally evident, it was logically neces- 50 Pinnock, for one, strongly resists identifi- sary for him to extend the process for an infi- cation of each doctrine with the other:, Clark nite period into post-mortem experience: H. Pinnock, A Wideness in God’s Mercy: The Thomas Erskine, The Spiritual Order (Edin- Finality of Jesus Christ in a World of Religions burgh, 1871), pp. 69-70, 75. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992), p. 170. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 207 nineteenth century holiness move- increasingly popular concept of annihi- ment—a movement which was steeped lation for the unredeemed. Further- in German Pietist thought and peopled more, as a variation on Erskine’s post- by figures with known universalist mortem evangelism, he proposed that inclinations. His work was certainly in God’s restitution of the cosmos, read and discussed by those who those who have known Christ prior to attended the landmark Broadlands judgement might, as the ‘Firstfruits’, conferences, which began just after his minister salvation to those who have death, in 1873, and which continued not hitherto believed. Jukes had been until 1888. well regarded by the Brethren for sev- One such attendee was Andrew eral ‘orthodox’ works on the Bible, but Jukes (1815-1900). Jukes had been an this somewhat esoteric defence of uni- Anglican clergyman in Hull, but had versalism lost him a great deal of sup- subsequently joined the Plymouth port, and he latterly returned to the Brethren. In 1867, he published a book .52 entitled The Restitution of All Things, Thomas Talbott does not mention which spurred considerable soteriolog- Jukes in any of his published defences ical controversy. Notably, Jukes cited of universalism; indeed, he cites very both Erskine and Law in support of his few historical precedents for universal position.51 Like Erskine, he disavowed salvation from within his own evangel- the notion that ‘God can only save men ical tradition. An important exception, through Christ in this present life’. however, is a novelist and spiritual Rather, citing texts such as John writer who also became a popular 12:24, Romans 6:3-5 and 2 Corinthians speaker at Broadlands: the Scottish 11:12, Jukes construed death not as a Congregationalist George MacDonald ‘point of no return’ for the impenitent, (1824-1905).53 Talbott pays particular but as a potential gateway into a new tribute to MacDonald’s Unspoken Ser- form of life in Christ. Jukes conceded mons, recognizing in them a template that those impenitent would still for his own version of universalism. undergo judgement: indeed, he averred MacDonald promulgated universal- that this would consign them to the ‘lake of fire which is the second death’, as described in Revelation 20:14. For 52 Jukes, The Restitution of All Things. Jukes, however, the fire in question 53 MacDonald travelled to Linlathen espe- was understood as purgatorial rather cially to meet Erskine, who approved of his than either endlessly punitive or termi- work. See letters from Erskine to MacDonald nally destructive. (undated) in Beinecke Rare Book and Manu- On this basis, he repudiated both script Library, : General MSS the traditional view of hell and the 103, Box No.2, Folder No.68. 54 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. 12-15; George MacDonald, Unspoken Sermons (London: Longman, 1886); Lilith: A Romance 51 Andrew Jukes, The Restitution of All (London: Ballantine, 1971); Rolland Hein, The Things, (W. Knochaven, California: Scripture Harmony Within: The Spiritual Journey of George Studies Concern and Concordant Publishing MacDonald (Chicago: Cornerstone Press, Concern, 1976 [1867]), p. 190. 1999). 208 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks ism, too, in popular fantasy epics like of a child in infancy was, ipso facto, Lilith.54 He was raised in a strongly proof of their inclusion in the ‘election Calvinist home, was ordained in 1851, of grace’.59 More specific warrant for and was linked with various evangeli- this view was adduced by Hodge from cals throughout his life. Later, he was Romans 5:18. As he read this text, ‘All commended by C.S. Lewis, who did not the descendants of Adam, except finally embrace his universalist out- Christ, are under condemnation; all the look, but who took the epigraphs for descendants of Adam, except those of his best-selling books, The Problem of whom it is expressly revealed that they Pain and The Great Divorce from Mac- cannot inherit the kingdom of God, are Donald, and who drew extensively saved.’60 from his insights on the last things.55 This position was also adopted by Despite all this, it should be noted that Hodge’s protégé, Benjamin B. Warfield MacDonald was dismissed after just (1851-1921). Alongside his combative two years in pastoral charge for his defences of the Westminster Confes- unorthodox views.56 sion and biblical inerrancy, Warfield Along with MacDonald, Talbott echoed Hodge’s statements on this does also briefly mention the nine- matter in an extended essay published teenth century Princeton theologian in 1897 as ‘The Development of the 57 (1797-1878). Poten- Doctrine of Infant Salvation’.61 More tially this is fascinating, for although recently, other Reformed theologians, Hodge was in many respects a classi- including Roland Nash and Lorraine cal Calvinist, he applied the Calvinistic Boettner, have expanded on Hodge and principle of unconditional election ‘uni- Warfield’s position, contending that versally’ to children who die in infancy. since our final judgement is conducted As Hodge saw it, ‘The Scriptures on the basis not of our sinful condition nowhere exclude any class of infants, as members of fallen humanity, but on baptised or unbaptized, born in Christ- the basis of the sinful deeds we commit ian or heathen lands, of believing or ‘in the body’ (2 Cor. 5:10), morally unbelieving parents, from the benefits unaware infants cannot be condemned of redemption in Christ.’58 Indeed, to hell. Indeed, Boettner has concluded building on the ‘private judgements’ of strikingly that this in itself ensures the eighteenth century evangelical that the population of heaven may well Anglicans John Newton and Augustus Toplady, Hodge argued that the death

59 Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1, pp. 26- 27. John Newton, Works, Volume 4 (London, 55 C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (London: 1808), p.182; Augustus Toplady, The Works of Fount, 1977 [1940]); C.S. Lewis, The Great Augustus Toplady (London, 1837), pp. 645-46. Divorce: A Dream (Glasgow: Fontana, 1946). 60 Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol- 56 Hein, The Harmony Within. ume 1 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), pp.26-27. 57 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. 61 Benjamin, B. Warfield, ‘The Development 60, 77, 119. of the Doctrine of Infant Salvation’, in Two 58 Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 Studies in the History of Doctrine (New York: (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans), pp. 26-27. Christian Literature Co, 1897), pp. 143-239. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 209 comprise over half of all those who extrapolate from the ‘universal’ salva- have ever lived (i.e., who have ever tion of infants and the mentally dis- been conceived).62 As it is, Warfield’s abled to a radically inclusive view of own paedo-universalism contributed to salvation for godly members of other his suggestion that ‘the number of the faiths—if not to the absolute univer- lost in comparison to the whole number salism advocated by Talbott.65 of the saved will be very inconsider- able’.63 Oddly, Talbott ignores all this and Evangelicals and Universalism instead critiques those points in in the Past Century Hodge’s more general exegesis of elec- Possibly the most important conduit of tion and salvation which resist his universalistic influence on evangeli- own, unqualified universalism.64 Yet cals in the past hundred years or so is Hodge’s position on infant death ought not to be overlooked in our context, for a scholar who was neither fully aligned while it is very specific and limited in with evangelicalism nor finally com- its application of universalist princi- mitted to Talbott’s style of dogmatic ples to one quite particular group, the universalism—namely, bases on which it rests could, at least (1886-1968). theoretically, be extended to other Evangelical scholars continue to groups who cannot necessarily debate the nature and extent of Barth’s express faith in Christ for them- universalist sympathies, and whether selves—for example, those with in this sense his thinking on hell and severe mental disabilities and those salvation is compatible with an evan- who have not had an opportunity to hear the gospel. Nash accepts the for- mer while resisting the latter, but other evangelicals, like Gabriel Fackre and 65 For a summary of arguments supporting this view, see John Sanders, No Other Name: John Sanders, have certainly sought to Can Only Christians Be Saved? (London: SPCK, 1992), pp. 61, 70, 206, 231-32, 287-305. 66 For discussion of this debate see John Col- well, ‘The Contemporaneity of Divine Deci- 62 Roland H. Nash, When a Baby Dies: sion: reflections on Barth’s Denial of “Univer- Answers to Comfort Grieving Parents (Grand salism”’, in Nigel de S. Cameron (ed.), Univer- Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), pp. 60-65; Lorraine salism and the Doctrine of Hell (Carlisle: Pater- Boettner, The Reformed Doctrine of Predestina- noster, 1992), pp. 139-60. See also Geoffrey tion (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and W. Bromiley, Introduction to the Theology of Reformed Publishing Co., 1992), pp. 145-46. Karl Barth (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1979), pp. 63 Benjamin B. Warfield, ‘Are They Few That 97ff.; G.C. Berkouwer, The Triumph of Grace in Be Saved?’, in Biblical and Theological Studies the Theology of Karl Barth (Grand Rapids: (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, Eerdmans, 1956), pp 290ff; Return of Christ 1952), p. 350. This is also due to Warfield’s (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1972), p. 390; D.G. postmillennial optimism about a major surge Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology of conversions in the generations prior to (Vol. 2) (San Francisco: Harper Row, 1979), Christ’s return. pp. 224ff.; D.A. Carson, The Gagging of God: 64 Talbott, The Inescapable Love of God, pp. Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Leicester: 60, 77, 119. Apollos, 1996), pp. 143-44. 210 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks gelical perspective.66 The debate is a taken place that all we who had complex one, but centres on an appar- incurred death by our sin and guilt ent tension in Barth’s recasting of the have been released from death as Reformed doctrine of election. Barth is He became a Sinner and Debtor in keen to redefine the ‘double decree’ our place, accepting the penalty proposed by John Calvin, whereby God and paying the debt.67 predestines certain individuals to While this undoubtedly looks like heaven and others to hell. Recognizing universalism, it must be understood in the potentially dualistic and ‘arbitrary’ terms of an ontic or ‘objective’ change strains in this view of election, Barth which still calls for noetic uptake— seeks to reconfigure it by focusing not that is, a response of faith. What is on the eternal fate of particular human either unclear, or so complexly persons, but on the redemptive person wrought that it has appeared unclear and work of Jesus Christ. to many evangelicals since, is the From the Pauline concept of our extent to which Barth understands this being ‘in Christ’, Barth construes a faith-response to be decisive in effect- soteriology in which the Son himself is ing, rather than merely disclosing, elected on our behalf. As the universal divine salvation for any particular per- ‘elected man’, his election is at once son. both an election to damnation (as he is Given the cosmic scope of election accursed for us on the cross) and to ‘in Christ’, Barth is mostly reluctant to eternal life (as his death makes atone- envisage the possibility that anyone ment for the sin of the cosmos and as might either reject it or be rejected he is raised to glory). By concentrating from it. At certain points, however, he divine damnation on the cross in this does appear to countenance such rejec- way, Barth argues that what appears tion on the grounds that God’s all- to be God’s reprobation is in fact an act encompassing love must be a love that of ‘rejecting love’. Moreover, being liberates people to isolate themselves divine, this act is so pervasive in its from his reach if they are insistent on effect that there is no ‘hiding’ from it: so doing.68 As Barth sums it up: ‘To the all are implicated in the redemption it man who persistently tries to change achieves: the truth into untruth, God does not For in [God’s] union with this one owe eternal patience and therefore man [Jesus Christ] He has shown deliverance.’ The doctrine of final His love to all and His solidarity restitution, or apokatastasis, may have with all. In this One He has taken appeal in terms of ‘theological consis- upon Himself the sin and guilt of all, and therefore rescued them all by higher right from the judgment which they had rightly incurred, so 67 Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics III.2, Trans. that He is really the true consola- G.W. Bromiley and T.F. Torrance (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1957), p. 613. tion of all. In Him He is our Helper 68 Barth, Church Dogmatics III.2, pp.186ff., and Deliverer in the midst of death. 602-40. For more detail on this see Colwell, For in the death of this One it has ‘Divine Decision’, pp. 146-60. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 211 tency’, but to insist upon it is, for tional emphasis placed on damnation Barth, to risk ‘arrogating to ourselves by evangelicals: that which can be given and received Every sensitive evangelical is a uni- 69 only as a free gift’. versalist at heart. He agrees with As Roger Olson notes, Barth has Peter when he wrote that ‘the particularly influenced ‘self-identified Lord…is not wishing that any progressive evangelicals who reject should perish, but that all should fundamentalism and liberal theology’, reach repentance’ (2 Pet. 3:9). In and who have found in the Swiss the- perhaps that passage of Scripture ologian a way through the Scylla and which represents the sovereignty of Charybdis which they perceive these God the strongest—Romans 9— 70 two modes of thought to represent. God’s attitude towards Pharaoh is Prominent among the first wave of that he endured him with much these ‘progressive’ evangelicals were patience (Rom. 9:22). The idea that Bernard Ramm (1916-92) and Donald God is as much glorified by the Bloesch (1928-). damnation of the lost as by the sal- A conservative Baptist, Ramm vation of the saints as held by some spent a sabbatical year under Barth at Calvinists is hard to reconcile with Basel in 1957-58 and thereafter sought Ezekiel 18:23: ‘Have I any pleasure to assimilate his insights into a self- 71 in the death of the wicked, says the consciously evangelical framework. Lord God, and not rather that he While upholding not only the reality of should turn from his way and live?’ hell, but also the validity of preaching No person on the face of the earth it from time to time,72 Ramm’s absorp- wants everybody in heaven more tion of Barth nevertheless clearly than an evangelical. Only an evan- prompted him to shift from the tradi- gelical really knows in depth the meaning of sin, the wrath of God, the reconciliation of the cross, the victory of the resurrection, the 69 Barth, Church Dogmatics IV.3, Trans. G.W. tragedy of judgment, and the glory Bromiley and T.F. Torrance (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1961), p. 477. of the New Jerusalem. Every person 70 Roger E. Olson, The Story of Christian The- who fails of this final beatitude can ology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition and Reform only be of pain to him.73 (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, 1999), p. 589. Ramm’s implication that hell awaits 71 For a biography and review of Ramm’s only those who persistently resist work, and a discussion of the influence of Barth on his thought, see Kevin J. Vanhoozer, God’s call is reflected and intensified in ‘Bernard Ramm’, in Walter A. Elwell (ed.), the work of Bloesch. Schooled in Handbook of Evangelical Theologians (Grand Reformed and Lutheran Pietism by a Rapids: Baker Books, 1993), pp. 290-306. father who ministered in the German Also Millard J. Erickson, The Evangelical Left: evangelical Church at Bremen, Indi- Encountering Postconservative Evangelical The- ology (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1997), pp. 23-28. 72 Bernard Ramm, The Evangelical Heritage: A Study in Historical Theology (Grand Rapids: 73 Ramm, The Evangelical Heritage, pp. 136- Baker Books, 1973), p. 72. 37. 212 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks ana, Bloesch was later profoundly tinuing through What’s Good about the shaped by Barth’s thinking while Good News? (1988) to So Also in Christ studying at Chicago Theological Semi- (2002), Punt has set out a case for nary in the 1950s. He has since pro- what he calls ‘biblical universalism’. jected Barth’s soteriological optimism Central to this case is Punt’s con- beyond the grave, into post-mortem tention that all persons are elect in evangelization, and even into a quali- Christ except those whom the Bible fied form of restitutionism: explicitly confirms will be eternally We do not wish to put fences lost—namely, those who consistently around God’s grace…and we do not repudiate or maintain conscious indif- preclude the possibility that some ference towards God’s revelation of in hell might finally be translated to himself in gospel presentation, in cre- heaven. The gates of the holy city ation or in the witness of conscience.75 are depicted as being open day and In Punt’s terms, ‘For those who are night (Isa. 60:11; Rev. 21:25), and finally lost, the Bible reveals no other this means that open access to the cause than their own wilful, persistent throne of grace is possible continu- unbelief and sin. For those who are ously. The gates of hell are locked, saved, it is God alone who graciously, but they are locked from with- sovereignly elects and saves them.’76 in…Hell is not outside the compass Hence for Punt, election to salva- of God’s mercy nor the spheres of tion remains unconditional and by his kingdom, and in this sense we grace alone, as in classical Calvinism; call it the last refuge of the sinner. but eternal condemnation is recast as Edward Pusey voices our own sen- conditional upon sinners’ wicked timents: ‘We know absolutely noth- works. In other words, humans cannot ing of the proportion of the saved to earn their salvation—but some the lost or who will be lost; but this humans do earn their damnation. Like we know, that none will be lost, do Hodge and Nash, Punt dismisses as who do not obstinately to the end unscriptural the concept that anyone is and in the end refuse God’.74 destined to hell solely because of their Another American theologian from solidarity with Adam, and the original the evangelical Reformed community sin which accrues from that solidarity. who has argued for the salvation of all Rather, he argues, they fail to ‘inherit but those who intentionally and finally the kingdom’ on the basis of their own reject God, is Neal Punt. In a series of ‘actual, wilful and persistent sin’ (cf. 1 studies beginning with his 1980 vol- ume Unconditional Good News, and con-

74 Donald Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical 75 Neal Punt, So Also in Christ: Reviewing the Theology Vol. 2 (San Fransisco: Harper, 1979), Plan of Salvation (Northland Books, 2002), p. pp. 226-28. For another ‘progressive’ evangel- 83. ical similarly influenced by Barth, see Richard 76 Neal Punt, What’s Good about the Good Quebedeaux, The Worldly Evangelicals (San News? The Plan of Salvation in a New Light Fransisco/London, 1978), p. 152 (Northland Books, 1988), p. 44. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 213

Cor. 6:9-10; Rev. 22:15).77 those who believe, but all Jews and all Punt’s thesis is perhaps weakest in Gentiles. The final salvation of Israel, the area that concerns Talbott most: which Bonda infers particularly from the area of theodicy. Specifically, he chapter 11 and takes to include Jews appears to leave unresolved the who refuse the gospel, is, he says, a inevitability or otherwise of the persis- clear indication of God’s universalistic tent, wilful sinning committed by per- purpose for the world as a whole. sistent, wilful sinners. Is such sinning Hence the ‘coming of the kingdom’ in chosen purely by those few who in the New Testament is applied to the doing so deliberately forfeit the elec- time when God will draw all—dead and tion to heaven they once shared with alive—back to himself. Bonda readily everyone else on the basis of Christ’s concedes the same problems of human ‘universal’ redemption? Or is such sin- freedom and salvation with which Tal- ning foreknown, and/or foreordained bott grapples, but unlike Talbott, is by God? Punt stresses that ‘no one con- thereby led towards a hopeful, rather ceived and born in sin has the capacity than an absolute universalism—one within himself or herself to choose the based on a general rather than a ‘lim- good’, but maintains, in true Reformed ited’ model of atonement. fashion, that goodness is imputed by Just as Bonda develops his univer- Christ.78 Yet the logical consequence of salism from a particular text of Scrip- his position is that this imputation ture, so with the growth of systematic must either be ineffective in the case of universalist across various those who finally reject God, or else actively withheld from them by God in traditions in recent years, evangelical the first place. Either option presents a biblical scholars have been led to re- considerable moral problem for a sys- investigate the key verses cited in tem which claims to be so thoroughgo- defence of the view that all will be ing in its assurance of ‘good news’. saved. The majority of such evangeli- A somewhat different universalist cal exegetes, from N.T Wright to I. apologia appears in the Dutch Howard Marshall, have ended such Reformed scholar Jan Bonda’s mag- investigations by reaffirming the tradi- num opus, The One Purpose of God, pub- tional distinction between the salva- lished by Eerdmans in 1993.79 Bonda tion of some to eternal life and the con- bases his position on a close exegesis demnation of others to hell.80 A few, of Paul’s Letter to the Romans. For however, have been persuaded that example, chapter 3:29-30 of the epistle certain texts do genuinely point in a is interpreted as confirming that God means to save all people—not just

80 N.T. Wright, ‘Towards a Biblical View of Universalism’, Themelios 4:2 (January 1979), 77 Punt, So Also in Christ, p. 83. pp. 55-58; Ian Howard Marshall, ‘Does the 78 Punt, So Also in Christ, pp. 60-61. New Testament Teach Universal Salvation?’ 79 Jan Bonda, The One Purpose of God: An in John Colwell (ed.), Called to One Hope: Per- Answer to the Doctrine of Eternal Punishment spectives on the Life to Come (Carlisle: Pater- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993). noster, 2000), pp. 17-30. 214 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks universalist direction. tongue will confess that Jesus Christ is Writing for broadly evangelical pub- Lord.’84 Bell concedes, however, that lishers like Word and Baker Books, such universalist teaching is ‘clearly at Andrew Lincoln has inclined towards variance’ with other parts of the view expressed so firmly by Tal- Romans—most notably 11:25-32, bott, that the Pauline texts most often which implies the condemnation of at cited in defence of the universalist least some Gentiles, even while affirm- position—Ephesians 1:10, Romans ing a full salvation of Jews.85 5:18 and 1 Corinthians 15:22-28—do, In attempting to explain and resolve in fact, envisage a universal salva- this difference, Bell suggests that tion.81 Similarly, Richard Bell—a New Romans 5 offers an a-temporal, mythi- Testament scholar in the evangelical cal representation of the reconciling Anglican tradition—has developed his act of Christ, whereas Romans 9-11 is earlier Pauline studies to argue in a more immediately focused on the his- recent paper on Romans 5:18-19 that torical contingencies of Paul’s mis- since Paul believes all human beings sionary project. Hence, while the ear- participate both in Adam’s sin and in lier text assumes the perspective of Christ’s ‘righteous act’, a universal eternity, in which God will eventually salvation is affirmed there.82 This is, reconcile all people and all things to claims Bell, ‘the natural reading of the himself, the later text is seeking to text and the context supports it’.83 account for the fact that some of the Indeed, Bell goes on to suggest that Gentiles to whom Paul has been sent these two verses do not bear an iso- are currently rejecting his message, and lated witness to universalism: as he is not occupied by whether or not they puts it, ‘2 Cor. 5:19 speaks of God might eventually be saved: being in Christ, reconciling the world …Rom. 9-11 is concerned with the to himself [and] Phil. 2:11 says every bringing of the reconciling word to human beings through the mission of the Church: Rom. 10:8 speaks of the word which creates faith…and 10:14-18 is about the necessity of 81 Andrew Lincoln, Paradise Now and Not Yet: Studies in the Role of the Heavenly Dimension in bringing the gospel to Jews and Paul’s Thought, With Special Reference to His Gentiles… Rom. 5:18-19, on the Eschatology (Grand Rapids: Baker Book other hand, has as its central focus House, 1991) [Originally Cambridge Univer- the reconciling act of Christ (and sity Press, 1981]; Ephesians, Word Biblical the act of Adam which brought Commentary 42 (Dallas: Word Books, 1990), enmity between God and man). And pp. 32-44. See also, Andrew Lincoln and A.J.M. Wedderburn, The Theology of the Later Paul in speaking of this reconciling Pauline Letters (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1993). 82 Richard Bell, ‘Rom. 5:18-19 and Universal Salvation’, New Testament Studies, 48 (2002), 84 Bell, ‘Rom. 5:18-19 and Universal Salva- p. 417. tion’, p. 429. 83 Bell, ‘Rom. 5:18-19 and Universal Salva- 85 Bell, ‘Rom. 5:18-19 and Universal Salva- tion’, p. 427. tion’, p. 430. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 215

act of Christ which brings justifica- while Strange shows modern-day evan- tion for all does not trouble himself gelicals adopting a range of positions here with the problem as to how on the fate of the unevangelized—from the reconciling word is actually restrictivism through universal oppor- brought to human beings. Again, tunity and inclusivism to post-mortem his perspective is mythical rather evangelism—he reports that univer- than historical.86 salism has no recognized place within If all this is evidence that certain evangelicalism’s bounds. In this, he is reaches of evangelical scholarship may undoubtedly reflecting a broad consen- be edging towards universalism, it also sus—a consensus underlined by Gre- recalls the central problem which I gory Boyd and Paul Eddy’s recent raised at the beginning of this paper, study, Across the Spectrum: Issues in and which must attend any account of Evangelical Theology. Boyd and Eddy ‘evangelical universalism’—namely also list evangelical proponents of that for most evangelicals, and for views stretching from restrictivism to many non-evangelicals besides, the post-mortem salvation, but implicitly very concept itself is an oxymoron. bracket universalism off with that plu- However conservative a person’s back- ralism which sees all religions leading ground and theological formation has to God, and which, as far as they know, been, the historic evangelical norm is is ‘universally rejected by evangelical 87 that once that person embraces univer- Christians’. salism, he or she de facto forfeits any In 2000, the UK Evangelical authentic claim to the description Alliance’s report The Nature of Hell ‘evangelical’. The same outlook also acknowledged the possibility of salva- tends to hold that however orthodox tion for at least some who have not someone may be in other areas, affirm- heard the gospel, and while finding ‘no ing universalism effectively cancels convincing warrant in Scripture’ for out their evangelical credit, and leaves post-mortem regeneration, did at least them short of the doctrinal standard recognize certain advocates of it to be 88 required to belong to the evangelical genuine evangelicals. However, when constituency. In this sense, while it came to universalism, the verdict those we have cited as ‘evangelical uni- was far harsher—it was not only versalists’ may be defined as evangeli- ‘divergent from authentic evangelical cals historically and socio-culturally in faith’, but would seriously undermine relation to their background, education the integrity of any evangelical who and church allegiance, many would argue that they cannot be regarded as evangelical in a theological sense once 87 Gregory A. Boyd and Paul R. Eddy, Across they have advocated universalism. the Spectrum: Understanding Issues in Evangeli- We have already mentioned that cal Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002), p. 179. Discussion of ‘The Destiny of the Unevangelized Debate’ as a whole is on pp. 178-92. 86 Bell, Richard, ‘Rom. 5:18-19 and Univer- 88 Hilborn and Johnston, The Nature of Hell, sal Salvation’, p. 431. pp. 89-92. 216 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks advocated it while claiming still to be and Pinnock themselves remain an evangelical.89 The key reasons given opposed to universalism. No doubt for this assessment echoed numerous Sanders takes a very optimistic view of critiques of universalism offered by the population of heaven, and envis- evangelicals down the years: it trivi- ages various means other than explicit alises the radical sinfulness of fallen faith in Christ by which people can be humanity, and plays down the penal- saved, but he finally excludes the uni- ties due for such sin; it compromises versalist position as unbiblical, and morality by denying that good or evil thus, unevangelical—albeit ‘with choices make any ultimate difference, regret’.93 Fackre may advocate post- and undermines the missionary man- mortem evangelism, but he dismisses date of Christ by implying that evange- universalism on the basis that even lism and conversion are incidental to when faced with the risen Christ after salvation.90 death, some may choose to reject him.94 The Alliance report did envisage Likewise, Pinnock maintains from his that some of those evangelical theolo- ultra-Arminian perspective that ‘uni- gians who had embraced ‘wider hope’ versal salvation is implausible chiefly and ‘post-mortem’ models might in because God takes no for an answer’.95 time move further, towards outright Despite all this, the review which universalism.91 But such a prospect we have conducted here confirms that was hardly welcomed. Indeed, it was determining whether anyone might be viewed with a concern similar to that defined as a bona fide ‘evangelical uni- expressed by Millard Erickson seven versalist’ depends as much on what is years previously, when he had sug- meant by the term ‘universalist’ in any gested that the more radical evangeli- particular instance, as on what is cal soteriologies of John Sanders, meant by the term ‘evangelical’. A lit- Gabriel Fackre, Clark Pinnock and oth- tle before attesting that he knows of no ers might become routes through published evangelical who has which universalism could pass into embraced universalism, Daniel evangelical terrain.92 Strange tellingly writes: ‘I do not As things stand, however, it needs believe that “universalism” can be a to be stressed that Sanders, Fackre credible option for evangelicals of

89 Hilborn and Johnston, The Nature of Hell, 93 John Sanders, No Other Name? Can Only pp. 32, 131. Christians Be Saved? (London: SPCK, 1994), 90 Hilborn and Johnston, The Nature of Hell, pp. 106-115. p.31; cf. Edwin Blum, ‘Shall You Not Surely 94 Gabriel Fackre, ‘Divine Perseverance’, in Die?’, Themelios, 4:2 (1979), pp. 58-61. John Sanders (ed.), What About Those Who 91 Hilborn and Johnston, The Nature of Hell, Have Never Heard? (Downers Grove: IVP, p. 34. 1995), p. 95. 92 Millard J. Erickson, The Evangelical Mind 95 Clark H. Pinnock and Robert C. Brow, and Heart; Perspectives on Theological and Prac- Unbounded Love: A Good News Theology for the tical Issues, (Grand Rapids: Baker Book 21st Century (Downers Grove: IVP, 1994), p. House, 1993), pp. 150-52. 89. Universalism and Evangelical Theology 217 whatever background’. He then adds in The Restitution of All Things main- that ‘any serious evangelical theolo- tained a place for divine condemnation, gian whose ultimate authority is Scrip- hellfire, protracted punishment and ture, cannot ignore the clear passages the ‘second death’, albeit as means to which refer to the reality of judgement apokatastasis rather than eternal repro- and hell and the prophetic element bation? What of Punt’s ‘biblical univer- which declares that some will never salism’, which Strange does not men- come to repentance’.96 Hence, when tion, but which is clearly far from Strange posits his apparently unoccu- absolute, and which on his criteria pied category of ‘evangelical universal- probably would not even pass as ists’, he is in fact positing something ‘quasi-universalist’? which, on his very own terms, is at best And what of those—implicitly rec- an abstraction and at worst an impos- ognized by Strange when he claims sibility, since to advocate universalism that no published evangelicals have is from his perspective to deny evan- embraced universalism—who have yet gelicalism—or at least to present done so in their lectures, seminars, ser- evangelicalism in an ‘incredible’ or mons, dialogues and correspondence? ‘non-serious’ way. What of Bengel? What of Alexander Strange does at least implicitly con- Mack and the Brethren? What, come to cede that not all universalisms are of that, of the Scots Congregationalist the ‘dogmatic’ sort represented by Tal- theologian P.T. Forsyth (1848-1921), bott: he defines Barth, for instance, as whom increasing numbers of evangeli- a ‘quasi-universalist’.97 Yet since cals are claiming as an ally, but who Strange also asserts that any ‘quasi- appears at a single place in the whole universalism’ which strongly hopes canon of his work to flirt with the pos- that all will be saved also ‘goes against sibility of a final restitution?98 And too much biblical evidence to the con- what of those several present-day trary’, it is unclear from his viewpoint evangelical figures who were identified which, if any, of the various more sub- to me in the course of researching this tle gradations of universalism we have article as known universalists, but who surveyed here, might still be deemed ‘evangelical’. Would T.R. Birks’ palliative semi- restitutionism qualify? Significantly, 98 P.T. Forsyth, The Justification of God (Lon- don: Independent Press, 1957 [1916]), p. 161. while he resigned as an Honorary Sec- Elsewhere, however, Forsyth suggests that retary of the Evangelical Alliance, he this possibility must be left unresolved: The was maintained on the Alliance’s mem- Work of Christ (London: Collins, 1965), p. 161. bership roll. What of Andrew Jukes, For commentary on this matter, compare, C.S. who wrote many other ‘sound’ volumes Duthie, ‘Ultimate Triumph’, Scottish Journal of as a member of the Brethren, and even Theology 14 (1961), p 161; A.M. Hunter, P.T. Forsyth: Per Crucem ad Lucem (London: SCM, 1974), pp. 117-24; Ian Howard Marshall, ‘Does the New Testament Teach Universal 96 Strange, The Possibility of Salvation, p. 31. Salvation?’, in Colwell (ed.), Called to One 97 Strange, The Possibility of Salvation, pp. Hope: Perspectives on the Life to Come (Carlisle: 31-32. Paternoster, 2000), p. 24-25, n.14. 218 David Hilborn and Don Horrocks have yet to declare it formally? Such present paper is drawn, suggests that questions go to the heart of what it the question of whether that position means to be an evangelical—and are has antecedents of any sort among likely to become more acute if current those who have operated as self-con- radical evangelical models of inclu- scious, intentional and persistent sivism, post-mortem evangelism and members of the evangelical commu- semi-restitution move closer to univer- nity, is a question which it is both valid salist soteriologies, as they may well and useful to address. do in the next generation or so. In seeking to answer it, we have And what, finally, of Talbott him- seen that while universalism is both self? We noted at the outset that his multi-faceted and particularly hard to convinced absolutist universalism, and discern among evangelicals, some in the past and present evangelical com- his personal ambivalence about munity have clearly been informed and whether he is termed a ‘true evangeli- influenced by it. Thus, insofar as Tal- cal’ or not, make him a less than obvi- bott can in any sense still be counted a ous model for current universalising member of this community, he stands trends within evangelicalism. Having out not because he is the first to have said this, his clear regard for Scripture, assimilated universalist ideas, but his focus on personal salvation, and because, as part of a scholarly dis- the fact that he has debated his univer- course which is still perceptibly evan- salist position substantially with evan- gelical, he has done so in such an gelical scholars like John Piper, unconditional, unqualified and explicit William Lane Craig and those con- a way. tributing to the book from which this

NEW FROM REGNUM BOOKS The Churches and Ethnic Ideology in the Rwandan Crises 1900–1994 Tharcisse Gatwa Since the early years of the twentieth century Christianity has been a new factor in Rwandan society. This book investigates the role Christian churches played in the formulation and development of the racial ideology that culminated in the 1994 genocide. Tharcisse Gatwa is Director of Clé Publications, Yaounde, Cameroon.

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Regnum Books, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2006) 30:3, 219-236 Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies

Brian Edgar

KEYWORDS: Biotheology, bioethics, that bioethics rarely situates the biotechnology, ethics, gene technolo- human person in the broader context gy, humanity, creation, species, ecolo- which biotechnology presupposes and gy, imago Dei. there is a tendency to overlook the sig- nificance of the connectedness of human, animal and plant life. Bioethics as it is usually understood is better THE ethical issues dealt with under the referred to as biomedical ethics. heading ‘bioethics’ should logically This paper aims to contribute by parallel the scientific and technologi- bringing bioethics into line with cal issues which are covered in biotechnology—which will mean re- ‘biotechnology’. However, the breadth framing the ethical context; it also and diversity of the territory covered by aims to encourage the development of biotechnology (including gene manipu- the complementary field of biotheology lation, nanotechnology, biodiversity, as a theology of life which belongs ecology, biopharming [the use of genet- alongside the more traditional sub-dis- ically modified crops to produce phar- ciplines of systematic theology such as maceuticals, vaccines, hormones etc], theological anthropology (doctrine of reproductive medicine, stem cell humanity), Christology, pneumatol- research etc) is rarely matched in the ogy, ecclesiology etc. An intentional field of bioethics where discussions are focus on biotheology will enhance the usually restricted to a much narrower understanding of the human person as area relating specifically to the treat- a part of the full spectrum of life cre- ment of the human person. This means ated by God and it will provide greater

Dr Brian Edgar, MTh, PhD, a member of the WEA Theological Commission, is Director of Public Theology for the Australian Evangelical Alliance, and Affiliate Professor, Asbury Theological Seminary, Ky USA. He is a Fellow of ISCAST (The Institute for the Study of Christianity in an Age of Science and Technology Australia), and a member of the Gene Technology Ethics Committee (Commonwealth of Australia). His previous contributions to this journal include the John M. Templeton Foundation award winning article, ‘A New Immortality? Reflections on Genetics, Human Aging and the Possibility of Unlimited Lifespan’ (1999) 23:4, and ‘The Theology of Theological Education’ (2005) 29:3. He is also the author of The Message of the Trinity (IVP, 2004). The original version of this paper was presented at the Third International Conference on Evangelical Theology, Sunkyul University, Anyang City, Korea Sept 30-Oct1, 2005. 220 Brian Edgar form and depth to reflections on the and manufacturing techniques such as diverse and difficult issues which the leaching of ores and mine site reha- biotechnology generates and with bilitation; food and flavouring tech- which bioethics needs to deal. After nologies; various agricultural tech- further outlining the situation with niques and crop modifications includ- regard to biotechnology and bioethics I ing improved food storage and nutri- will propose six biotheological princi- tional quality, better pest resistance ples which are designed to give ethical and increased water, temperature and cohesion and theological structure to salinity tolerance and biopharming; this new field. forestry issues involving faster tree growth, improved fibre, disease resis- tance and so forth; as well as aquacul- Biotechnology ture and various forms of animal Some assume that biotechnology research. The common points which began in 1972 when the first recombi- run throughout are, firstly, the attempt nant DNA technology experiment was to use biological processes to techno- performed. However, although the logical advantage in order to improve most recent developments in molecu- the quality of life and, secondly, the lar biology and genetic engineering are perceived connectivity between all critically important, biotechnology has forms of life. been a part of human history for thou- This extraordinary array of issues sands of years, at least since the comes about because of the way late ancient Sumerians and Babylonians twentieth century biotechnology used yeast to make beer, the Egyptians brought together research done in a leavened their bread and the ancient wide range of areas. This produced a Chinese used fermentation processes synergy which set the scene for a bio- to preserve milk and produce cheese logical revolution in the twenty-first and wine. It has continued on through century which will equal or surpass in a wide variety of attempts to manipu- significance the computing and infor- late breeding processes, preserve mation technology revolution of the foods, achieve artificial reproduction last century. and generally control the processes of One of the main reasons for this life and death and manipulate the development relates to the way forms in which life exists. biotechnology has begun to unite a As a consequence of this, a sam- field which previously was divided in at pling of biotechnological issues now least two ways. It was divided ‘verti- includes various medical interventions cally’ according to the levels of and their effects on human life and research which took place and ‘hori- death; reproductive technologies for zontally’ according to the areas which humans and animals; gene analysis, were being investigated. There are at modification and therapy for plants, least six levels of research which have animals and humans; nanotechnology come together; these are the sciences and issues relating to the human- which operate at the level of: (1) mole- machine interface; stem cell research cules (e.g. molecular biology, especially and therapy; some biological mining research on DNA and recombinant Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 221 technology); (2) cells (e.g. cell biology and crop research and the study of eco- including work on stem cells, ageing logical systems are being called into processes and reproductive technol- question. Trans-kingdom gene trans- ogy); (3) organs (e.g. transplantation fer, biopharmaceuticals, nanotechnol- and xenotransplantation and the man- ogy and other such areas of research ufacture of replacement tissues); (4) increase the trend towards a level of species (e.g. the nature and dynamics of integration not generally matched in the way species function and interact the ethical or theological fields. and the influence of genetically modi- fied organisms on them); (5) humans (e.g. abortion, euthanasia, the use of Bioethics medical technologies); and (6) systems The term ‘bioethics’ was coined in (e.g. ecology and the influence of bio- 1971 by cancer researcher Van Rens- logical technologies). The work taking selaer Potter in Bioethics: Bridge to the place at these different levels has Future.1 Potter had a broad view and become much more integrated than used the term to relate to all issues previously, and this dynamic inter-rela- related to life. He did not equate tionship has implications for the way bioethics with human biomedical previously different areas of research research. He argued that advances in have come together. biotechnology had implications for all While much common thought per- life systems and societies and he sists with a strong differentiation expounded on this in his subsequent between areas of research on say, bac- book, Global Bioethics, which inte- teria, humans, animals and plants, grated a scientific view of the world those actually working in these areas with religious and philosophical sys- now tend to view the situation much tems. more fluidly. At the heart of this has However, Potter’s breadth of vision been the ever increasing focus on the for a form of bioethics which matched role of DNA in life processes. From a the breadth of biotechnology was soon scientific point of view the distinction supplanted by a much narrower view between, for example, ‘human genes’ dominated by medical researchers and and ‘animal genes’ is arbitrary. There ethicists. In 1976 Thomas Shannon may well be ‘genes which humans published his influential book have’ but at the most fundamental Bioethics2 in which he dealt with abor- level the genes are not perceived as tion, handicaps, euthanasia, the right intrinsically human or animal, DNA is to die and the treatment of the termi- simply DNA wherever it is found. nally ill, research on humans and The obvious reality is that gene informed consent. In the second edi- transfer is now possible in such a way that old distinctions are being called into question. Previously impenetrable 1 Van Rensselaer Potter, Bioethics: Bridge to barriers are now being crossed and the the Future (Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice old taxonomies of species and the dis- Hall, 1971). tinctions which have previously 2 Thomas Shannon, Bioethics (Mahwah: divided medical technology, animal Paulist 1976, 1981). 222 Brian Edgar tion in 1981 he added material on with issues concerning the beginning genetics and reproduction. He noted and ending of human life (abortion and that the study was complicated by the euthanasia), although some genetics interdisciplinary nature of the prob- issues did make an appearance, though lems and by the continuing advances of solely in terms of how it affected science, but defined bioethics as ‘a set humans. of ethical teachings related specifically In C. Christopher Hook, John F. Kil- to medicine’. ner, Diann B. Ustal (eds), Cutting Edge The new field of bioethics continued Bioethics: A Christian Exploration of on in the work of writers such as Ger- Technologies and Trends (Eerdmans ald Kelly, John Ford, Richard Publishing, 2002) there was almost a McCormick, Charles Curran, Daniel return to Van Rensselaer Potter’s orig- Maguire, and Daniel Callahan. In 1986 inal conception of bioethics. However, H. Tristram Englehardt Jr., produced it can hardly be said that since then The Foundations of Bioethics.3 In this bioethics as a whole reflects the area standard text, bioethics was essen- covered by biotechnology or deals with tially about health care for humans, the issues in the more integrated man- including issues such as the beginning ner it deserves. It is still dominated by and ending of human life. This was, the medical model. ‘Bioethics Mark II’ essentially, ‘Bioethics Mark I’. needs to be developed to draw its prin- There have been times when ciples from a wider ethical and theo- bioethics has come closer to taking on logical background. a broader perspective. In 1988 David What can be learned from the usual Suzuki and Peter Knudson wrote medical approach to bioethics is the Genethics: the ethics of engineering life.4 effectiveness of having a simple, yet This popularised the new term comprehensive set of principles which ‘genethic’ and was influential in help- establish the essential ground to be ing people think more broadly, but it covered in any discussion of a specific remained outside the field of issue. Bioethics Mark I has established ‘bioethics’. In 1991, for example, Fran- a set of four or five principles which cisco Javier Elizari Basterra’s provide a basis on which to consider Bioethics5 continued to treat ‘bioethics’ specific issues. These principles, in as medical ethics and little more. In one form or another, are well known 1996 Gilbert Meilander’s Bioethics among the medical community6 and (Eerdmans, 1996) still dealt primarily may be summarised briefly as: (1) beneficence (requiring actions which promote the good of the patient; (2) non-maleficence (prohibiting action H. Tristram Englehardt Jr, 3 The Foundations which will cause harm); (3) patient of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University, 1986). 4 David Suzuki and Peter Knudson, Genethics: the ethics of engineering life (Sydney: 6 One well known form of them was articu- Allen and Unwin, 1989). lated by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress 5 Francisco Javier Elizari Basterra, Bioethics in Principles of Biomedical Ethics (New York: (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1994) Oxford University Press, 1989). Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 223 autonomy (meaning that practitioners foundation for the whole field of gene should not interfere with the effective technology ethics. exercise of patient autonomy); (4) jus- tice (requiring that social benefits and costs be distributed fairly); (5) confi- Biotheological principles dentiality (patients are to retain control The present aim is to establish a set of of information generated in connection principles which will provide a frame- with their treatment). work for ethical and theological reflec- One can debate the value of these tion on all levels of life and being— principles and the concept of a princi- human, animal, plant and inanimate, pled approach in general. It can be both present and future. They are: (1) argued, for instance, that there is a ten- respecting the intrinsic value of all life; sion between respecting the freedom of (2) valuing human uniqueness; (3) pre- the person and securing their best serving organismal integrity; (4) rec- interests. In fact, there is a tendency ognizing ecological holism; (5) min- for the third principle to trump all the imising future liability; and (6) produc- others, which means, amongst other ing social benefit. things, that the practitioner is divested These principles operate in the of any significant ethical responsibil- same way as the biomedical principles ity. Nonetheless, the impact and the of beneficence, non-maleficence and so value of these principles should not be forth. That is, they do not automati- underestimated. Even though it is not cally provide an answer for all the spe- always clear precisely what they imply cific issues that can be raised, but they in a specific situation, they have pro- do provide a framework which controls vided an agenda and set the ground the form of the discussion and they pro- rules for discussion. vide guidelines as to the essential What is needed now is a new set of issues that need to be addressed. The principles which can perform the same following brief outline of the six princi- function for the new field of Bioethics ples can elaborate only briefly on the Mark II that these medical principles rationale for including the various prin- have performed for Bioethics Mark I. ciples and on the kind of issues they There is a need for a set of principles can address. which will provide a single, theologi- 7 cally sound and generally acceptable 1. Respecting the intrinsic value of all life The first biotheological principle 7 Interestingly, Christian theologians were opposes the idea that life forms have very involved in the early development of the value only as they have value for peo- field of bioethics in the 1970s, but that contri- ple. This is a fundamental principle bution has diminished over the years and which is in accord with an understand- bioethics has become, in many places, a secu- ing of the world as ‘creation’ rather lar field and the Christian contribution, where it exists, is reduced to an ethical commentary, than simply as ‘nature’. Value is and often the ethical dimension is reduced to derived from the fact of divine creation being purely utilitarian in form. and from God’s evaluation of the world 224 Brian Edgar as ‘good’ (Gen.1:31). This is a principle mechanically control the body’s move- which needs to be re-affirmed because ments. at various times it has been denied by Descartes’ mechanistic philosophy reductionist science, anthropocentric has been profoundly influential in the theology and Cartesian philosophy. modern era. Its anthropocentrism is The first of these is an understand- such that the natural world is seen as ing of life in purely physical terms, with existing to serve, be used and con- respect to DNA, the movement of sumed by humanity. This stands in atoms, molecules and nerves and so contrast to the biblical view of the forth. It effectively eliminates all value of the whole of creation and the human significance and intrinsic value expectation of the redemption of all for living things. The second is a theol- things. In recent times the anthro- ogy which operates from a point of view pocentrism of Cartesian philosophy which stresses the human soul to the has been challenged by zoocentric point where the value of other parts of approaches (the view that sentient God’s creation is diminished. While it [vertebrate] animals also have intrin- has been suggested that this is what sic value), biocentric attitudes (all liv- lies behind most of the ecological prob- ing beings have intrinsic value—they lems of the present8 it seems, without have a good of their own) and ecocen- denying all Christian culpability, that it tric philosophies (where the emphasis is the third approach which has been is on species and ecosystems having more damaging, albeit partly through intrinsic value, not only the individual influencing the Christian approach. organisms). The truth, and the limita- Descartes argued that the human tions, of these various approaches can body was simply a machine made out of best be integrated in a theocentric dead matter. The body operates not so approach in which the intrinsic value of much by what we would understand as all life is related to the life and action biological principles but by purely of God. mechanical principles. According to The theological challenge to anthro- his mechanical philosophy of matter pocentric tendencies can be related to nothing is inherently alive, neither recent shifts in trinitarian theology human bodies nor plants nor animals. towards stressing the sociality, the The life of the person lies entirely in diversity and the immanence of God; the immaterial soul which inhabits the this is in contrast to more traditional body and which controls the body approaches which tended to stress the through the pineal gland, a small gland unity, the hierarchy and the transcen- at the centre of the brain. Descartes dence of God. There is no fundamental believed that it moves, twisting and contradiction here, but a shift of turning, literally pulling strings that emphasis can significantly alter one’s understanding of the way value is derived from the life and action of God. Where hierarchy and transcendence 8 Peter Singer blames Christianity for the widespread presence of this kind of anthro- are stressed, the work of creation is pocentrism (See Animal Liberation (2nd ed.; traditionally associated with the London: Jonathan Cape, 1990). Father, and a hierarchy is created Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 225 within God (with the Father above health, life and growth depend upon Christ and the Spirit), and humanity the death of body cells. The unfettered (with male above female) and within reproduction of cells would lead very the created order (with humanity quickly to the death of the individual. above animals and animals above That is the problem of cancer. Built plants). into our individual lives is a death Recent trinitarian thinking has which allows life. Moreover, at the tended to shift the emphasis towards level of individual organisms (plants relationship and immanence and in and animals and persons), there is a terms of the created order this means a cycle of life which through degrada- greater recognition of the fact that cre- tion, corruption and composting—call ation is a wholly trinitarian process. it what you will—means that new life The Father creates through the Son in is made possible. the power of the Spirit; through the With regard to species, there also diversity of the Trinity it is possible to seems to be a value to extinction. re-discover the mystery of the presence While biodiversity has increased of God in the world, the community of (when one starts with few and simple human life and an existence of the there is only one way to go) there has world in God (see Prov. 8: 22-31; Col. always also been an associated loss of 1:15-20) which stresses the value of species. At times this has almost been the whole of creation and not merely catastrophic but this should not neces- the value of humanity. sarily be seen as entirely negative. This provides the basis for an eco- Large scale fluctuations are vital to the theology which values all species and dynamics of large systems and can forms of life and which supports their actually promote the development of care and conservation. However, a the- new and more robust species. Just as ology of creation requires as a corol- death is essential for individual mem- lary a theology of re-creation, the bers of any living community, so too transformation of the world by God. some loss of species may be a natural One cannot exist without the other. A and healthy aspect of the global com- Christological understanding of this munity of life. transformation involves the death of The theological material underpin- one entity to bring about another. This ning the principle of the intrinsic value applies not only spiritually (which of all life thus provides a prima facie includes the physical) but also scientif- case for defending all species and ically as any understanding of life believing that the environment is not rationally requires an understanding of simply a means to an end. However, it death. also provides evidence that this is a A theology of death recognizes, principle that should not be abso- amongst other things, that the world is lutised and which can legitimately be dynamic and changing and that God is seen as needing to be understood in a life-giver who leads the world on into relation to other principles. The point new ways of being through death. This is that the individual principles nomi- is consistent with the fact that at the nated here provide a good basis for level of individual cells a person’s good reflection but should not be seen as 226 Brian Edgar either absolute or as un-related to the A biotheological response to this others. Together, however, they do will deal with traditional anthropologi- provide a foundation on which to build. cal themes, such as the concept of the imago Dei and the notion of the soul, 2. Valuing human uniqueness but will do so in relation to other theo- logical principles relevant to valuing The principle of the intrinsic value of other forms of life. There are exegeti- all life is closely related to the second cal problems related to the imago Dei principle which emphasizes the unique which present difficulties when using intrinsic value attributed to the human this as a defence of human value in the person individually and as a species. public arena. There are very few scrip- The rationale for this, and the implica- tural references to it, and the concept tions of it, can be explored in a number itself, imago Dei, is not clearly defined of ways which illustrate the value of (Gen. 1:26-27; 5:1-3; 9: 5-6; 1 Cor.11:7; interpreting it in relation to the other James 3:9). five principles. The paucity of passages does not Firstly, it helps in understanding reflect its traditional theological sig- human life in relation to animal and nificance and whatever it means in any plant life. While the traditional Christ- more precise sense it does at least ian position on human life as having mean fairly clearly that there is some unique value retains currency, it has sense in which humanity is like God, also been characterised as ‘species- and that is a profound point to bear in ist’. This is a term coined by Richard mind. We are persons, not just animals Ryder and popularised by Peter Singer and not just robots; people able to and it is ‘a prejudice or attitude of bias enter into a personal relationship with towards the interests of members of God in a way that rocks, plants and ani- one’s own species and against those of mals cannot. The imago Dei does pro- 9 members of other species’. This view vide a basis for resisting accusations of seeks a Copernican revolution in species-ism, but questions remain con- ethics, displacing the human person cerning the nature of the traditional from the centre of concern. It is argued, Christian relationship of the relative on the one hand, that there is no objec- value and integrity of the human per- tive criteria for treating humans differ- son to that of plant and animal life. ently from animals, while on the other has generally hand it claims that sentience is an operated with a radical differentiation appropriate measure of value and of value between humanity and the rest therefore that certain intelligent ani- of the created order; there is often a de mals should be valued more than cer- facto hierarchical understanding of the tain humans (neonates or those seri- value of the rest of life which appears ously intellectually disabled). to derive from this initial distinction and which values dolphins more than bacteria and whales more than mice. 9 Cited in Richard Sylvan and David Bennett, What are the criteria used to justify The Greening of Ethics (Cambridge: White this? This is rapidly becoming a signif- Horse Press, 1994). icant issue in the face of both the Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 227 potential loss of many species from our field of neurochemistry bring about? world, and the presence of alternative Moreover, the process of merging philosophies of life. the mechanical with the biological has The history of the world suggests begun as machines are now implanted that there is an inherent movement into people and made acceptable to from simple to more complex forms of bodies through the use of various drugs life. Does this suggest that there is a which suppress the immune system’s hierarchy of value related to the com- rejection of them. There are trans- plexity and richness of an organism’s humanists who are looking towards a experience? Does this place humans at shift in human nature, moving perhaps the top with amoeba at the bottom, and towards a post-human condition, as other animals located variously well as bioconservatives who see between with whales, dolphins and trans-human initiatives as nothing great apes closer to the top? The real- other than de-humanising tendencies. ity of the complexity and richness of What are the implications of trying experience in evidence in some ani- to modify personality characteristics mals (including relationships, con- so that people are more or less loving, sciousness, language, the use of tools, kind, generous, peaceful, angry, evil, feelings and affection) needs to be selfish or depressed? Not everything related to both of the principles dis- that has been suggested as being pos- cussed so far—the intrinsic value of all sible will actually materialize, but obvi- things and the unique value attributed ously significant physical changes are to persons—in order to be able to ade- going to be possible, and significant quately present a Christian view on aspects of personality will be affected. specific issues relating to animals and To attempt to eliminate from the the environment. human character attitudes such as The second area that the principle ‘hate’ or ‘anger’ which cause fighting, of human uniqueness can address strife and war is to attempt the impos- relates to the acceptable parameters sible. Such attitudes are ‘context spe- for future human life. The re-creation cific’—that is, hate and anger can be of the self has started: changing the good and proper attitudes in certain form of our bodies though surgery, circumstances. We may be angry pre- chemicals, hormone-producing cisely because we love God or justice or implants, prosthetic limbs, organ our neighbour who is suffering. To transplants, xenotransplantation, arti- eliminate anger is to eliminate love. ficial hearts, pacemakers, bionic ears Any genetic process which eliminates and, soon perhaps, the replacement of anger has effectively ‘killed’ the per- damaged optic nerves in blind people son—even if there is still a body. It is with electronic technology to restore possible that technology will find new vision. Gene therapy and neurological ways of killing people—there is noth- medication can treat mental disorders ing new in that! But I don’t believe that and alter sexual orientation—changes the extreme forms of modification that which affect not only the body but also some people look for, or fear, will even- personality. What further changes will tuate. Yet this is not to say that there developments in the rapidly changing will not be areas of new discovery and 228 Brian Edgar for some time, areas of controversy. change and be sharper or less clear Responses to these two issues con- depending on the conditions) relational cerning the relationship of human life (based on the reference in Gen. 1:26 to to animal and plant life, and the limits being made as essentially relational of future human nature, will be influ- beings—male and female) and teleolog- enced by the way in which the concept ical (the image is seen as a future pos- of the imago Dei is developed. Tradi- sibility or a goal, something which is to tionally, there have been two broad cat- be formed by Christ in us, as in Rom. egories of interpretation. 8:29). The first sees the image as substan- The more relational and dynamic tial: this view holds that the imago Dei view of the image is not grounded so is imprinted on the person as an image much in a theology of creation as it is in is impressed on a coin. The image is a theology of redemption. It suggests thus of some characteristic imprinted that the reason that there is a difficulty on the human person which is intrinsic in determining which human charac- to who we are. The only issue to be teristic is the defining aspect of the resolved is precisely what that is, image of God in us is precisely because whether it is our personality, creativ- it is not something to be defined in ity, rationality, spirituality or some- terms of any one aspect of us. The thing else. The second sees the image image is not a past tense but a future as functional: this view holds that the element and it is formed in us in our imago Dei is found in the exercise of being human in being all that we are. ‘dominion’ and ‘stewardship’ of the There is not one specific characteristic rest of creation (Gen. 1:28). It can be which makes us human; instead, God is considered to be a sub-set of the first found in us in the whole of life. It is a view if this particular responsibility is destiny, a direction, a destination seen more as a consequence of being rather than a statement about our ori- made in the image of God than being gin. the image itself. Of course, it is quite possible to see Both these approaches are strongly that the two elements, the substantial related to a theology of creation (this is and creational on the one hand and the the way that God has made humanity dynamic and eschatological on the other and, by implication, it ought not to be are not necessarily to be opposed or changed by humanity) and it is there- seen as alternates. They can be syn- fore generally taken as a limitation on thesised. Yet, in terms of working any sort of attempt to modify human through the implications of the princi- nature. Cloning, human transgenics, ples outlined here, it is clear that an cybernetics and so forth are therefore emphasis on the latter may well generally reckoned to be inappropri- encourage some to see a justification ate. for enhancing, developing and chang- In more recent years a different ing human nature in a way that the strand of interpretation has become more conservative, creational theology much more prominent. It views the would typically not allow. Once again, image as being more dynamic (more the principles do not simply provide an like an image in a mirror which can immediate answer to every situation, Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 229 but they do provide a way which might ucts which contain therapeutic pro- lead to discussion of the issues in an teins or greater nutritional value; and appropriate context which ensures to improve livestock quality. But, of that a comprehensive biotheology can course, one could be much more spec- develop. ulative and imagine all kinds of genetic modifications of a less serious but 3. Preserving organismal more popular nature relating to the integrity modification of pets. Do some things have a right not to This principle of preserving organis- be genetically engineered? Is it appro- mal integrity begins by repudiating priate to produce a genetically modi- reductionist notions which deny the fied blue rose? One could argue for this significance of those higher levels of on the basis of aesthetics (it will look life and consciousness which occur lovely) or utility (it will do good) and when certain levels of complexity of this will often involve an anthropocen- life are achieved. Positively, the princi- tric perspective (is it good for people?). ple affirms the notion that greater On the other hand one could consider value resides in individual organisms the intrinsic nature of the rose: is this understood as a whole. It is a case of good for the roses? If it is satisfactorily the whole being more than the sum of its parts. This means that a description argued that the introduction of a blue of people, plants and animals solely in gene does not destroy the integrity of terms of genetic and biological struc- the rose, the question remains as to tures is inadequate. All life forms need what change would damage it, and how to be understood in terms of the organ- we would know when that occurred. ism’s level of ability to exist, act and, And if genes from a rose were crossed potentially, to be aware. with genes from a mouse would there Once again, the practical ramifica- be a greater level of concern for the tions of this principle have to be integrity of the mouse? worked out both in relation to specific Qualitative research on attitudes to issues and in relation to the other prin- gene technology shows that public con- ciples. Mention has already been made cerns not only involve the usual mat- of the possibilities inherent in gene ters of the physical and health risks technology and this is an issue that is related to a new technology, but also going to become even more significant extend to a deeper, more existential in the twenty-first century. Some of the level of concern about the meaning of more common reasons for producing human nature and the contravention of genetically modified animals are: to fundamental order in the natural research genes in order to understand world.10 It has been suggested that peo- more about their function and regula- tion; to provide animals which can model the effects of new medical and 10 There should be no surprise at this, espe- genetic treatments; to provide organs cially not from scientists who, themselves are and tissues for human transplant very concerned with finding order in the nat- surgery; to produce milk or other prod- ural world. 230 Brian Edgar ple have a sense of given order which which we ourselves are a fairly recent is radically challenged by the possibili- product’.13 ties inherent in gene technology and, What is certain is that we are especially, the novelty of trans-species approaching a radically new point in gene transfer.11 This existential con- history at which we possess a new cern was expressed in the title of a gov- power, often referred to as the power of ernment report, ‘Fish don’t lay toma- co-creation. Human decisions are now toes, do they?’12 a critical factor in the continuing func- The area that probably causes the tioning of the planet’s systems and in greatest concern is the animal-human preserving and extending (or diminish- boundary. Historically, anxiety about ing) the integrity of God’s creation. maintaining the animal-human bound- This principle argues against the ary was a major source of opposition to unfettered modification of organisms Darwin’s theory of evolution and the and species. The integrity of organisms same anxiety was evident in the debate as entities must be respected. How- over cowpox vaccination. Yet species ever, it would premature to conclude boundaries are not necessarily unchal- that the value of organismal integrity lengeable. The definitions of species absolutely rules out genetic modifica- are often arbitrary. But the breeding tion. It does introduce a critically boundary is a real (though not important attitude of care and respect absolute) one. Some would argue that for all life forms, but none of the prin- evolutionary development means that ciples outlined here should be abso- one ‘may understand species as provi- lutised. sional and fluid collections of individu- This biotheological principle needs als, each species playing its part in a to be correlated with the values inher- developing process, initiated by God of ent in the other five. Just as the first two principles are particularly related (the value of the human person can be understood only in the context of the intrinsic value of all living things) so 11 It has also been suggested that despite this there is also a feeling that in certain cir- too this principle which defends the cumstances some modifications may be justi- integrity of individual organisms has to fied—provided that the purposes are the right be interpreted in close relation to the ones. But also that there is a fair degree of cyn- fourth principle which affirms an over- icism and fatalism that such conditions are all cohesion to life as a whole, a princi- unlikely to be met and that more dramatic and ple which, as will be shown, places the less justifiable changes will occur. See Celia Deane-Drummond et al, “Genetically Modified life of the individual organism in a Theology: The Religious Dimensions of Public broader context. Concern about Agricultural Biotechnology”, in Studies in Christian Ethics (Vol. 14, No 2), pages 23-41. 12 Commonwealth of Australia, ‘A Caution- ary tale: Fish don’t lay tomatoes, do they?’ A 13 Biotechnology and Biological Research report on the Gene Technology Bill 2000 Council, Ethics, Morality and Animal Biotech- (November 2000). nology, (2000), 13. Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 231

4. Recognizing ecological for soybean and humans.14 Clearly, the holism boundaries between species are going The fourth principle recognizes the to be blurred if distinctions are made connectedness of all life and opposes purely on the basis of a single percent- those approaches which unjustifiably age. In fact, the actual level of similar- isolate or preference certain parts of ity in DNA is not a good indicator of dif- the created order. The most common ferences between species as there can tendency in this regard is to attribute be a large difference in phenotypic greater value to those parts of the nat- expression (that is, the outward, phys- ural world which have attraction to ical manifestation of the entity) even people, and to attribute lesser value to when there is a strong DNA similarity. those parts of the world which appear The general point remains, how- to have little relationship or attraction ever, that life is united and the power to people. The principle of recognizing of DNA, which is only just being ecological holism works against such explored, has made it into an icon for anthropocentrically dominated views. life itself. In popular culture DNA func- Taking an ecologically holistic per- tions as a secular equivalent of the spective means recognizing that life is soul—as an independent, apparently best understood as a whole, and that immortal, self-replicating dimension of the various life forms are intimately the person which is fundamental to related and mutually dependent upon identity, differentiation and character. each other. Life is organised in a series DNA profoundly affects our life, the of nested systems in which the whole is age at which we die and the health we greater than the sum of its parts, not have; it determines our sexuality and least because of the significance of the affects the way it is expressed. Our interactions between the parts. Life genes have a continual influence on can properly be understood only from a our personality and perhaps even our perspective which embraces the whole. religiosity. To some extent DNA is des- At the physical level, one of the uni- tiny. There should be no surprise that fying principles for life is DNA. As time in some places DNA seem to be the goes by, more and more bioethics locus of the true self’.15 revolves around DNA and the concept From a theological point of view of the gene. DNA links animal, veg- etable and human life. Presently there is a trend towards relating organisms 14 Figures based on overlap in DNA for beta according to the levels of DNA similar- chain of haemoglobin that consists of a 146 ity. For example there is a 99.4% simi- amino acid residue. The actual figures for total larity of DNA between gorillas and overlap of genomes will differ from overlap in humans, 82.9% for cattle and humans, DNA that codes for beta chain; they may be 54.2% for frogs and humans, 14.4% higher or lower. http://users.rcn.com/jkim- ball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Taxon- lampreys (jawless fish) and humans, omy.html. 13.1% sea slug and humans and 15.1% 15 Dorothy Nelkin & M. Susan Lindee, The DNA Mystique: the gene as cultural icon (New York: Freeman and Co., 1995). 232 Brian Edgar everything is indeed connected and has which has developed in international to be seen and understood holistically, environmental law known as ‘the pre- not primarily because of DNA but cautionary principle’. It is based on the because God is All in all and everything concept of taking anticipatory action to is connected to him (Col. 1:15-17). The prevent possible harm in situations principle of totality operates here: the where there is some scientific uncer- part exists for the whole and therefore tainty about the outcomes. It is a prin- the good of the part exists for the good ciple which emerged in German law in of the whole. And all things hold the 1970s (as a result of pollution that together because they are ‘in Christ’. was crossing national boundaries). The principle of holism encourages the Since the 1980s various forms have exploration of the relationship of theo- been introduced in multilateral and logical connectedness and physical international declarations and proto- relationships in the natural world. cols. It is a principle which can be applied in a wide range of situations, from oil exploration to genetic modifi- 5. Minimising future liability cations. The fifth principle takes a move away The exact form of the principle is from the kind of values expressed in debatable, but the 1992 Rio Declara- the first four principles in which there tion on Environment and Development is an attempt to appropriately relate defines it in this way, ‘Where there are together the significance of the breadth threats of serious or irreversible envi- of life in all its dimensions. These first ronmental damage lack of full scien- four principles which operate, so to tific certainty should not be used as a speak, ‘horizontally’ need to be related reason for postponing cost-effective to a principle which connects life ‘ver- measures to prevent environmental tically’—a connectedness of life degradation.’ There is debate about the through time. The world of today extent to which it should be applied in emerges out of the past and is the basis international law (with Europe gener- of the future. ally being more favourable to it than This principle speaks to us of the the USA) and about what ‘certainty’ responsibilities we have for the future. involves and about the degree of pre- This is a principle which expresses caution involved, but many countries both caution and hope. It is formed in have used it in specific pieces of legis- terms of ‘minimising future liability’ lation related to the environment. The rather than ‘maximising future poten- Australian Government has incorpo- tial’. It could be argued that the latter rated it in twenty-seven different is a more appropriate way of ensuring pieces of legislation. benefit for future generations, but max- The precautionary principle has imising any kind of return also application in many areas relating to increases the risk factor and the speed the environment. It has obvious rele- of development today is such that a vance to any consideration of gene more conservative, precautionary atti- technology. The possibility of unin- tude is to be preferred. tended consequences has to be consid- This is consistent with an approach ered when dealing with, for instance, Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 233 genetically modified crops. The possi- tors to ‘do good’ is actually over- bility of accidental gene flow with whelmed in practice by the principle of impact on other species and the possi- patient autonomy. The practitioner is bility of unintended and ecologically under great pressure to accede to damaging traits has to be recognized. patient wishes in every situation, and A conservative approach to this tech- not to do so seems to be ‘unethical’ as nology is preferable. Recalling a defec- it would conflict with the principle of tive vehicle is possible but recalling a autonomy. Even if a doctor considers problem gene is not. that a particular course of action is not An awareness of (a) God’s appreci- good or helpful they usually feel an ation of his creation; (b) his concern for obligation to employ it if the patient all generations; and (c) his desire to wishes it. As a consequence, medical lead his people into the future means practitioners easily become non-ethi- that it is theologically appropriate to cal dispensers of medical services in have an ethic driven largely by respect which all the principles relating to for future generations. ‘Let us think of ‘good’, ‘bad’ and ‘justice’ are inter- the world’s children when we reflect on preted by reference to what the indi- and evaluate our options for action.’16 vidual patient determines them to be. This is an important principle which The same danger potentially exists ought to be a part of all biotheological with the more corporately framed bio- discussions. theological principles. ‘Social benefit’ could become simply anything which a simple majority of the community 6. Producing social benefit wants. The fundamental problem in The final principle insists that the ulti- both situations emerges when one mate purposes of biotechnological principle is allowed to trump the rest. developments are of crucial impor- It is important, therefore, that the bio- tance. This principle resists biotechno- theological principles outlined here logical development for trivial pur- should be seen as operating in a more poses or for economic gain at the cost dynamic, egalitarian and interactive of social benefit. The difficulties inher- manner. ent in this principle, and the more gen- The difficulties involved in the eral problem of operating with such a process of assessing social benefit may set of principles, can be illustrated by be illustrated by an unusual situation reference to the biomedical principles with regard to the regulation of gene of beneficence, non-malificence, manipulation in Australia. All dealings patient autonomy and justice referred with genetic material have to be to earlier. licensed by the Office of the Gene Tech- The principle which requires doc- nology Regulator. The Regulator has to follow a prescribed process of deter- mination with regard to whether an action is permissible. As a result of 16 Common Declaration on Environmental Ethics—Common declaration of John Paul II public discussion at the setting up of and the Ecumenical Patriarch His Holiness the governing act of parliament the Bartholomew I, June, 2002. Regulator is now not permitted to take 234 Brian Edgar

‘social benefit’ into account when mak- methodology that other ethical ing a determination—precisely approaches and values are rarely taken because of concerns for the commu- into account. The use of the six princi- nity. This somewhat paradoxical ples nominated here would provide a approach means that, in theory, any way for social benefit to be related to genetic modification, no matter how other factors, including an understand- socially trivial or ridiculous or horrify- ing of intrinsic value which is not ing can be approved as long as it fits grounded in utility. The principle of the general guidelines and can be social benefit needs to take into the shown to be safe. account the breadth covered by the var- The reason for this is that while ious principles. It also needs to avoid those who established the Act were being constrained by national bound- concerned that there could be a trivial- aries and to deal with need wherever it isation of a serious process, they were exists. more worried that if ‘social benefit’ was included as a justification for undertaking a particular process that Conclusion and Continuation it could end up trumping all other con- Biotheology is a valid and necessary siderations. It was argued that if the field of theological endeavour and perceived benefit was small there these six principles have the potential would be a conservative attitude to provide ethical cohesion and theo- towards approvals. But if the perceived logical structure to discussions on benefit was considered to be very biotechnology and bioethics. They will large—perhaps a cure for cancer— not, by themselves, automatically that there would be a temptation for resolve ethical dilemmas but they do the Regulators to take more of a risk serve to establish the essential para- with a gene modification proposal than meters and principles which ought to they would have done if the assumed frame the discussion. Further work benefit was less significant. Indeed, if needs to take place in two ways. ‘social benefit’ was built into the regu- Firstly, in terms of the application of lations as a factor to be considered these principles to specific issues and, they would perhaps be required to con- secondly, in terms of fundamental the- sider taking a greater level of risk. So ological issues which these principles the decision was that it was in the com- raise. It is possible at this point only to munity interest to omit reference to briefly outline what I perceive to be the community interest! three most critical theological issues Given the utilitarian atmosphere of which have emerged in this discussion. most public debate one can see the The first concerns developing an logic of this. However, it is hard to see understanding of the nature of God’s that in the long term, community bene- action in the world. This is a question fit will be enhanced if there is no dis- that is often expressed negatively in cussion of what it actually involves. terms of the conviction that humanity The real problem that needs to be should not be ‘playing God’ with gene addressed is that public ethical debate technology or euthanasia or geneti- is typically so focused on utilitarian cally modified crops. It is possible to Biotheology: Theology, Ethics and the New Biotechnologies 235 identify initially three categories of possibilities inherent in the new response to this. biotechnologies do not fundamentally One view interprets humanity as alter the principle that humans are to creatures responsible to live according act responsibly as pro-creators, but it to God’s wishes and plans and with lit- does seriously extend the sphere of tle or no right to intervene and ‘play human influence and the specific pos- God’ by changing aspects of life and sibilities. This is an understanding of nature. Another view argues that peo- the human role which is perhaps less ple have now become co-creators with definitive than either of the previous God.17 That is, God has intentionally alternatives. It recognizes both divine brought into being a creature who rep- and human responsibility and deserves resents a new stage of freedom and further consideration. who acts as co-creator to participate in The second area for work concerns the intentional fulfilment of God’s pur- the meaning of being human in the light poses. This is a view in which human- of technologies which can modify ity is a very active participant in chang- human nature or mix human, animal ing the world and it believes that and plant characteristics. It is now of humanity is, in fact, required to ‘play great importance that the person not God’ in the sense of playing a God- be interpreted purely from the point of given role in the management of this view of a western individualism where world (Gen.1:28). This is a claim that the person is defined in terms of an is deservedly being given considerable independent, autonomous, self-actuat- attention, but if the first view says too ing, self-fulfilling entity. little about human responsibility this What it means to be human must be one has the potential to say too much. considered from the individual level, To be designated ‘co-creator’ with God the social level and the species level. is to forget the power and the danger Bioethics has focused on the first of inherent in sin. these with some forays into the second, A third approach suggests that it is but the second and third are going to preferable to use a more traditional increase in importance in the light of term in a slightly modified way. That biotechnological developments. Ques- is, we are pro-creators before God. In tions about the boundaries of individ- the usual sense ‘to procreate’ means to ual life (at the beginning of life with bear children, and in that sense regard to embryos and at the end of life humanity has always had, under God, with regard to euthanasia) will soon be the power to create life. Just as it has joined by serious questions about the always had the power to kill and so end boundaries of humanity in social rela- life. ‘Pro-creators’ are those who, like tionship to other persons (to what a ‘pro-consul’, stand in the place of extent can we artificially share genes, another, yet under their authority. The modify personality and relationships and select aspects of human form and nature?) and species (what are the lim- 17 P. Hefner, The Human Factor: Evolution, its of gene transfer and what are the Culture and Religion (Minneapolis: Fortress, limits of being human?). 1993). The third critical biotheological 236 Brian Edgar issue relates to the way that we under- up with this. Scientists operating at the stand the value and the order of the molecular level see high levels of simi- natural world. Any new technology larity in DNA between apparently dif- produces a degree of public uncer- ferent species to the extent that some tainty about the value of change and argue that the concept of species is no the levels of risk. However, certain longer appropriate and that proscrib- areas of biotechnology appear to create ing the crossing of species borders on higher levels of existential angst and the grounds that it is unnatural seems scientifically indefensible. More theo- this occurs when it seems that signifi- logical discussion needs to take place cant aspects of the order of the world regarding the significance of perceived are being challenged. Of particular order and boundaries within the world. concern is the human-other organism This brief exploration reveals the boundary. As previously noted, when extent of the territory to be covered in that previously impenetrable boundary biotheology. Unless the many and var- is challenged serious questions ied dimensions of this field of study are emerge, and the more a technology integrated it will forever be disadvan- contravenes the perceived order the taged. It is hoped that the six princi- more it is resisted. ples nominated here will provide a Cultural issues are undoubtedly tied guide for future travellers.

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WWW.IL.PROQUEST.COM ERT (2006) 30:3, 237-248 Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey

Dr. Bonjour Bay

KEYWORDS: Pneumatology, Holy glossolalia or miraculous healing as Spirit, glossolalia, Pentecostal move- extraordinary experiences. It is very ment, Spirit baptism, mysticism, evident that the matter of glossolalia is physical phenomena, Holiness move- one of the important issues of contem- ments, cessationism porary churches theologically and phe- nomenologically. Speaking in other tongues has 1. Introduction greatly influenced not only the tradi- tional Pentecostal denominations but THE matter of glossolalia (speaking in also the Reformed churches and Wes- other tongues) has been a hot issue in leyan-Holiness groups. In fact, Korean pneumatological controversies Reformed and Wesleyan-Holiness the- since 1960.1 Nowadays there are many ological traditions have dealt with the people who speak in other tongues in matter negatively for a long time, many denominations, and this phe- resulting in serious disharmony nomenon is very popular world-wide. between pastoral and theological In most parts of Africa and of South fields. America, people no longer regard the On the other hand, classical Pente- costalism has always focused on the glossolalia as the initial sign of Spirit 1 For more about the conflicts in the baptism. However, in spite of the grow- Reformed area which have been the core of ing tendency to practise glossolalia, Korean pneumatological controversies, refer most of the churches now seem to to Bonjour Bay, HanGukGyoHoiWa Sung- LyungSeLei (Korean Church and the Spirit Bap- regard it as one of the spiritual gifts tism) (Anyang: Sungkyul University Press, rather than the sign of the Spirit bap- 2004), pp. 75-140. tism. This raises questions about the

Dr. Bonjour Bay is Professor of Church History and Chief Chaplain at SungKyul University, AnYang City, Korea. A researcher in spiritual movements, he holds a PhD from Seoul Theological University, and has published many articles on spirituality, renewal and pneumatology, including SungLyungSeLei (Korean Church and the Spirit Baptism) (Sungkyul University Press, 2004) and GaiSinGyo SungLyungLonWi YergSa (A History of Protestant Pneumatology) (SungKyul University Press, 2003). This paper was presented at the Third International Conference on Evangelical Theology, Sunkyul University, Anyang City, Korea Sept 30- Oct1, 2005. 238 Bonjour Bay way the pastoral and theological per- ple in the Wesleyan Holiness group spectives can be reconciled. who already confessed that they were This paper will present points for ‘wholly sanctified’ yet this experience the answer to these issues rather than did not seem to produce a dynamic give a definitive solution. It will pre- working of God in their lives, and any sent and evaluate historically the mat- accompanying ‘power for service’. ter of glossolalia in the Korean context. Moreover, many among the Holiness Now, I believe, is the time for pursuing camp had experiences in which they the theological answer that will har- claimed to have received special power monize the matter within a pastoral for service subsequent to entire sancti- context among Reformed, Wesleyan fication. As a result, the position was and Pentecostal heritages. advanced that the second blessing was entire sanctification. This was to be followed by a subsequent third bless- 2. The Late Nineteenth ing which was the baptism of the Holy Century: Trends in America Spirit.3 before glossolalia was The most radical of the Wesleyan- introduced into the Korean Holiness movements was the Fire-Bap- tized Holiness Church, which had its Church beginning in 1895, and the founder of Spiritual movements that stressed which was Benjamin Hardin Irwin. glossolalia were derived from Wes- Being a studious young man, he began leyan-Holiness and Reformed move- to examine the Scriptures and the writ- ments in late nineteenth century Amer- ings of John Wesley and those of his ica. The earlier was the Wesleyan-Holi- colleague, John Fletcher. Irwin was ness Movement. To search for the ori- most influenced by the writings of gin of that movement, there first needs Fletcher, who seemed to teach an expe- to be an understanding of ‘the Third rience following sanctification, some- Blessing’. The Third Blessing was a times called a ‘baptism of burning love’ radical thought which was mainly although more often the terminology brought in from the Wesleyan-Holiness ‘baptism with the Holy Ghost and Fire’ 2 group. There seemed to be some peo- was used. Fletcher also taught that one could receive several baptisms, if such were needed. In other passages he 2 Representative writings on this subject spoke of those who were ‘baptized with were Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal fire’ and thereby ‘endued with power Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids, from on high’.4 These and other state- Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1981), and also Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Movements in the Twentieth Century (Grand 3 Richard Gilbertson, The Baptism of the Holy Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publish- Spirit (Camp Hill, Pennsylvania: Christian ing Co., 1997). The Korean translation of the Publications, 1993), p. 149. latter book was YoungHun Lee and MyungSoo 4 Joseph Benson, The Life of the Rev. John W. Park (tr.), SeGe i SungGyulUnDongEi YergSa De La Flechere (London: John Mason, 1838), p. (Seoul: Seoul MalSSumSa, 2000). 146. quote from Wood, Wesleyan Theological Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey 239 ments led Irwin to conclude that there ‘the blood that cleans up, the Holy was a third experience beyond sanctifi- Ghost that fills up, the fire that burns cation called ‘the baptism with the up, and the dynamite that blows up’. In Holy Ghost and Fire’ or simply ‘the addition to this, he maintained that fire’.5 man might see the physical manifesta- The main wing of the holiness move- tion when the Holy Spirit was out- ment denounced the doctrine as ‘the poured.7 The Fire-Baptized Holiness third blessing heresy’ and forbade its Church served as an important link in being preached in their churches. the chain that later produced the mod- Despite this opposition, the ‘Fire-Bap- ern Pentecostal movement. tized’ movement continued to grow, Charles F. Parham, a supply pastor especially in the rural areas of the Mid- in the Methodist Episcopal Church, dle West and South.6 Irwin organised was well acquainted with the teaching the Fire-Baptized Holiness Associa- of entire sanctification as the Second tions in Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Blessing. In the 1890s, he began to In 1899, the first issue of Live Coals receive the more radical teaching of the of Fire appeared. With Irwin as editor, holiness movement, ‘faith healing as a and a Canadian, A. E. Robinson, as part of the atonement’ and ‘baptism printing assistant, the paper was dis- with Holy Ghost and fire’, as the Third tributed throughout the United States. Blessing. It was Parham who first sin- It was the first publication in the nation gled out ‘glossolalia’ as the only evi- that taught that the baptism of the dence of one’s having received the bap- Holy Ghost and Fire was subsequent to tism with the Holy Ghost, and who sanctification. Although the Fire-Bap- taught that it should be a part of nor- tized movement did not teach that the mal Christian worship rather than a glossolalia was the initial evidence of curious by-product of religious enthu- receiving the baptism with the Holy siasm.8 It was his teaching that laid the Spirit, those phenomena were quite doctrinal and experimental founda- common among those who received tions of the modern Pentecostal move- ‘the fire’. W. E. Fullers, a Negro minis- ment. His influence brought worldwide ter, wrote to the Live Coals of Fire about expansion of Pentecostal faith which directly connected the glossolalia with Spirit Baptism.

Journal (Spring, 1999), 25-6; refer to Laurence 3. Before and after 1930s: W. Wood, ‘Pentecostal Sanctification in Wes- ley and Early Methodism’, Wesleyan Theologi- Lack of Understanding of cal Journal (Spring, 1999), Vol.34. No.1, pp. Glossolalia 31-9. There are hardly any references to 5 J. H. King, ‘History of the Fire-Baptized Holiness Church’, The Pentecostal Holiness Advocate (March 24, 1921), p. 4. 6 Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal 7 Gilbertson, Baptism of the Holy Spirit, p. Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids, 150. Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 8 Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement 1981), p. 63. in the United States, p. 99. 240 Bonjour Bay glossolalia in the Korean church from did not strongly deny glossolalia,10 it her establishment in the 1880s to was evident that he placed great 1900. Furthermore, little description emphasis on the ‘power for service’ as of glossolalia can be found in the obser- well as the fruit of the Holy Spirit. vations of some of the missionaries The tendency to link Spirit baptism who led the Korean revival after 1903. directly with glossolalia first occurred However most of them seemed to shy in the ‘glossolalia sect’ before and after away from direct expression of glosso- 1930. The ‘Glossolalia sect’ was a lalia because Presbyterian and group of people who highlighted glos- Methodist missionaries stood in a doc- solalia, and who were affected by trinal tradition in which there was no American and English Pentecostal room for the gift of glossolalia. missionaries arriving in Korea from There was a rapidly growing inter- 1928 to 1931. However, their activities est in pneumatology since 1903 were strongly rejected by the mainline because of the influence of the revival denominations in Korea such as Pres- movement in places like GaiSung and byterian, Methodist and SungKyul WonSan. So pneumatology was a very (Holiness). Meanwhile, the contempo- important subject for all the revival rary syncretistic revivalists such as meetings of Presbyterian churches in GukJoo Hwang, MyungHwa Ryu and PyungYang, and the PyungYang Pres- NamJoo Baik11 expanded the religious byterian Seminary considered pneuma- pluralistic spiritual movement by intro- tology as a necessary subject in the ducing false revelations, tongue speak- curriculum. While there was no appro- ing and prophecy from other oriental priate pneumatology textbook that religious systems.12 was suitable for the seminarians, Pneu- matology [SungLyungLon] written by OkMyung Ga, the Chinese professor (together with his other systematic 10 OkMyung Ga’s following sentences denoted that seeking the sign of Spirit Bap- writings), had been read by the tism, he stressed the more accurate sign tran- PyungYang Presbyterian seminarians scending glossolalia rather than denied it since before the 1930s. Therefore it is totally; ‘the sign is not only the glossolalia’ (p. clear that this book has important sig- 103), ‘how can we say that only glossolalia is nificance in understanding the pneu- the sign?’ (104), ‘how can we insist that only matological history of the Korean glossolalia is the sign?’ (p. 104), ‘Spirit Bap- tism cannot be signed only by glossolalia’ (p. church. In this book, OkMyung Ga said 104) that the sign of Spirit baptism was not 11 For more study about these persons, refer only glossolalia but also spiritual to Bonjour Bay, ‘A Historical Insight for the virtue, spiritual ability, spiritual power Radical Pneumatologies in Korea’, Sung- and spiritual fruit.9 While Professor Ga GyungGoa SinHag (Bible and Theology), Vol. 20 (1996), pp. 436-7. 12 For instance, refer to the writings of O. E. Goddard who was the secretary of foreign mis- 9 OkMyung Ga, SungLyungLon (Pneumatol- sion of Southern Methodist and of MyungJik ogy), JaeMyun Jeong (tr.), W. D. Reynolds Lee the SungKyul Reverend; O. E. Goddard, (sup.) (PyungYang: Presbyterian Seminary, ‘Receive the Fulness of Holy Spirit’, SinHak- 1931), p. 104. SeGe (Theology World) 13-2 (1928), 51-2; Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey 241

4. After the 1960s: rience can occur at a different stage Glossolalia as the Main Issue from the other.15 He also emphasizes that when a man receives the Holy of Pneumatology Spirit, he must receive it as an authen- 13 The Assemblies of God, the most rep- tic experience. If a person is not certain resentative Pentecostal denomination, whether he has received the Holy Spirit had a general meeting for organising or not, he should fight a ceaseless men- the Korean work with Arthur B. Chest- tal warfare to reach certainty. Then he nut, the missionary of Assemblies of would become a bold gospel witness. God US, in the chair. This meeting Cho says that when someone wants to decided that the Articles of the Assem- lead another person to receive this blies of God in Korea would follow the experience, certainty that the experi- Articles of the American parent body. ence is authentic can be reached only Since the 1960s, the Assemblies of when there is a physical manifestation, God in Korea has grown rapidly due to that is, ‘thing[s] you now hear and the influence of the Rev. Yonggi Cho; see’.16 The question now arises as to his Yoido Full Gospel Church has what is the evidence that a person has become the biggest local church in the received the Holy Spirit? It is at this world. The Assemblies of God in Korea point that Cho introduced glossolalia identifies the emphasis on glossolalia as the typical outward sign.17 as one of the fundamental features of Three broad streams of pneuma- Pentecostalism, in accordance with tologies appeared in this period. The the tradition of Assemblies of God in first was the Pentecostal movement, 14 the United States. the second was the Presbyterian spiri- Rev. Yonggi Cho, as a leading tual movement, and the third was the Korean Pentecostal who maintains the Holiness spiritual movement. While classical position on Spirit Baptism, the Pentecostal movement was the teaches that Spirit baptism is a totally most characteristic, the other two different experience from regenera- pneumatologies appeared in the tion. He believes both experiences may Korean context as a reaction against happen simultaneously, or each expe- the Pentecostal movement. The main characteristic of the Pen- tecostal pneumatology was the mani- festation of the Holy Spirit (cf. 1 Cor. MyungJik Lee, ‘Speak in Other Tongue When We Receive Holy Spirit?’, HwalChon No. 97 12:7) such as glossolalia, prophecy, (1930.12), 2; MyungJik Lee, ‘How Can We Experience Sanctification?’, HwalChon No. 148 (1935.3), 8. 13 The denomination established by William 15 Yonggi Cho, SungLyungLon (Pneumatol- H. Durham with his supporters at Hot Springs, ogy) (Seoul: YoungSan Pub., 1971), p. 139. Arkansas in 1914. 16 Yonggi Cho, OJungBogUmGwa SamBagJa 14 Full Gospel Education Institute (ed.), ChukBog (Five-fold Gospel and Three-beat Bless- HaNaNimWi SungHoi GyoHoiSa (History of the ing) (Seoul: Seoul Books, 1994), p. 154. Assemblies of God) (Seoul: Seoul Books, 1987), 17 Yonggi Cho, OJungBogUmGwa SamBagJa pp. 148-9. ChukBog, pp. 117-8. 242 Bonjour Bay and miracle etc., and their use as tools Holy Spirit, especially whether it is for evangelism and church growth. instantaneous or continuous. Mostly Confronting them, orthodox Reformed pneumatology has focused on the inward fruit of Holy provided a theological basis which Spirit. The Holiness group stressed the resulted in a negative criticism of glos- believer’s repentance and instanta- solalia. For example, Abraham neous sanctification which were Kuiper19 emphasized that it was never enforced from the time of the primitive expected that the Holy Spirit would Korean church. again be manifested in the same way as Following the rapid growth of the at Pentecost again in view of the Yoido Full Gospel Church, which might omnipresence, continuity and be attributed particularly to the experi- unchangeability of Holy Spirit. B. B. ence of glossolalia and the practice of Warfield considered that special gifts, the healing ministry, there was grow- such as prophecy, glossolalia and ing criticism of Pentecostalism in divine healing never occurred in the Korean theological circles. It was espe- contemporary church because they cially said that the spiritual influence ceased at the end of the apostolic age.20 coming from this church tended to Anthony Hoekema also considered mass produce believers who under- that the miraculous gifts were termi- went mystical experiences and accom- nated at the end of the apostolic age, panying physical manifestations which and insisted that contemporary phe- were, according to Korean evangelical nomena of speaking tongues was a theology, not supported by biblical human response which had a psycho- 18 teaching. logical explanation.21 Richard B. Gaffin In Presbyterian Churches, there pointed that the fundamental problem were not so many controversies and with Pentecostal teaching about Spirit there was less emphasis on pneuma- baptism arose from the way the Holy tology before the matter became a Spirit was isolated from Christ. prominent issue. However, once the Regarding the gifts, he also maintained Presbyterian theologians felt keenly the necessity of developing a clearer pneumatological viewpoint, they strongly rejected any idea of the super- 19 Abraham Kuiper was a Calvinistic natural manifestation of the Holy Spirit Reformed theologian and politician who had or the existence of spiritual gifts in the worked until the early twentieth century, and present time. his thought contributed greatly to the devel- opment of the modern Reformed theology. Pneumatological controversies in 20 B. B. Warfield, Miracles: Yesterday and Korean theological circles have Today, Real and Counterfeit (Grand Rapids, occurred in the context of Pentecostal Mich.: Eerdmans, 1965), pp. 5-6; Richard Gaf- teaching about the receiving of the fin, Perspectives on Pentecost: New Testament Teaching on the Gift of the Holy Spirit (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1979), p. 144. 21 Anthony Hoekema, What About Tongue 18 Bonjour Bay, ‘A Historical Insight for the Speaking? (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, Radical Pneumatologies in Korea’, pp. 439-40. 1966), p. 128. Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey 243 that glossolalia and prophecy vanished closely connected with apostolic and out of the church after the apostolic biblical documents ceased with the end age.22 of the apostolic period. Yet he also In the 1970s, HyungYong Park argued that there might be a reason introduced his pneumatology into Sin- that the glossolalia were not com- HagJiNam (Theology Guide) serializing pletely terminated because glossolalia the article ‘Baptism and Fullness of originated not only from the Holy Spirit Holy Spirit’ in the autumn and winter but also from the psychological, artifi- issues of 1971. Park’s pneumatology cial and even Satanic sources.24 was so influenced by the teaching of HaiYun Kim pointed that there were Charles Hodge and of B. B. Warfield, as some misunderstandings about Spirit a result of his period of study at Prince- baptism in the contemporary churches, ton Theological Seminary in US, that and he said, ‘I cannot possibly agree he stressed the un-repeatability of the with the theories that when a man Spirit’s manifestation at Pentecost and receives the Spirit baptism, he speaks the cessation of the spiritual gifts. in other tongues, and that only glosso- From that time, writing in Korean lalia is the sign of Spirit baptism. While Reformed theology focused on the there were people and disciples in the identification of regeneration with Acts who spoke in other tongues, the Bible does not say all believers and dis- Spirit baptism, which was a direct out- ciples spoke in other tongues.’ He said, come of Park’s GyoWiSinHak (Dog- ‘Since glossolalia that the Apostle matic Theology)(1972). Paul mentioned and glossolalia in the Thus, in the 1980s, SungJong Shin Acts are different from each other, it is and HaiYun Kim and the like criticized not right to say that when a man glossolalia from the standpoint of the receives the Spirit baptism, he must orthodox Reformed pneumatology speak in other tongues.’25 which maintained the cessation of spir- YoungBae Cha and YoungBok Ahn itual gifts. Shin said, ‘Glossolalia does stood in the tradition of the recent not originate only from the Holy Sprit, because the phenomena of glossolalia occurs not only in Christianity but also in other religions and philosophies.’23 He insisted that the contemporary phe- nomena of glossolalia and prophecy could not be confirmed as spiritual gifts. Moreover, he took the view that prophecy and glossolalia which were

22 Richard Gaffin, Perspectives on Pente- 24 Shin, ‘New Testament Pneumatology’, p. cost, p. 144. 38. 23 SungJong Shin, ‘New Testament Pneuma- 25 HaiYun Kim, ‘Pneumatology(4): A Sudy tology: Especially focus on glossolalia’, Sin- on Baptism of Holy Spirit and Fullness’, HagJiNam 48-2 (1981), p. 23. HyunDaiJongGyo (1984.9), 163. 244 Bonjour Bay

Reformed Spiritual Movement.26 They, 1970s. ‘Since Spirit baptism is the bap- on the one hand, defended the idea that tism which Christ alone gave by Holy their view of pneumatology was totally Spirit, there must be a concrete con- different from Pentecostalism which sciousness of the death and resurrec- supported glossolalia; on the other, tion of Christ when we experience it. they emphasized that they followed the Simple glossolalia without such con- tradition of Spirit baptism in the recent sciousness is not the Baptism of Reformed Spiritual Movement and in Christ.’27 As mentioned above, Cha’s the early Korean church revival. pneumatology does not seem to be Cha was cautious about the false related to Pentecostalism because he phenomena of the various spiritual did not connect Spirit baptism with movements which confused the glossolalia. churches in those days, as he wrote the Likewise, there was an issue about preface of the summer issue of Sin- spiritual gifts in the Korean pneumato- HagJiNam. This referred especially to logical controversies, for the definition the warning about Pentecostalism and of Spirit baptism would become totally criticism of it which appeared in the different, depending on the position Korean context as a big issue since the taken on the cessation of spiritual gifts. GilSung Kim introduced the the- ological concern of YunSern Park who returned from study in US in 1930s. In 26 Recent Reformed Spiritual Movement and those days Westminster Theological Orthodox Reformed Pneumatology: The late nineteenth century American Reformed spiri- Seminary followed the cessation the- tual movement generally followed the holi- ory of spiritual gifts on which B. B. ness conception which is based on the coun- Warfield insisted. When Park returned teraction theory or Suppression regarding the to Korea, he found that charismatic sinful tendency, meanwhile, it rejected eradi- phenomena such as glossolalia and cation of sinfulness which was held by the divine healing were so dominant in the Wesleyan Holiness Movement. The recent Reformed Spiritual Movement explained that pastoral field that he could not ignore 28 the continuous victory from sin came from the the situation. life empowered by the Holy Spirit, and more- As far as SungKyul churches were over, it emphasized Spirit baptism as union concerned, while their theologians and with Christ and power for service. The repre- pastors focus their attention on sancti- sentatives of the line were Evan Hopkins, fication theory, so far they have not Handley C. G. Moule, Asa Mahan, Charles Finney, Dwight L. Moody, Reuben A. Torrey, dealt with glossolalia as an object of Adoniram J. Gordon and A. B. Simpson. Yet, in specific discussion. UngJo Kim, one of contrast to those people, the representatives the representative pastors and theolo- of Orthodox Reformed pneumatology were Abraham Kuiper, Charles Hodge, B. B. Warfield, Richard Gaffin and John Stott. The Korean theologians was so influenced by 27 YoungBae Cha, ‘Preface’, SinHagJiNam those foreign scholars that they have devel- (Summer, 1981), p. 6. oped one pneumatological line which stressed 28 GilSung Kim, ‘Reformed Soteriology for the discontinuity of spiritual gifts and the one- Our Era’, Reformed Bible Institute (ed.), Sung- ness of Spirit baptism. Bay, HanGukGyoHoiWa LyungGoa GyoHoi (Holy Spirit and the Church) SungLyungSeLei, pp. 14-5. (Seoul: HaNa Books, 1996), pp. 104-5. Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey 245 gians of SungKyul churches, said that sentative Vineyard Movement, has Spirit baptism gave believers holiness become a serious issue in the Korean and power. But he rejected glossolalia, pastoral and theological context since thinking of it as a particular temporary the late 1980s. The Third Wavers gift only in the primitive church.29 In mostly regard glossolalia as a spiritual this way, SungKyul churches have tra- gift which is given to believers, and one ditionally maintained a negative stand- which is for spiritual ministry or for point on glossolalia. For example, effective prayer, rather than a neces- when the issue of glossolalia aroused sary sign of Spirit baptism. In the light public criticism nationwide in 1960s, of such thinking, there has been a SungKyul Theological Seminary (now growing recognition among the Pente- SungKyul University) faculty pub- costal believers and pastors that glos- lished a ‘Letter of Explanation of Glos- solalia is not the sign of Spirit baptism solalia’, which stated: ‘We, Jesus but one of the spiritual gifts. On the Korea SungKyul Churches, believe the other hand, Reformed or Wesleyan- Bible as the God’s Word revealed, and Holiness churches who held a negative identify ourselves as a holiness group view of glossolalia now accept it widely which highlights Regeneration, Sancti- in their pastoral situations. fication, Divine Healing and the Sec- Peter Wagner distinguished the ond Coming as an experimental faith Third Wave from classical Pente- rather than the enthusiastic sect of costalism and from the Charismatic glossolalia and of oscillation and faint- renewal. He thought that baptism with ing.’30 In short, regarding the essential the Holy Spirit was mostly considered nature of the work of the Spirit, the as another aspect of regeneration, and that the ongoing experience of being Korean SungKyul holiness movement, filled with the Holy Spirit made a per- unlike Pentecostalism, focuses on the son a consecrated Christian.31 Also he transformation of human life rather did not emphasize glossolalia as the than charismatic experience such as authentic sign of receiving Spirit bap- glossolalia, prophecy and fainting. tism. Concerning the experience of Spirit 5. After 1980s: Glossolalia baptism, unlike the Pentecostals, most Charismatics do not stress the impor- Popular Inter- tance of glossolalia, but rather they denominationally place more stress on the importance of Third Wave spirituality, with its repre- signs and wonders and of power encounter. They seem to regard glos- solalia as one of the gifts of Holy Spirit that serve for the spiritual ministry and 29 UngJo Kim, SungSerDaiGangHai (Bible effective prayer. Exposition) (Seoul: SungChungSa, 1981), John—Roman, 10:201. 30 ‘Oscillation’ is the shaking of the body during prayer time. ‘Letter of Explanation of 31 Donald Kamner, ‘The Perplexing Power of Glossolalia’, SungKyul (Holiness) No.321 ’s Power Encounters’, Church- (1963), p. 66. man 106:1 (1992), p. 47. 246 Bonjour Bay

When Wagner acknowledged his Wave, passing through the Charis- belief as a Third Waver, he mentioned matic Renewal, regards glossolalia as that glossolalia was not the sign of one of the various spiritual gifts. Spirit baptism which could distinguish Accordingly, under the influence of whether a person was Spirit-filled or such a trend, it is becoming clear that not. From my point of view, this posi- even classical Pentecostals are begin- tion was derived from the tradition of ning to regard glossolalia as one of the Reformed pneumatology of which he spiritual gifts rather than the initial was part. sign of Spirit baptism. The current trends regarding glos- Moreover, Classical Pentecostalism solalia can be described as follows: reinforces the motive of ‘Union with (1) It is apparent that there has Christ’ or ‘purity’ which were compar- developed a gradual tolerance to spiri- atively weak before. For instance, tual gifts, with the preservation of the Yonggi Cho, the representative of clas- motive of ‘purity and power’, in the tra- sical Pentecostalism, said that his min- dition of the late nineteenth-century istry became Spirit-filled again after he Wesleyan Holiness Movement.32 This came to a new conviction about the is markedly different from the frequent Holy Spirit as the reality of the per- schisms of Wesleyan-Holiness groups sonal Lord in 1964. He also dealt with in the period from the late nineteenth the subject of ‘sanctification’ or ‘holi- century to the early twentieth regard- ness’ in the one chapter of the book ing spiritual gifts such as glossolalia. OJungBogUmGoa SamBagJa ChugBok (2) While Reformed theologians do published in 1983 while he never men- not accept the use of charisma such as tioned this in his SungLyungLon in 34 glossolalia and divine healing and the 1971. application of signs and wonders to Interviewing Full Gospel Church practical evangelism, there are some pastors, I have been told that there has cases where they try to allow them the- been a gradual popularization among ologically.33 the young pastors of the view that glos- (3) Meanwhile, in Charismatic solalia was one of spiritual gifts rather Christianity, while classical Pente- than the initial sign of Spirit baptism. costalism regards glossolalia as the The reasons for this development are initial sign of Spirit baptism, the Third that the Pentecostal church has been much influenced since 1980 by the Third Wave which regarded glossolalia as the one of spiritual gifts, and that 32 Bonjour Bay, ‘Wesleyan-Holiness Move- the interpretation of glossolalia has ment, Its latest tendencies in North America’, changed from the Pentecostal empha- YergSaSinHak NonChong initial number, sis into the general recognition since (1999), p. 287. Yoido Full Gospel Church, the most 33 To study such trends, refer for example to: SungSoo Kwon, JongMalGoa YoungSung (Eschatology and Spirituality) (Seoul: HoiBbul, 1995), p. 101.; YongJo Ha, SungLyungBaUn SaLamDul (People who received Holy Spirit) 34 Yonggi Cho, OJungBogUmGoa SamBagJa (Seoul: Tyrannus Press, 1999), 1:522. ChugBok, p. 115. Glossolalia in Korean Christianity: An Historical Survey 247 representative Pentecostal church in experience which differed from regen- Korea, has continually invited other eration. Yet in the current pastoral sit- denominational scholars and engaged uation there is a growing understand- in a lot of theological interchanges ing that glossolalia is one of the spiri- with them. tual gifts rather than the definitive sign Such tendencies show that there of Spirit baptism. Therefore, it seems might be some disagreement among that from now on, Pentecostalism will the young Full Gospel Church pastors need to re-examine its theology of glos- between their personal confession and solalia. their doctrinal creed. However, Cho’s It is hard to realize anymore that pneumatology, on the one hand, spoke classical Pentecostalism could be for the Pentecostal position that characterized only by glossolalia. emphasized glossolalia as the initial Since the Charismatic Renewal began, sign of Spirit baptism, while on the even people who were not classical other hand, his pneumatology has been Pentecostals have experienced glosso- much changed in comparison with his lalia, and especially since the arrival of early position. Such variation and the Third Wave, glossolalia has been 36 development of Cho’s pneumatology popularized inter-denominationally. generally reflects the pneumatological From my point of view, this means development of classical Pentecostal that the main issue for Pentecostalism is the development of a new theological pneumatology in Korea.35 It can be understanding of glossolalia. In their admitted that current classical Pente- study, modern Pentecostal theologians costalism is rapidly adopting a more have found some problems regarding reliable pneumatology, and taking a glossolalia such as: (1) glossolalia is serious view of personal communica- not adequate as a characteristic to dif- tion with Holy Spirit. Thus they are ferentiate Pentecostalism from other relating their pneumatology to Chris- religious movements; (2) as a conse- tology, in the same manner as the quence of concentrating on the prac- Reformed Spiritual movement, and tice of glossolalia, the analysts trans- they are accepting the dimension of ferred their attention from the theolog- holiness emphasized by the Wesleyan ical dimension to the sociological and Holiness movement. psychological level; (3) their narrow focus on glossolalia obstructs wider 37 6. Conclusion understanding of Pentecostalism. Meanwhile, glossolalia raises theo- It was characteristic of classical Pen- tecostalism to identify glossolalia as the initial sign of Spirit baptism, an 36 Donald W. Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zon- dervan Publishing House, 1987), p. 15. 35 Regarding the pneumatological develop- 37 Bonjour Bay, GaiSinGyo SungLyungLonWi ment of Rev. Yonggi Cho, refer to Bonjour Bay, YergSa (A History of Protestant Pneumatology) HanGukGyoHoiWa SungLyungSeLei, pp. 221- (AnYang: SungKyul Univ. Press, 2003), pp. 7. 143-4. 248 Bonjour Bay logical issues not only for the Pente- low a tradition that has rejected glos- costal church but also for other denom- solalia theologically, but on the other inations, because there are now many hand, the situation is the opposite at people who speak in other tongues in the pastoral level. Since in each case, various denominations. While ortho- the pastoral situation is different from the official denominational doctrinal dox Reformed pneumatology insists on position, it seems to be inevitable that the cessation of supernatural gifts theological mediation is needed to rec- such as glossolalia or prophecy follow- oncile the two and to develop a new ing the apostolic age, it is hard to pro- theological approach which will be rel- hibit them in the pastoral situation. evant and applicable to the pastoral sit- Most Wesleyan Holiness churches fol- uation.

NEW FROM PATERNOSTER Father of Faith Missions The Life and Times of Anthony Norris Groves Robert Bernard Dann Modest and unobtrusive, Anthony Norris Groves did not consider himself a gifted evangelist. His name is not usually mentioned alongside William Carey and Hudson Taylor, but Groves had a pioneering influence that went beyond his personal reach. He and his family followed God’s call to Baghdad and India, leaving their comfortable English lives behind. Though he doubted his success as a missionary, Groves’ character and ideas shaped the people who followed him as he followed Christ. Exhaustively researched, Father of Faith Missions is not merely about the life of one missionary but also a record of Groves’ influence on missionary initiatives and the Brethren movement. Drawing upon Groves’ own journals and letters in addition to copious scholarship, this book is both a journey into history and a reminder that God’s faithfulness is as true now as it was then. Robert Bernard Dann is currently engaged in doctoral research on church and mission strategies, with particular reference to the life and work of Anthony Norris Groves.

ISBN: 1-88454-390-1 / 229 x 145 mm / 608pp / £12.99

9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2006) 30:3, 249-263 Contextualization and Discipleship: Closing the Gap between Theory and Practice

Minho Song

KEYWORDS: Contextualization, disci- well as the issues currently impacting pleship, context, worldview, folk their lives. Catholicism, folk Buddhism Towards the end of the 19th cen- tury, many mission agencies accepted Rufus Anderson and Henry Venn’s three-self model as a guideline for their CONTEXTUAL theology has gained signif- church planting projects. In order to icant momentum in recent theological studies. Traditionally, theological promote the rapid growth of reflection centred around two sources, autonomous churches, missionaries scripture and tradition, but now it is encouraged the emerging churches to virtually impossible to engage in a be self-supporting, self-propagating meaningful theological discussion and self-governing. But today such a without taking seriously the third model is considered inadequate source: context. Stephen Bevans because it lacks emphasis on the argues that ‘doing theology contextu- receptor’s context. It is argued that ally is not an option… [but] is a theo- even the theology of the emerging logical imperative’.1 Understanding the church must be self-generated, hence context of a particular people means to the term ‘fourth self’ of self-theologiz- appreciate their culture and history as ing became important.2 If context is

1 Models of Contextual Theology, revised and 2 Paul Hiebert, Anthropological Insights for expanded edition (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, Missionaries (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985), pp. 2002), p. 3. 195-196.

Minho Song taught Missions and New Testament at Asian Theological Seminary, Quezon City, Philippines. He studied at Regent College (MDiv, ThM) and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (PhD). Currently, he is the senior pastor of Young Nak Korean Presbyterian Church of Toronto. His other articles related to discipleship and contextualization appeared in Journal of Asian Mission, Urban Mission, and Journal of Asian Evangelical Theology. This is a revised version of the article which first appeared in the OMF International’s Mission Round Table: Occasional Journal for OMF Mission Research, vol. 1 no. 2. 250 Minho Song ignored, the church runs the risk of gifts…’ (Italics mine). The task of com- being seen as a foreign enterprise with municating the gospel message in a a foreign message.3 Dean Gilliland culturally meaningful and relevant way defines contextualized theology as ultimately belongs to the national … the dynamic reflection carried church, to its national leadership and out by the particular church upon to all the members of the church. Even its own life in light of the Word of though this task begins in the hands of God and historic Christian truth. missionaries, missionaries must look Guided by the Holy Spirit, the ahead and empower the national lead- church continually challenges, ers so that eventually they will do their 5 incorporates, and transforms ele- own theologizing. ments of the cultural milieu, bring- Second, Gilliland speaks of bringing ing these under the lordship of ‘elements of the cultural milieu under Christ. As members of the body of the lordship of Christ’. It is the church Christ interpret the Word, using that must ‘challenge, incorporate and their own thoughts and employing transform’ the elements of culture so their own cultural gifts, they are as to bring these under the lordship of better able to understand the Christ. Contextualization must be gospel as incarnation.4 understood in a comprehensive man- ner, covering not only the areas of We must consider at least two Bible translation, the expressions of important points raised by Gilliland in worship, leadership structure, and so this definition. First, he emphasizes on, but also the very fabric of believers’ the importance of the church’s self-the- commitment to and involvement in ologizing, ‘upon its own life… using society as disciples of Jesus Christ. In their own thoughts and employing their that regard, contextualization and dis- (the church members’) own cultural cipleship are two concepts that cannot be separated.

3 Douglas Howard, ‘Measuring Contexualiza- tion in Church and Missions’, International Discipleship and Journal of Frontier Missions, vol 12:3 (July-Sep- tember), 1995, p. 135. Contextualization 4 ‘Contextual Theology as Incarnation Mis- Discipleship is often overlooked in the sion’ in Dean Gilliland, ed., The Word Among discussion of contextualization. Gener- Us: Contextualizing Theology for Mission Today (Waco: Word, 1989), pp. 12-13. For a brief his- torical survey on the term ‘contextualization’, see Bruce Nicholls, Contextualization: A Theol- 5 This is particularly the case in countries ogy of Gospel and Culture (Downers Grove: like Cambodia, which was ravaged by the civil IVP, 1979), pp. 20-36. For an Asian evangeli- war and the genocide of Khmer Rouge (1975- cal response to the concerns raised in the con- 79) during which most church leaders lost textualization debate, see Bong Rin Ro, ‘Con- their lives. More concerted efforts are needed textualization: Asian Theology’ in Ken on the part of the missionaries working in Gnanakan (ed), Biblical Theology in Asia (Ban- Cambodia to raise up future theologians and galore: Theological Book Trust, 1995), pp. 3- writers who can reflect their own situation and 17. give direction for the Cambodian church. Contextualization and Discipleship 251 ally speaking, missiologists and mis- used by a mega-church in Southern sionaries pay attention to the initial California. His plan was to translate communication of the gospel and try to these lessons into Tagalog and offer ensure that their message is receptor- them at an affordable price to churches centred. When it comes to follow up in the Philippines. I smiled at him out and discipling new believers, however, of courtesy, but I knew something was the approaches taken are not as sys- not right. tematic or well-thought through. How The above two examples amply does one disciple a Muslim background illustrate the carelessness on our part believer? How does one disciple a Bud- in not taking seriously the role of con- dhist background believer? How about text in cross-cultural discipleship. those coming from the urban slums of Even though most missionaries are Manila or from a Communist regime? If aware of the term ‘contextualization’, we are careful about how to package in reality there exists a big gap the gospel message for the first time between theory and practice. Some- hearers, then we should also be careful times, the gap between the theory and about how to package the follow- up the practice rises due to the wishes and and discipleship materials for those policies of sending churches or denom- who desire to grow closer to Jesus. A inational mission boards. Missionaries typical result is that we have many or national leaders may not have the decisions but very few disciples in our ‘luxury’ to listen to the people among mission work. whom they are working. Instead, they The next two examples illustrate must listen to the wishes of the sup- the problem I raise in this paper, that porters who desire to extend them- discipleship is often overlooked in the discussion of contextualization. selves ‘across the face of the globe, sin- The first example was when I was at cerely believing that this is the best 6 a discipleship seminar at a well-known way to win the world for Christ’. church in Seoul several years ago. I Discipleship in context or contextu- met a worker who was evangelizing alized discipleship is an application of and discipling North Koreans who had contextual theology in following up escaped to China from North Korea. and discipling new believers in a cross- When asked how he designed his disci- cultural setting. It takes the receptor’s pleship program, he simply replied that context seriously. It acknowledges, he uses the materials developed by first of all, the simple and obvious fact some churches in Seoul. In his mind, that no one comes to Jesus in a spiri- the choice of such a material posed no tual vacuum. It rejects the assumption problem since ‘the language is the that the mind of the receptor is a tabula same for North and South Koreans’. rasa, ready to receive everything the The second example took place not too long ago when I had a conversation with an American missionary working 6 Darrell Whiteman, ‘Contextualization: the in the Philippines. He was excited to Theory, the Gap, the Challenge’, International share that he had just secured the Bulletin for Missionary Research, 21:1, (1997), copyright of the discipleship lessons p. 5. 252 Minho Song missionary has to teach about spiritu- Lessons on discipleship must pene- ality without any clash with or accom- trate the bottom level where people’s modation to the existing set of beliefs. animistic beliefs and assumptions can Discipleship in context is based on the be challenged and transformed in obe- recognition that everyone has been dience to scripture. Such an effort min- captive to one’s own spiritual or reli- imizes syncretism and encourages gious orientation before coming to faithfulness to biblical truth. know Christ (Eph. 2:1-3; Mark 8:20- In the same way, discipling North 23). The receptor’s mind is far from Korean believers requires a deep level empty or free. Rather, the mind must understanding of their life under com- go through a fierce battle for biblical munism. For more than half a century, truths to be written on it. they have been indoctrinated with Going back to the example cited ear- atheism. One wonders just how mean- lier, we can see how the discipleship ingful the statement, ‘God loves you’, lessons developed by a church in is to a North Korean refugee hearing Southern California are not suitable in for the first time about a supreme being a Filipino context. In the Philippines, who is loving and personal. evangelical churches are quick to Ultimately, a call to discipleship is a adopt a discipleship program or a Bible call to biblical worldview. Our task of study series popularized in the West. discipling is to call people to the bibli- But because the material was not writ- cal worldview of truth. For this to hap- ten with the Filipino audience in mind, pen, there must be a violent clash of it does not take into account the spiri- two worldviews, the receptor’s and tual and social dimensions of the Fil- that of the Bible. Sometimes, the task ipino mind. The material does not is compounded by the presence of touch the deeper structures of the Fil- another worldview brought in by the ipino worldview and psyche. Discipling missionary. Melba Maggay writes, a new believer who comes from a nom- Christianity in the Philippines is a inal Catholic background, requires a ‘sandwich religion,’ a layer of concerted effort to speak to the Filipino Christian beliefs piled on top of a mind and heart. largely pagan slice of bread. We The task of discipling Filipinos in have yet to communicate in a way their context requires us to examine that truly wrestles with the peo- the values and assumptions that the ple’s worldview. We need to locate new believers bring with them. the Gospel at those precise points

The Spiritual Background of a New Believer Fig. 1

Top Level Evangelical teaching on discipleship

Middle Level Catholic tradition and practices (nominal)

Bottom Level Animistic beliefs and assumptions Contextualization and Discipleship 253

where Filipino mythology and severe right to the end and come to the worldview differ from those of the wedding supper of the Lamb by over- West.7 coming the world.8 To come out as vic- Discipleship in context rises out of a tor, the followers of the Lamb must dynamic interplay between text face the following two challenges: (passed down by tradition) and con- • The relentless force of seduction by text. By paying attention to both the the ‘Babylon’ with all its glamour Bible and the context in which people and charm, which is nothing but live, we are then able to bring the task deception and destruction. The of disciple-making in a culturally rele- churches at Ephesus, Pergamum, vant and biblically faithful manner. Sardis, Thyatira and Laodicea were For disciple-making to be effective, warned against this. it must be grounded in the appropriate • The fierce force of persecution by context in which people live. It is the the Beast which, in no ambiguous terms, demands worship from peo- context that allows us to understand ple. The churches at Smyrna and the needs and issues of the new believ- Philadelphia did not fall prey to this ers. Only after these needs and issues force and were commended by Jesus are properly identified and understood, in turn. can we then begin to design a curricu- John writes that seduction and per- lum that will help people to follow secution, the twin evils designed to Jesus faithfully in their context. In illicit apostasy from the believers, will short, borrowing discipleship materi- climax at the end. He urges the believ- als or approaches used in another con- ers to live godly and faithful lives right text ought to be resisted. Instead, to the end and arrive safely at the wed- national leadership must be encour- ding supper of the Lamb. aged and empowered to design their In John’s context, to follow Jesus own curricula and approaches to disci- means to overcome the world at all per- ple the new believers. sonal cost:

Discipleship without Context Each context presents a different set of 8 If we take the late dating of Revelation, the book of Revelation was written to the seven challenges for the followers of Jesus churches faced with the emperor cult (the wor- Christ. We can see this difference by ship of the emperor). These churches in Asia comparing the context of the book of Minor adopted the emperor cult enthusiasti- Revelation with the context of the book cally, ‘… possibly more than elsewhere in the of Matthew. In the book of Revelation, Roman Empire’ (I. Beasley-Murray, ‘Revela- tion, Book of’ in John defines ‘disciples’ as those ‘who Dictionary of the Later New Tes- tament Writing, p. 1028). Domitian was per- follow the Lamb wherever he goes’ haps the worst of all emperors as he demanded (Rev. 14:4). They are the ones who per- that people address him as dominus et deus (Lord and God). As for the Christians, the pressure to avoid the emperor cult was com- pounded by the pressure coming from tradi- 7 Melba Maggay, The Gospel in Filipino Con- tional religious cults. Together, they asked for text (Manila: OMF Literature, 1987), p. 4. a concrete response from the believers. 254 Minho Song

Yet, you have a few people in we miss out the important issues of a Sardis who have not soiled their particular context that stand in the clothes. They will walk with me, way of discipleship. dressed in white, for they are wor- In the Philippines context, it is easy thy. He who overcomes will, like to identify corruption as one of the crit- them, be dressed in white. I will ical issues facing discipleship. Corrup- never blot out his name from the tion is a way of life, rampant in every book of life, but I will acknowledge sector of the Filipino society.10 It his name before my Father and his stands in the way of the believer’s spir- angels (Rev. 3:4-5). itual maturity. Evelyn Miranda-Feli- Discipleship in John’s context is dif- ciano draws attention to ‘a trilogy of ferent from discipleship in the context maneuvers’ deeply ingrained in the Fil- of Matthew’s community. The main ipino psyche, lusot, lakad and lagay. problem with the Matthean community She defines them as follows: was their group identity as God’s peo- • Lusot means to escape from some- ple. Mostly composed of Jewish stock, thing by wriggling into a hole or the Matthean community stood at a through a slit. crossroad between insisting on Jewish • Lakad literally means ‘walk,’; a identity and facing extinction or euphemism for making an attempt enlarging their tent by reaching out to to smooth out difficulties by using a the Gentiles. Mission to the Gentiles network of ‘connections’. was Matthew’s answer to this commu- • Lagay means grease money, payola, nity in crisis. Mission was used as a tong (when illegal gambling opera- form of discipleship. The gospel of tions are concerned) or plain bribe.11 Matthew was written ‘… not to com- Those who seriously desire to fol- pose a life of Jesus but to provide a low Jesus Christ in the Philippines, 9 guidance to a community in crisis’. must deal with the problem of corrup- Discipleship in John’s context tion. They have two important ques- meant resisting seduction and endur- tions: 1) How do I stay pure from cor- ing persecution. Discipleship in ruption? and 2) How do I help trans- Matthew’s context meant letting go of one’s identity and accepting God’s plan for a new identity. We can see from these biblical examples that it is the 10 The Philippines ranks fourth from the context that determines the issues of worst in Asia out of 15 Asian countries rated discipleship. The text (the Bible) and 92nd in the world in the Corruption Per- ception Index 2002 according to Trans- teaches us who to follow while the con- parency International. The country has the text teaches us how to follow Jesus. dubious distinction of having two of the top ten Needless to say, when we use transfer- corrupt heads of the government in the world, able or generic discipleship material, those of Ferdiand Marcos (1972-86) and Joseph Estrada (1998-2001). See The Wallace Report, June 2004, pp. 19-20. 11 Evelyn Miranda-Feliciano, Filipino Values 9 David Bosch, Transforming Mission (Mary- and Our Christian Faith (Manila: OMF Litera- knoll: Orbis, 1991), p. 57. ture, 1990), pp. 2-5. Contextualization and Discipleship 255 form this society from corruption? To pose several steps involved in contex- quote Feliciano, ‘How truly honest can tual discipleship. Before we take the a Christian be in a culture that has first step, we must first identify our accepted lusot, lakad and lagay as a own theological convictions about con- system operating outside legal and textualization. Stephen Bevans dis- official policies?’12 Discipleship mater- cusses six models of contextual theol- ial designed for a Southern California ogy in his book, Models of Contextual middle class church does not cover cor- Theology: the Translation model, the ruption since it is not a pressing issue Anthropological model, the Praxis for the believers there. Hence, by model, the Synthetic model, the Tran- adopting a material intended for South- scendental model and the Countercul- ern California, the discipler conve- tural model. Of the six, three are of par- niently overlooks the critical issues of ticular importance to us: discipleship in the Philippines alto- • The translation model starts with the gether. text. It assumes that there is the We can also talk about other critical supracultural, supracontextual issues in discipleship such as the essential doctrine. This essential residue of folk Catholic beliefs. They doctrine is put into other terms in a need to be brought out into open and way that the receptor can under- evaluated as the new believer makes a stand (also referred to as accommo- fresh start in following Jesus whole- dation). heartedly. There are also social values • The anthropological model starts like pakikisama (being together) and with the context. The present utang na loob (the debt of gratitude) human situation is the focus of which are not bad in and of themselves, divine revelation as much as scrip- but which can be used to hamper Chris- ture and tradition have been the foci tian growth in the Philippines context. of divine revelation in the past. Thus These values need to be discussed and one needs to attend and listen to transformed in the service of the king- God’s presence in the present con- dom of God. If they are not discussed, text (also known as indigenization). disciple-making will remain superficial • The synthetic model believes in the and people’s deep-level assumptions universality of Christian faith. How- and beliefs will go unchallenged. ever, it does not define the constant in Christian identity narrowly in a set of propositions. Each context Steps in Contextual has its own distinctiveness to work Discipleship out the universality of Christian How then does one enter into another’s faith. Thus, theology is a reflection culture and engage in a cross-cultural of the context in the light of the text discipleship process? I will now pro- (alternatively called the dialogical model). In advocating discipleship in con- text, I propose that we choose a model 12 Evelyn Miranda-Feliciano, Filipino Values, of contextual theology that pays due p. 6. attention to both text and context. Of 256 Minho Song course, we must begin with text, the are biblical truths or themes that tran- revealed Word of God. The core mes- scend all cultures and contexts. These sage has to do with the redemptive have been already identified, deposited work of God in Christ. One thing we and passed down through two thou- must keep in mind is that the existing sand years of church history (tradition) category of Christian theology (e.g., although we may disagree on how they the typical order of systematic theol- are arranged. Nonetheless, the essen- ogy) is not necessarily the best tial, supra-cultural message of the arrangement for people in other con- Bible can be agreed upon, as reflected, texts. Thinking so is tantamount to for instance, in the Lausanne ignoring the context. Covenant. The following approach to contex- While I consider the interaction of tual discipleship utilizes the strength text and context essential, I am not of the translation model and the syn- assuming that both text and context thetic model. In coming up with a con- are culturally conditioned and relative textualized discipleship material in a to each other.13 I believe that there is a particular context, one must take the supra-cultural, supra-contextual mes- following steps: sage in the Bible, which has to do with creation and redemption. The redemp- • State the supra-contextual mes- tive work of the triune God is carried on sage of the Bible in the world through the obedience of • Identify the needs and issues of God’s people (the church). The follow- the context ing are the six essential Bible themes I •Create one’s own discipleship have identified. They make up the over- material all message of the Bible.14 These • Determine the best pedagogical themes in turn interact with the issues approach to the context raised in a particular context. Natu- rally, people in one context understand each Bible theme differently from STEP ONE: State the supra-contextual those in another context. message of the Bible We do not need to start everything from scratch. That would be not only a 13 Bruce Nicholls, Contextualization, pp. 24- waste of time but also a show of arro- 25. gance that God could not teach us 14 The number of the themes can vary, through the findings of others. There depending on how one regroups them. Contextualization and Discipleship 257

Interplay between Bible Themes and Issues in Context Fig. 2

BIBLE THEMES ISSUES IN CONTEXT

1. Experiencing God 2. Receiving Salvation in Jesus Christ 3. Living a Holy Life (Life in the Spirit) 4. Fellowshipping with Believers (Church) 5. Being a Witness and Servant in the World 6. Following Jesus and Making disciples

STEP TWO: Identify the needs and local spirit or a nat). While Buddha issues of the context takes care of them in the afterlife, The needs and issues of a particular Nagana guides and protects them in context must be identified in so far as this life.15 Their religion (folk Bud- they bear on the task of discipling new dhism) is a harmonious response to believers. In other words, we need to these two sources of protection. A ask, ‘What are the issues that stand in Burmese pastor told me that most new the way of the new believers from believers are still afraid of throwing becoming mature disciples of Jesus out the altars when they become Chris- Christ?’ tian due not only to the fear of the spir- We can start with more obvious its but also the fear of rejection by fam- issues and move down to subtle ones. ily and neighbour. For example, one of the obvious chal- When I visited a local Christian lenges facing the Myanmar churches is folk Buddhism. It is so prevalent in the Burmese culture that a new believer in 15 His name is Maung Tin Tae and he is Christ must make a clean break from known as ‘the Lord of the Great Mountain’. his past if he is going to mature in According to the legend, the king, afraid of the Christ. In my visit to the homes of Bur- power of Maugn Tin Tae, a strong blacksmith, man people in Yangon City, I have con- burned him to death. So people today offer coconut and red cloth to him regularly. See D. sistently seen two altars in their living Senapatiratne, S. Allen and R. Bowers, Folk room, a spirit house for Buddha and Buddhism in Southeast Asia (Pnomh Phen: payasin (a spirit house) for Nagana (the Training of Timothy, 2003), pp. 22-23. 258 Minho Song bookstore in Yangon in order to look identified and studied. Ultimately, we for discipleship materials, I was not need to understand these issues from able to find a single book that the perspective of the Filipino world- addressed the topic of folk Buddhism. view. How do these issues touch upon Instead, what I found was the straight the Filipino worldview? For example, translation of discipleship materials by how does their understanding of the the Navigators and other para-church spirit world deviate from the biblical groups. Needless to say, in the understanding of the spiritual reality? Burmese context, part of discipling An ontological analysis is in order. new believers includes giving instruc- While we ought to pay attention to tions on how to make a break with the the critical issues present in a particu- idols, both physically and spiritually. lar context, we must also identify the That is why identifying the needs and positive aspects of context that make issues of the Burmese context is the the task of discipleship easier. For first step in helping believers become example, the early rise prayer meeting serious followers of Jesus Christ. has been an integral part of spiritual If one were to examine the Filipino discipline in Korean churches. When context, the following issues and needs we trace the early rise prayer move- will be part of the list: ment in Korean church history, we find • Debilitating fear of the spirits16 that it was an excellent model of the •Incorrect notions about God, accommodation principle.17 In Korea Church, the Gospel, the Bible, today almost all churches practise prayer and so on (negatively influ- communal, early rise prayer meetings enced by nominal Catholicism) as part of spiritual discipline and disci- • Extreme family obligations and pleship. This practice predates Chris- other excessive demands on rela- tianity. To rise early in the morning and tionships (pakikisama applied to pray to a higher power was a gener- wrongly) ally accepted and practised pattern in • Immoral living, drinking, gambling Korean spirituality. The Korean church and other social ills has adopted this existing practice and • Corruption (pandaraya) at all levels utilized it in the church setting.18 of society and other societal and In the Philippines, Ninong and environmental problems ninang (the male and female sponsors) •Lack of material resources (dire can be found at weddings. They poverty) promise to provide life-long counsel • The increasing gap between the rich and the poor. Issues such as above need to be 17 The early rise prayer meetings began dur- ing the 1907 in Korea by pastor Kil Sun-Joo. See Kwang Soon Lee and 16 For example, believing that dwendies (spir- Young Won Lee, Introduction to Missiology (in its) live in termite hills, some people do not Korean, Seon Kyo Hak Gae Ron), (Seoul: Pres- remove termite hills near their house even byterian Publishing, 1993), pp. 229. though termites can one day damage the 18 Lee and Lee, Introduction to Missiology, wooden structure of the house. pp. 229-230. Contextualization and Discipleship 259 and wisdom to couples who are getting one’s own context.20 married. In a typical Filipino wedding, • Create categories not found in other one can count several ninongs and contexts but are needed in one’s ninangs who stand behind the couple, own, based on the needs and issues pledging their support. We can also of the local context.21 ask how such a positive cultural (con- Some discipleship materials coming textual) category can be used in disci- from the West reflect the cultural val- pleship. In the similar way, festive ues of individualism. For example, singing and celebration are part of Fil- despite repeated emphasis on the com- ipino social psyche. Due to the Catholic munal aspect of discipleship in Paul’s influence, Filipino people are very letters,22 few topics are devoted to com- familiar with annual fiesta and cele- munity life in Leroy Eims’ famous book bration. These are important existing on discipleship, The Lost Art of Disciple categories that, when utilized prop- Making (1978). In the appendix (pp. erly, can help take the discipleship 159-180), the author presents thirty process one step further. topics under the heading ‘Training STEP THREE: Create one’s own disci- objectives for a disciple’. Of the thirty pleship material topics, only three are directly related to Assuming that one is using other discipleship in community: Christian discipleship materials as a basis or a fellowship (#5), love (#17) and the guide, there are three steps involved in creating one’s own discipleship mater- ial: •Eliminate topics found in other 20 This is perhaps the most important aspect of contextual discipleship. For this step to be materials that are not relevant in effective, the discipler must thoroughly under- one’s own context.19 stand the contextual issues of the receptors. • Teach biblical themes that are Then, unbiblical issues must be confronted by supra-cultural, but show how they the biblical norm. See Appendix 1 for a sam- interact with the critical issues of ple. 21 Western discipleship materials are bound to miss some of the critical issues facing non- westerners. For this reason, new categories must be created. Bong Rin Ro proposes that 19 For example, knowledge-based, proposi- evangelical contextualization of theology in tional truth claims are not that popular in the Asia can ‘create new categories of Asian the- Philippines, much less the debate over pre- ology according to the diversity of contexts destination vs. free will; the proof of the exis- existing in Asia. Several areas have already tence of God is hardly an issue in the Philip- been suggested such as the theology of suffer- pines context. Even those who do not come to ing and poverty, the theology of change for the church believe in God’s existence and accept Chinese according to Confucius’ Book of God’s will. For the Filipino, what is real is not Change, the theology of demons, and the the- a set of doctrines but what he is able to feel. ology of evangelism under totalitarian rule.’ Filipino theological Jose De Mesa jokingly ‘Contextualization: Asian Theology,’ p. 14. speaks of the Filipino ‘worldfeel’ (as opposed 22 Here are some examples of the ‘one to ‘worldview’), quoting from the special lec- another’ passages: Rom. 12:10; Gal. 6:2; Eph. ture delivered at Asian Theological Seminary, 4:32; Eph. 5:19; Eph. 5:21; Col. 3:16; 1 Thess. August 15, 2003. 5:13; 1 Thess. 5:15. 260 Minho Song tongue (#18). The other topics present STEP FOUR: Determine the best peda- discipleship as more of an individual gogical approach for the context journey with God. One of the possible When we consider the fact that reasons for this apparent lack of Christianity by nature is an imported emphasis on community is that the dis- religion, it is all the more imperative cipleship movement in America was that a pedagogical approach familiar to largely the work of para-church orga- the local context must be sought and nizations (the Navigators, the Campus utilized. Effective contextualization Crusade for Christ and so on). More- involves the meshing of a foreign over, Eims’ book on discipleship was (Christian) meaning with a local form. originally designed for use in campus Therefore, a proper contextual disci- settings, not in local church settings pleship will result in the proper use of where community life would be empha- local forms, which have been proven to sized more. At any rate, such an indi- be effective pedagogical methods for vidualistic approach to discipleship is the particular context over and over not only unbiblical but also alien to again. Asian cultures. Pedagogical methods for disciple- Working in the Filipino context, for ship in the West typically include example, one needs to give more atten- teaching (lecturing), small group Bible tion to the communal aspect of disci- study, group sharing, one-on-one men- pleship (this is a supra-cultural theme toring, short-term mission trips, and in the Bible). But it must be presented evangelistic outreaches. But in non- in the categories meaningful to the Fil- western settings, some of the above ipino social world: formats may not be as effective as • Pakikisama—the facility in getting when they are combined with symbols, along with others and maintaining a ceremonies and rituals.23 During the harmonious relationship Holy Week in the Philippines, many • Amor propio—self-love in Spanish, Catholics engage in procession, in the and means self-respect. It expects reenactment of the Passion, and some others to behave and avoid giving personal insult or shame (hiya). Individuals are important in the Philippines context (pagsasarili). How- 23 See A.H. Zahniser, Symbols and Ceremony: ever, individuals find their identity in Making Disciples Across Cultures (Monro, CA: the group setting or in their family. In MARC, 1997). Also see Jim Courson, ‘Deepen- such a setting, everyone learns to ing the Bonds of Christian Community: Apply- ing Rite of Passage Structure to the Discipling value the importance of smooth rela- Process in Taiwan’, Missiology: An Interna- tionships. Therefore, harsh and insult- tional Review, 26:301-313 (1998). Citing the ing words are to be avoided. An answer work of Swanson that 50 to 60 ‘decisions’ are requiring ‘no’ is usually softened up by required to produce one ‘lasting convert’ in ambivalent phrases like ‘maybe…’ or Taiwan, Courson proposes that ‘a more con- ‘it is possible…’ In such a society, textualized approach to Christian discipling in Taiwan, based on a rite of passage model, will exposing someone to shame is the help the church more effectively incorporate worst form of social condemnation pos- new converts while deepening the bonds of sible. Christian community’ (p. 302). Contextualization and Discipleship 261 even in the actual crucifixion. Symbols of you has a son…’ (v. 5) or ‘When and rituals come alive, leaving power- someone invites you…’ (v. 8) ful imprints in the minds and hearts of • Use of a story (parable)—‘A certain the followers, especially the young. man was preparing a great ban- The evangelical insistence on the Bible quet…’ (v. 16) study (and the Bible study only) as a •Encouraging people to think for chief vehicle for discipling new believ- themselves—‘Suppose one of you ers, is simply one-dimensional in a wants to build a tower…’ (v. 28) multi-dimensional world. Even for a • Grounded in spiritual principles— simple task like asking questions, we ‘For everyone who exalts himself need to be careful not to be too direct will be humbled, and he who hum- in approach. For example, many bles himself will be exalted’ (v. 11); Asians may be too shy or embarrassed ‘In the same way, any of you who to share their own family problems out- does not give up everything he has right in a small group setting. But by cannot be my disciple’ (v. 33) asking them about someone else’s •De-briefing and reinforcement— problems, it is possible to eventually Jesus ensuring that the disciples talk about their own problems. In understand what is really being short, we must be prepared to use ped- taught here (vv. 25-35). agogical methods that are more nat- Our pedagogy must fit the context of ural to the receptors. the receptors. The approach must be A look at Jesus’ pedagogical style in natural to the receptors. For example, Luke 14 shows his sensitivity to con- if people are not used to reading books, text as well as his creativity. Tension then, it would not be effective to do an rises in the room while the Pharisees intense Bible study as part of the disci- are zeroing in on Jesus and looking for pling process. The right pedagogy for a charge. Nonetheless, Jesus begins his discipleship must touch upon all three multi-dimensional teaching on disci- dimensions of human learning: the cog- pleship. Here are some characteristics nitive, the affective and the volitional. of his teaching: In the evangelical community, we are • Use of a real life situation (not in a quite strong on passing on the right classroom!)—on the Sabbath day, information (the cognitive). But some- Jesus heals a man suffering from times we fail to capture the heart of the dropsy. It is no longer a hypotheti- receptors (the affective). The use of cal situation in a Bible study. The symbols, drama, and rituals can be a situation is real and stakes are high. powerful means to bring the message •Use of high context communica- to the heart. Courson believes, for tion—Jesus was very much aware of example, that baptism should be taken what was going on in the room, that seriously in the Taiwanese context. He the Pharisees were carefully watch- proposes that baptism is treated as ing him and Jesus was also aware of part of contextualized rites of incorpo- what they were thinking; ‘When he ration beginning on the Thursday noticed how the guests picked the before Easter: places of honour…’ (v. 7) •Thursday—the congregation • Use of concrete examples—‘If one shares testimony, song, Scripture 262 Minho Song

and meal together in retelling the ful to the supra-contextual message of story of their redemption; after this, the Bible. It also pays attention to how fasting begins for the candidates the supra-contextual message should until Sunday morning. be communicated. • Friday—the candidates spend the In this paper I have argued that it is day in fasting. inappropriate to borrow discipleship • Saturday—the congregation stages materials from one context and use a procession through the neighbour- them in another context without mak- hood. The candidates take turns to ing due adjustments. It is inappropri- carry a wooden cross. This is in ate because issues in one context are close parallel to temple processions different from those of another con- celebrating the birth of Taiwanese text. By ignoring this difference, the gods or goddesses. Church mem- discipler conveniently avoids the bers distribute gospel tracks. issues that must be dealt with, the •Sunday—a celebrative pilgrimage issues that stand in the way of the to the ocean with baptism as high- believer’s maturity in Christ. light takes place. The congregation I have given as an example the prob- returns to the church in joyful songs lem of corruption in the Philippines. of the resurrection. At church, Discipleship in context does not give neighbours, friends and relatives of us the liberty to conceal the problem of the new believers are all invited to a corruption in such a context. A serious feast. This is an important time of follower of Jesus Christ cannot turn a witness by the community of believ- blind eye to the structural evil of cor- ers to non-believers.24 ruption and injustice. If a self-profess- The use of a procession and a meal ing disciple of Christ is every much a invitation is quite natural to the local part of the evil structure as an unbe- context. By employing such an liever is, then the church is in no spiri- approach, we are able to communicate tual shape to announce the reign of the gospel message to people’s heart, God to the unbelieving world. There- as well as to their head. We cannot fore, every sincere disciple of Jesus emphasize enough the importance of Christ ought to ask, ‘How can I stay pedagogy that fits the context of the pure from the temptation of corrup- receptors. tion?’ and, ‘What can I do to cleanse this society from the stain of corrup- tion?’ Discipleship in context calls for Discipleship in Context an astute examination of the needs and Discipleship in context or contextual- issues of the context in light of the ized discipleship is a receptor-centred timeless and unchanging message of approach to disciple-making. It pays the Bible. It also calls for our commit- attention to context while being faith- ment to raise up national leaders who will bring the gospel home to their own people. Discipleship in context is not 24 Courson, ‘Deepening the Bonds of Christ- an option, but an imperative. ian Community’, pp. 310-311. Contextualization and Discipleship 263

APPENDIX 1: A Few Examples of Contextual Issues in the Philippines Categories Examples of Biblical A Few Examples of Contextual Issues Truths (in the Philippines setting) Experiencing God God is near. He loves us. How do Filipinos view God, gods & We can experience him. spirits? God is also just. There How does the Filipino understanding of will be punishment for the spirit world and the use of swerte the wicked. (fate) and bahala na (‘come what may’) compare with the biblical understanding of God? Salvation in Jesus We are utterly sinful How do Filipinos understand the term Christ before God. Christ died ‘sin’? for us. Who is Jesus Christ? How do the existing We are redeemed from concepts of Christ in the Philippines (such the sinful life when we as Santo Ninyo or Black Nazarene) distort put our trust in the the biblical image of Christ? finished work of Christ How does the Catholic teaching on on the cross. salvation and works affect the way people understand the concept of forgiveness? Living a holy life We are called to live a How does a new believer overcome holy life. temptations imposed by his or her barkada The Holy Spirit helps us (a social group prior to conversion)? to lead a holy life. How do people re-orient their understanding of true power? Fellowshipping with Jesus calls us to be part What is the typical understanding of other believers of his Body. ‘church’ for those of us coming from the We are to love and serve Catholic Church background? one another. How do we love one another when we are in such a dire need for resources? How do we love one another when we are so divided along the socio-economic line? Bearing a witness in God calls us to be the How do we live as God’s witness in this the world salt and light of the world? What can I do to make this world world. We need to bear a better place to live in? the image of God, who How should Christians approach the loves justice and mercy problems of lusot, lakad, and lagay? (Micah 5:2ff.). How do we share the gospel message with We are also called to our Catholic or Muslim neighbours? bring Good News to all peoples. Following Jesus and Jesus calls us to follow What does a mature disciple look like in making disciples him faithfully. the Philippine setting? In the urban poor We are also to make setting? disciples of all nations. What are the preferred ways of teaching discipleship concepts in Filipino? ERT (2006) 30:3, 264-270 Farewell Gerasenes A Bible Study on Mark 5: 1-20

John Lewis

KEYWORDS: Sin, salvation, righteous- ingly seek to be alleviated from the ness, regeneration, outreach, culture. feelings of dislocation they are increas- ingly experiencing between them- selves and society. However, many of ONE of the many challenges facing the these methods amount to ‘dressed up church today is the growing demise of modernism’, which will serve only as rationalism. This is not to say that temporary measures. The best of rationalism will disappear, but it will newly laid tracks will not change the increasingly be perceived and handled fact that the train does not run that differently. Today more emphasis is way anymore. The emerging changes being laid on experience, transience, are not so much about different beliefs, and new technological dimensions that or even how beliefs are arrived at. are increasingly able to give expres- What is so radically under constant sion to the imagination. More and more change is society’s conception of, and discussions do not so much gravitate to interaction with, reality itself. In the the proofs of science, but the dynamics post-modern context beliefs are often of feelings, relationships, and the expe- transient, having significance only as riences of life as it is encountered at they serve the needs of the moment. the moment. This does not amount to a There are many proposals of how return to pre-modernist thinking, Christians are to proceed in these cir- although links to Greek mythology and cumstances, but we contend that a medieval mysticism can certainly be response based on the Word of God is made. The new thought patterns of essential. However, while resisting society have experienced the influence compliance to culture we must, in the of modernism and interact signifi- midst of our changing conditions, avoid cantly with new technologies. reading Scripture from a solely ratio- In response to this shift in thought nalist perspective, and engage with the a number of new structures and Word as those seeking to proclaim it methodologies are currently being with relevancy to our new and chang- offered to the churches, which increas- ing cultural environment. It is for this

John Lewis is a Baptist pastor in Adelaide, South Australia, and lecturer in theology at the Bible College of South Australia. He is currently writing a PhD on the influence of Karl Barth in North American Evangelicalism. Part of his work to date has been published in Colloquium and Reformation and Revival. Farewell Gerasenes: A Bible Study on Mark 5:1-20 265 reason that I commend the reading of Humanity is in peril and need, and God, this passage that emphasizes its obvi- in his holy orientation, moves towards ous relational and transformative fea- her as saviour and liberator. As Donald tures. It amounts to theology in the Bloesch has stated, Christ is to be context of orientation. known ‘as the unbounded love that reaches out to us even in our sin and depravity in order to draw us toward 1. A Theology of Orientation himself’.3 This passage begins with the Lord The orientation of the Lord is fol- moving across the lake of Galilee ‘to lowed by the orientation of the commu- the region of the Gerasenes’. The read- nity. They orientate themselves ers know that this is a gentile area and against God and the changes he brings. that confrontation is imminent.1 The It is a tragic picture of a world addicted narrative confirms this, since on his to its own dysfunctions and an unwill- arrival Jesus gets out of the boat and is ingness to be released from the famil- met by a man possessed by an ‘army’ of iarity it brings. Not so for the man in evil spirits called Legion. chains. His liberation stands within the The orientation of the Lord, who narrative as an event itself, yet reflects makes the initial move, is the neces- on the broader human dilemma. There sary starting point of this most engag- in the tombs the horror of evil takes ing narrative. He moves across the sway, with a destructive power that no lake and then he gets out of the boat. It one can subdue. It is a picture of is an orientation guided by his love for screams, alienation, and self-mutila- the afflicted and oppressed, and his tion. This is the state of the world in mission to enact the good news of sal- rebellion against God. It is a life lived vation. Here we encounter an orienta- among the dead—in fact no life at all. tion from within God’s own being and In this narrative the orientation of towards his beloved creation. Here we the evil spirits is overcome and cast find another echo of the orientation of aside by the orientation of the Lord, God first spoken of in the first chapter whose mission is finally realized in the of Genesis, when he ‘created’, ‘blessed’, new orientation of the man ‘dressed 2 and saw that ‘it was very good’. This and in his right mind’. Having been passage affirms again that humanity released by the Lord he can walk away does not move to God in every increas- from his entrapment and embrace a ing degrees of self-enlightenment. new life of praise and witness. How- ever, he must orientate himself where he is. He seeks to go with the Lord 1 The land of the Gerasenes is a ‘gentile land across the lake, but is sent home to marked by a herd of swine. Even the name, minister amongst his own. He must “Most High God,” occurs elsewhere in the Scriptures as a gentile expression for God.’ R. A. Guelich, 34a Word Biblical Commentary: Mark 1-8:26, (Dallas: Word Books, 1989), p. 3 Donald Bloesch, God The Almighty (Down- 288. ers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, 1995), p. 2 Genesis 1:1, 28, 31. 102. 266 John Lewis stay where he is, but he must reorien- Barth’s contention was that ‘grace tate himself away from the place of the implies mercy, for in it God meets a dead to the home of the living. It is a need. Through sin man has brought narrative of hope that addresses every himself into a miserable plight and God human dilemma. Having been met by has compassion on him in his plight.’6 God each one can say farewell to the As Jesus gets out of the boat he meets land of the Gerasenes, which here with the plight he has come to address. appears as a by-word for a rebellion His orientation leads to the necessary against God, and embrace a new orien- encounter that follows from his holy tation directed to his glory. power and sovereign dominion over all. Barth affirms this in his assertion that ‘God alone rules’.7 2. The Orientation of God The result of the Lord’s orientation The orientation of God in this passage is witnessed today in the church. exemplifies an action that emerges out Thomas Torrance explained Barth’s of what Karl Barth termed God’s conviction that the church ‘is not a ‘divine loving’.4 It is a love that orien- society of individuals who band them- tates God towards his creation. It is an selves voluntarily together through a orientation that leads to his presence, common interest in Jesus Christ’, but a since God seeks fellowship with the divine organization, the product of the crown of his creation. Indeed, Geoffrey will of God, ‘the result of his love in giv- Bromiley describes Barth’s doctrine of ing himself to mankind to share with God as asserting that this love seeks them his own divine life and love, and ‘unmerited fellowship’. To be sure, so to share with them knowledge of God is the Giver who, in his unbound- himself’.8 Therefore the church in ing grace, ‘turns in loving condescen- every way must stand as a responsive sion to the unworthy’.5 The orientation declaration to the loving and gracious of God that leads him to the outer orientation of God toward his creation. places of the Gerasenes is also an Churches must subdue their logic and expression of what Barth termed God’s respond from the heart to God’s orien- ‘victorious will’, that, imbued with holy tation of love for the lost and the love, does not surrender to the created dynamic witness to which he calls order, but stands in opposition to what- them. The orientation of God must lead ever is in ‘opposition to him’. to a response of one kind or another. Because Jesus orientates himself to Here the orientation of the Lord is met what is in opposition we can also term by three distinctive responses. this event as an expression of his mercy. As Bromiley has observed,

6 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 75. 4 G. Bromiley, Introduction to the Theology of 7 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 146. Karl Barth (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1979), p. 8 T. F. Torrance, Karl Barth: Biblical and 74. Evangelical Theologian (Edinburgh, T &T 5 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 74. Clark, 1990), p. 49. Farewell Gerasenes: A Bible Study on Mark 5:1-20 267

3. The Orientation of the that it is a message addressed to the Nations individual, ‘as a creature directly addressed by God and summoned Firstly we note that the evil spirits, within his historical existence to live called Legion, are taken over by their his life not out of himself but out of fear of God’s presence. Until this God’.12 moment they had held sway by acts of We secondly note the fear of the evil, which ultimately amounted to the horror that eschews humanity’s sepa- people of the Geresanes, which mani- ration from God. This passage clearly fests itself differently. They reflect the illustrates a world gripped by sin. fear of the world that remains in oppo- While God’s judgement is on the basis sition to God, since it is untouched by of wilful acts of moral and spiritual his love. They are content with their rebellion,9 scripture clearly portrays debilitating condition, since it offers a humanity as existing in the sin of familiarity they have come to know and Adam,10 an existence that can be master. They are addicted to their escaped only by embracing a new life in abuse and demoralization that takes the freeing victory of Jesus Christ. As away everything of worth, and leaves Barth so rightly claimed, humanity only the cruel delusion of power. As learns from Jesus Christ that it exists Donald Bloesch has wisely observed, in sin, the extent and gravity of sin, and sinfulness results in a disposition to the judgement that results because of want power over others. This contrasts it. Yet the hope of the Scriptures is in with ‘the divine imperative to serve 13 the fact that they point in the right others’. direction.11 In this narrative the orientation of The progression from entrapment to the healed man is contrasted with the freedom, which is brought about by dismissive and annoyed orientation of Christ and results in a new life, is given the people who have lost their power. full and dramatic expression in the nar- This is a fearful scene for the unrepen- rative now under discussion. It is a tant, and in their fear they plead that scene of separation that is overturned Jesus leaves, since they do not want by the Lord’s arrival. He comes as Lord the change he brings. Barth describes and Saviour, and his redeeming love is this state of humanity as the pride, unstoppable. Here we witness the mir- which lies at the root of sin. To be sure, acle of sinful rebellion and the domain ‘(i)n his pride man incurs the guilt of of evil transformed by Christ into faith- resisting God, denying his glory, and ful obedience. It manifests itself as a disrupting his order’.14 change of orientation from self to God. Today the people of God must real- Thomas Torrance agrees with Barth

12 T.F. Torrance, Karl Barth: Biblical and 9 2 Corinthians 5:10; Galatians 6:7; Romans Evangelical Theologian, p. 5. 14:12. 13 D. Bloesch, Jesus Christ (Downers Grove, 10 Romans 5:12; 1 Corinthians 15:21. Ill: InterVarsity Press, 1997), p. 45. 11 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 185. 14 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 187. 268 John Lewis ize that they do not live in an environ- tated towards his purposes. F.L. For- ment of statistics waiting to be gath- lines alludes to this in his belief that in ered in, but in a hostile world in rebel- regeneration people are made a new lion that can be changed only by the creation, with a new direction in life.17 power of God who calls a people to min- He concludes that, as Christians, ister in Word and Spirit. regeneration results for us in ‘a differ- ent attitude toward sin and Jesus Christ, resulting in ‘a basic desire in 4. The Orientation of God’s our heart to do right and be right with People God’.18 As a result of the Lord’s orientation we This new disciple had a new orien- can observe the third response—an tation born of the faith with which encounter that results in a ‘freedom Christ had blessed him. Barth was and its power’, which leads to a new instructive when he stated that the ori- existence in Christ called righteous- entation of faith in Jesus Christ origi- ness. As Barth claimed, ‘(r)ighteous- nates with him and results in the con- ness must be seen as a determination stitution of the new Christian, who is of the love of God’.15 Indeed, the kingly free to acknowledge, recognize and mastery of Jesus over the evil powers is confess that Jesus Christ is specifically an encounter that leaves the man for them.19 The grace of God that orien- ‘dressed and in his right mind’. The tates itself toward humanity, and the Lord’s orientation toward him has resulting orientation of faith, is at the resulted in a spiritual revolution that heart of this narrative. The faith that has enabled the man of the Gerasenes leads to a new orientation in life was to orientate himself toward Jesus stressed by Karl Barth. Barth, whose Christ and his fellow humanity. claims that he was not a universalist Today Christians can proclaim that should be taken more seriously,20 it is an orientation originating from exhorts us to see faith ‘as the authen- faith in Jesus Christ, who brings about tic response to God’s faithfulness’ a freedom that, as Barth put it, ‘takes which leads to ‘the humility of obedi- place as the root of unbelief is pulled ence’.21 out by the awakening power of the Holy As this freed new disciple orien- Spirit’.16 The resulting ‘new birth’ this passage illustrates is a dramatic event the church has come to refer to as regeneration. Spiritually, Christians 17 2 Corinthians 5:17; Ephesians 2:10. have all died to the old self, separate 18 F.L. Forlines, Biblical Systematics (Nashville: Tenn. Randal House, 1975), p. from God, tormented and alone, and 190. have been born in into a new existence 19 G. Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. alive with the hope of God and orien- 195. 20 D. Dayton, ‘Karl Barth and Evangelical- ism: The Varieties of a Sibling Rivalry’, (TSF Bulletin, May-June, 1985), p. 21. 15 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 75. 21 G. Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p. 16 G.Bromiley, Theology of Karl Barth, p 195. 190. Farewell Gerasenes: A Bible Study on Mark 5:1-20 269 tates himself towards the life of obedi- which is the love of God in Jesus Christ. ence he scans the distant horizon with Not as we plan for it in the future, but all it promises, and seeks to go there now, in the moment we exist in as we with Jesus. However, the Lord denies encounter the burden of our own space his request and instructs him to go and time. We can either look upon each home and bear witness to his family. moment as a reminder of a dull exis- This command tells us about the orien- tence that needs constant escaping tation God’s people are called to; this from by planning and forecasting, or disciple must consider his own space, we can come to our senses and behold in his own environment, and the oppor- the meaning of each hour as holy time, tunities it provides for God’s service. given by God, the flow of life as it Indeed, his great and holy calling is to comes before us for ministry. To this be a minister of Christ where he living flow we are called to pronounce stands. the blessing of God, with our words, The message this delivers for Chris- hearts and actions. Martin Buber was tians today is straightforward enough, right when he contended that ‘(t)here yet distinct from many of the courses is something that can only be found in that have sometimes been chosen. one place. It is a great treasure, which Christians have too often orientated may be called the fulfilment of exis- themselves on the basis of coveting tence. The place where this treasure other people’s success, and how it all can be found is on the place on which 23 can assist in procuring their own in the one stands.’ days ahead. However, this preoccupa- Karl Barth is well equipped to teach tion with the lure of what tomorrow us about responding to our environ- can bring can deaden spiritual vitality. ment with ethical veracity founded on Indeed, we are not called to consider the living Word. In recent times there the success of tomorrow but the sanc- have been some, unable to tackle Barth tity of the moment.22 Here, where we intellectually, who have seriously stand, now at this time, we are com- questioned his moral integrity. How- manded to bear witness to the light of ever, there is no evidence that he ever Christ, and minister with his equip- had an affair with his personal assis- ping. tant, Charlotte von Kirschbaum. Success is in existing solely for Rather, Barth was a man of the Word, Jesus Christ, and therefore orientating with a deep pastoral heart for people our hearts to the praise of his name, and an enduring concern for the world and an obedience that leads to service in which he lived. Barth understood and witness. Christ compels us in this well the orientation to which the narrative to realize that we will impact Lord’s people are summoned. Indeed, it is as ‘addressed by God and sum- our communities only so long as we moned within his historical existence proclaim and live the transformative, freeing and renewing power of God,

23 S. Noveck, Contemporary Jewish Thought: A Reader (New York: B’nai B’rith Department 22 Matthew 6:34. of Adult Education, 1963), p. 285. 270 John Lewis to live his life not out of himself but out to resonate in today’s emerging cul- of God’. It was for this reason that ture. Furthermore, the witness of the Barth believed that Christ was able to people of God, as they orientate them- make a total claim on the whole of selves to him and his ministry in the one’s existence, a claim ‘that will not world, must be seen as the most pow- allow any part of it to elude God’s cre- erful tool available in today’s relational ative and redeeming purpose’.24 and experiential culture. A world gripped by rebellion has become indifferent to our tactics. What Conclusion is needed is God’s powerful love pro- This passage in Mark’s Gospel is a nar- claimed and lived by God’s people as rative of orientation. Here one finds the they live their faith in dialogue with primacy of the orientation of God, surrounding communities, as they pro- which is met by three distinct orienta- claim the Word and witness to the tions: the orientation of the evil spirits, Spirit in prayer and ministry. The the orientation of the world, and the result is to see church differently, in a very different orientation of God’s new very different world—indeed, seeing disciple. It is a narrative that calls the church life and outreach as an expres- church to consider her own heart as a sion of the orientations this passage reflection of God’s love for his creation, narrates. The orientations of God, of however rebellious. Therefore a pas- evil, the world, and the people of God sion borne of God must replace institu- must all be brought into account as we tionalism and its needs, if the gospel is pray the longing of our hearts, to see people farewell the land of the Gerasenes, and all it represents, and embrace a new life orientated towards 24 T.F. Torrance, Karl Barth: Biblical and the life, witness and service of Jesus Evangelical Theologian, p. 5. Christ.

THE NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF OLD TESTAMENT THEOLOGY & EXEGESIS A major achievement in Old Testament studies, this comprehensive five-volume dictionary is an invaluable study aid for all involved in the analysis and exposition of the Old Testament. ‘When dictionaries and encyclopaedias are multiplying, NIDOTTE looks set to become the standard work in this field for all who respect the Bible.’ Alan Millard (Rankin Professor of Hebrew and Semitic Languages, University of Liverpool)

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Reviewed by John Lewis Reviewed by Keith Warrington Dr Kurt Anders Richardson Reading Karl Barth: New Directions for Beyond the Impasse. Toward a Pneuma- North American Theology tological Theology of Religions Reviewed by David W. McKinley Reviewed by David Parker George M. Marsden David F. Wells Jonathan Edwards: A Life Above all Earthly Pow’rs Christ in a Reviewed by Michael F. Bird Postmodern World Larry W. Hurtado Reviewed by Joseph Too Shao The Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus Joseph Blenkinsopp in Earliest Christianity Treasures Old and New: Essays in the Reviewed by Robert J. Vajko Theology of the Pentateuch Trev Gregory Reviewed by David Parker Mission Now: Developing a Mission David Wenham Lifestyle Paul and Jesus: The True Story Reviewed by David Parker William J. Abraham Reviewed by David Parker The Logic of Renewal Christine A. Mallouhi Miniskirts, Mothers and Muslims: A Reviewed by Paul Joshua Bhakiaraj Christian Women in a Muslim Land Bob Robinson Christians Meeting Hindus: An Analysis Reviewed by Tony Richie and Theological Critique of Hindu-Chris- Thomas C. Oden and J. I. Packer. tian Encounter in India One Faith: The Evangelical Consensus

THE NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY OF NEW TESTAMENT THEOLOGY Editor: Colin Brown A four volume set offering concise discussions of all the major theological terms in the New Testament against the background of classical and koine Greek, the Old Testament, Rabbinical thought and different usages in the New Testament.

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ERT (2006) 30:3, 272-273 alty to the Reformation. ‘In particular, his constancy with reference to Luther and Reading Karl Barth: New Calvin and to the traditions that emerged Directions for North American out of them never left him.’ Indeed, Barth Theology was an advocate of continual reform that Kurt Anders Richardson is ‘sensitive to the demands of the Holy Grand Rapids: Baker Academic Spirit, who is Lord of the Word’ and who 2004. brings ‘the church into ever-greater vital ISBN 0-8010-2729-2 conformity to the truth of that Word’. Pb pp 246 bibliog index Consequently Barth found himself again Reviewed by John Lewis, Adelaide, South and again being tested by that Word ‘the Australia. Word of revelation, of God’s self-objectifi- cation, of gracious election, of creation, of Kurt Anders Richardson, professor in the justification and sanctification, and finally faculty of theology at McMaster of faithful obedience—in all the living, University in Canada, has produced an freeing, loving Word of the Triune God in engaging and detailed study of Karl Barth and through Jesus Christ’. Richardson in the North American context. also correctly describes Barth as a Richardson comes to this publication Reformed theologian who ‘holds to the after a lengthy sojourn with Barth. This is particular relation between Scripture and an essential qualification. all other statements of doctrine and inter- Misinterpretations have too frequently pretation in the history and life of the dominated the evangelical landscape. church’. These have often resulted in Barth being The correlation between Barth’s work interpreted as an icon of Kantianism. and postmodernity is of particular inter- Conversely, Richardson’s distilled wisdom est to current theological and ecclesiolog- rightly attests to Barth’s ‘immense testi- ical debate. In response to this issue mony to the truth of the gospel of Jesus Richardson makes the observation that Christ’. To be sure, God’s Word revealed postmodernism ‘makes much of the in Jesus Christ dominated Barth’s demise of the so-called grand narrative’, thought, most evidently as it emerged out evident in such conceptions as ‘religious the crisis experience he had while serving individualism’. Here Richardson believes his congregation at Safenwil. Barth has a part to play, since ‘he is post- Richardson succinctly summarises these modern in the sense of believing that one important years of transition. As he does, must go beyond this position to some- it becomes apparent that Barth’s inten- thing truer, something that grasps the tion was to be ‘interested only in how rev- reality of God more fully. Religious indi- elation can be heard to speak on its own vidualism is not so much a wrong path as terms, into all of life, by re-creating that an incomplete one.’ To be sure, life in the confession of faith and the obe- Richardson contends that a postmodern dience of the church’. The author is also reading of Barth will produce some of the right in observing that Barth’s theology of most inventive uses of his work. ‘Barth’s the Word continued to demonstrate a loy- early rejection of what was quintessen- Book Reviews 273 tially modern, liberal theology, cannot broad subjectivity. Instead, it gave birth help but be interpreted as postmodern in to a form of critical realism much like some basic sense.’ But what of reading Barth’s own. Barth held to both a realism Barth from an American perspective? founded on the objective self-revelation of Richardson reveals that he reads Barth God in Christ, and a recognition that ‘because his work is such a turning point humanity will always approach knowl- in Christian theology’. However, not all edge on the basis of its sinfulness. This is North Americans have been as receptive. certainly Barth’s understanding of The author starts with Van Til’s misun- Scripture as the Word of God. He under- derstanding before highlighting Gordon stood Scripture as revelation, ‘but yet Clark’s accusation of irrationalism and through human witnesses, the authors of biblical fallibilism. Richardson is right Scripture, and those whose witness of the when he points to the problematic nature Word of God is recorded in Scripture’. of the fundamentalist critique of Barth. The author concludes by affirming that They were so heavily encased in their just as Barth is able to define the past, so own ‘metaphysical and logical assump- is he a worthy guide for the continuing tions’ that an accurate grasp of Barth’s pilgrimage of North American theology thesis was beyond them. Barth, however, beyond modernism. ‘Barth assists us in found a favourable response with the Yale finding healing after the great losses of Divinity School. Here Richardson points modernist theology.’ However, one can to Hans Frei’s appropriation of Barth ‘by not simply follow after Barth, since his making Scripture the fundamental source ‘answers are not our answers’. of meaning in theology’. However, the Nonetheless, Barth would have us adopt a author’s reviews of evangelical, Catholic, theology of Word and Spirit, ‘all centred and Orthodox, receptions are so succinct on Jesus Christ and his mediatorial and that it seems unnecessary to have includ- Trinitarian role for the life of the churchy ed them. Yet his discussion on the heart and the world.’ of North American theology, and its inter- action with Barth, is Richardson’s obvi- A degree of similarity exists between ous interest, and this he does well. Richarson’s work and the recent republi- cation of John Howard Yoder’s essays. Richardson believes that ‘North American Both reflect on North America’s engage- Christianity extended the Reformation ment with Barth and discuss the impor- search for an original experience of faith tance of Barth’s theology of the Word of while at the same time seeking to trans- God. None the less, there are noticeable plant and to preserve its Old World forms differences. While Richardson seeks to of faith’. He contends that such a high assess Barth’s interaction with North degree of religious divergence led to an American Christianity, Yoder responds to abandonment of the Puritan model of the Barth as a Mennonite, therefore dis- state and an embracing of the concept of cussing Barth’s strengths and weakness- religious liberty, shaped as it was by ‘the duties of personal conversion: repentance, es according to a pacifist agenda. personal duty, prayer, and vocation’. To be sure, while all groups affirmed the God of Jesus Christ their differences created ‘a strained willingness’ to live with fallibili- ty. Nevertheless, this did not produce a 274 Book Reviews

ERT (2006) 30:3, 274-275 Marsden shows Edwards’ true colours, as well. Unlike biographies which venerate Jonathan Edwards: A Life their subjects, Marsden reveals a very George M. Marsden human Jonathan Edwards. For instance, there is the high importance Edwards New Haven: Yale University Press, placed upon truth to the extent that he 2003 was socially inept. Edwards also admitted ISBN 0-300-09693-3 to clumsily handling the Young Folks’ Pb pp 512 bibliog, index, Bible incident and the communion contro- illustrations versy, which eventually led to his ousting Reviewed by David W. McKinley, Central from Northampton. There is immense Schwenkfelder Church, Worcester, PA value in this honest portrait of Edwards as someone with whom we can identify, George Marsden’s, Jonathan Edwards: A albeit a high-profile Congregational minis- Life is a masterful work, covering the ter in the mid-1700s. life’s duration of America’s greatest the- Marsden sets Edwards apart from the ologian and philosopher. Many biogra- other clergy of his era by portraying him phies have surfaced relating to Edwards, as a pioneer of sorts. Edwards’ New Light yet Marsden’s is the first in several convictions that genuine revival was a decades. What is intriguing about necessity to the renewal of the church Marsden’s book is that it highlights the made him different from many of the oth- times of adversity encountered by ers of his time. For that reason he devel- Edwards at each turn in his life: from the oped a following of young ministers and tumult of a student uprising at Yale to liv- laid the groundwork for the institution ing with his parents as a young adult. that would later become known as Other instances include his being ousted Princeton University. Furthermore, from the pastorate at Northampton, the Marsden portrays Edwards as an interna- political pitfalls and Indian fears at tional figure. From the very beginning of Stockbridge and ultimately his untimely his post-Yale days, Edwards saw himself death of smallpox after arriving at Yale as as making a global contribution to theolo- president. Through each trial, Marsden gy and philosophy, possessing a special portrays Edwards as a steadfast, yet vul- relationship with New Light figures in nerable figure who endures much for the Scotland. He achieved this not only with A causes of faith and principle. Personal Narrative but also with his many In addition, the reader obtains a helpful other publications as they reached the profile of each participant in Edwards’ British Isles and elsewhere. Of special life, as in immediate family members such benefit are the historical contexts sur- as wife Sarah or daughter Jerusha. There rounding Edwards’ masterpieces such as are also encounters with young ministeri- Religious Affections, Original Sin, and al followers such as Aaron Burr and Freedom of the Will. Such contributions Timothy Dwight, or even professional prove Edwards to be as some have said, enemies such as Charles Chauncy and ‘The Father of the American Church’. Elisha Williams. Marsden is helpful by Marsden’s purpose in writing, Jonathan educating the reader not just on Edwards Edwards: A Life is to bring together two the man, but on others who interacted kinds of interests in the early American with him. Puritan. The author states, ‘One of my Book Reviews 275 hopes is that this book may help bridge has produced several significant volumes the gap between the Edwards of the stu- on early Christian worship and dents of American culture and the Christology. In the current volume Edwards of the theologians.’ However, by Hurtado’s aim is to argue that (a) devo- way of critique, Marsden often refers to tion to Jesus cannot be attributed to evo- the Calvinism that Edwards adhered to, lutionary developments in Christology or yet never expounds on what that term to external forces; (b) there is no genuine means. To the theologian, a system of analogy for the intensity and diversity of thought so popular and prevalent among devotion to Jesus in primitive Christianity; the New England ecclesiastical establish- and (c) devotion to Jesus which attributed ment is easily assumed. To others outside to him divine characteristics remained of that fold, however, Edwards’ Calvinism within the orbit of monotheism (pp. 2-3). needs explanation. Marsden fails to do As such, Hurtado’s primary dialogue part- that, leaving too much to be assumed. ner is the Religionsgeschictliche Schule in Overall, George Marsden’s Jonathan the tradition of Willhelm Bousset’s Kyrios Edwards: A Life is a biography that both Christos and similar works. By all mea- informs and transforms its readers. It is sures this volume is well-written, thor- easy to see why it has won such presti- oughly researched, and makes for com- gious recognition as the 2004 Bancroft pelling reading. Prize in American History and as a final- Chapter one examines the forces and fac- ist for the 2003 National Book Critics tors that shaped Christ-devotion, includ- Circle Award. Its presentation makes it ing Jewish monotheism that funnelled easily accessible to the educated lay read- devotion to Jesus in a binitarian direction, er or to the serious student of history and the polarizing effects of Jesus’ career, theology. Its evangelical sympathies are revelatory religious experiences that led most refreshing to those of us who are followers of Jesus to incorporate Jesus weary of secular interpretations of faith- into their devotional life, and responses to ful historical figures. It is a pleasure to the first-century religious environment. recommend it to all that have an interest Hurtado focuses on beliefs and practice in revival history, American colonial stud- reflected in Paul’s letters in chapter two. ies, or the formation of early evangelical- He discusses Paul’s background, ism. Christological language, and Jesus’ role in worship practices. Hurtado surmizes that Paul witnesses to a pattern of Christ- ERT (2006) 30:3, 275-276 devotion that emerged in the years imme- diately following Jesus’ death. In chapter The Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion three Hurtado explores material that tes- to Jesus in Earliest Christianity tifies to Christ-devotion in Judean Jewish Larry W. Hurtado Christianity. This leads Hurtado to the Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003 conclusion that ‘the most influential and ISBN 0-8028-6070-2 momentous developments in devotion to Hb, xxii + 746 pp. bibliog., indices Jesus took place in early circles of Judean believers’ (p. 216). Reviewed by Michael F. Bird, Highland Theological College, Dingwall, Scotland Chapter four concerns Q and early devo- tion to Jesus. Hurtado surveys aspects of Larry Hurtado (University of Edinburgh) Q including the centrality of Jesus, the 276 Book Reviews reign of God, the absence of explicit refer- Christians began to appear on the radar ence to Jesus’ death and resurrection, and of Roman authorities. The developments its Christological motifs. Hurtado main- in the later NT writings such as Hebrews, tains that the devotional practices exhib- Colossians, Ephesians and the Pastorals ited in Q do not represent a distinct ver- are said to be indicative of how Jesus- sion of Christianity, but contain beliefs in devotion likewise developed into a ‘proto- many ways consistent with other orthodoxy’ in the second century. Chapter Christian writings. Hurtado explores the nine includes discussion of the ‘radical Gospels or ‘Jesus Books’ in chapter five. diversity’ in the second century centred He suggests that the Gospels are a dis- on Valentinus and Marcion and their own tinctive kind (or subgenre) of bios which form of devotional beliefs towards Jesus. has been adapted to suit the goals of the The final chapter is about ‘Proto-orthodox evangelists (282). He goes on to examine Devotion’ in the second century and the various ‘renditions’ of Jesus in the explores Old Testament interpretations in synoptic Gospels (p. 283). Concerning the relation to Jesus, patterns of devotion in enigmatic Son of Man material, Hurtado later Christian literature, and identifies asserts that it ‘is not a title’ (p. 305) but the major doctrinal developments of the was constructed in ‘bilingual circles of second century as being: Jesus’ descent Jesus’ followers to serve as his distinctive into Hades, Jesus as man and God, and self-referential expression in conveying divine Jesus and God. his sayings in Greek’ (p. 304). Hurtado’s Lord Jesus Christ is a must read In chapter six there is a discussion of for anyone involved in research on ‘Crisis and Christology in Johannine Christology or Christian origins. Those Christianity’. Attention is given to the who find the 746 pages of scholarly dis- particular Christological emphases of the cussion hard going may prefer the abbre- Fourth Gospel and how the Johannine viated, cheaper and more popular version, writings demonstrate that Christological How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? issues were foremost in causing the (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005). expulsion of believers from the synagogue and leading to the exit of the so-called secessionists. The non-canonical ‘Jesus ERT (2006) 30:3, 276-277 books’ are investigated in chapter seven with particular attention paid to the Mission Now: Developing a Gospel of Thomas. Hurtado concludes that Mission Lifestyle the heterodox Jesus books are distin- Trev Gregory guished from the others by, first, a partic- Carlisle: Authentic, 2003 ular and elitist claim that is exhibited in ISBN 1-85078-546-5 terms of secret instruction. Second, het- Pb pp 222 erodox writings do not present Jesus as Reviewed by Robert J. Vajko, D Miss, The the climax of Israel’s Scriptures. Third, Evangelical Alliance Mission and Adelaide such writings do not situate Jesus in the College of Ministries. context of a strict Jewish monotheism (pp. 484-85). Here is a challenging contemporary book In chapter eight Hurtado contends that on mission mobilisation focused on a the second century was a crucial period ‘lifestyle’ approach. Gregory describes in the formation of Christianity and this as ‘a way of life or style of living that Book Reviews 277 reflects the attitudes, values and actions Part III is a final workbook section devel- of a person or group’ (p. 4). The three oped by Trev Gregory and another con- parts of the book deal with encountering tributor, Greg Reader. It consists of a a mission lifestyle, then describing a mis- plan for a week of prayer for mission, a sion lifestyle for the church and finally two step worksheet to develop a global developing a mission lifestyle—in that vision, a plan to develop cross-cultural order. understanding, helps to making decisions The main contributor in Part I, Trev about mission, and a section on short- Gregory, starts by laying a biblical foun- term missions. dation for missions and moving the reader This reviewer was challenged anew in his through the first chapter of Colossians. vision for world missions by this book and The goal is that the reader might under- in particular by the Moravian challenge: stand ‘who he or she is and where he or ‘To win for the Lamb that was slain, the she fits into God’s Kingdom and eternal reward of his sufferings’ (p. 80). This plan’ (p. 7). This ‘identity’ approach is book has put together some of the best of felt by this reviewer to be a key to stimu- Andrew Murray’s writings on missions lating individuals in mission, particularly with contemporary challenges by the if they see reaching the world as the main other two contributors. If readers take theme of Scripture and not just a concern the contents of this book and work of some people in the church. But through the final section, they will cer- Gregory wants identity to move to belief tainly be deeper in their missionary com- and then on to action. The remainder of mitment. Part I defines mission, explains the differ- One drawback of the format of this book ent types of mission, and challenges the is determining quite who is speaking— reader to get involved. Andrew Murray or one of the other two Part II consists of eight major articles contributors. This book is not written by written by renowned author and pastor, either a missiologist or a theologian but Andrew Murray (1828-1917), and come an ‘ordinary Brit with a passion for global from his book The Key to the Missionary mission, young people and Europe’ (p. Problem written in 1901 for the viii). If one is looking for a challenged Ecumenical Missionary Conference of based on a scholarly approach to mis- 1900. Each one of these eight has been sions in the Bible much is available else- abridged and contemporised by Trev where. But if one is looking for a heart- Gregory. The book by Murray is built warming challenge, this is the book. We around four major theses as follows: 1) need both those who have the gift of Global mission is for the whole church teaching and knowledge as well as those and is the reason for its existence; 2) The who have the gift of exhortation. Trev role of church leadership is to guide the Gregory is to be commended for bringing church in this; 3) All preaching and us the words of Andrew Murray who, like teaching in the church should have this Abel of old, being dead, still speaks and as a goal; and 4) Every leader in the challenges believers today. church should seek God’s grace to accom- plish this global vision. Gregory states that Murray’s challenging vision needs to be brought to the forefront again in this way. 278 Book Reviews

ERT (2006) 30:3, 278-279 secular and profane culture’. Each of the seven main chapters takes The Logic of Renewal two examples of renewal, all of which William J. Abraham present contrasting but related opinions, London: SPCK, 2003 while one, the centre chapter, is devoted ISBN 0-281-5618-8 to two (Martin Luther King Jr. and Oscar Pb pp 159 Index Romero ) which present the same general picture of ‘dying for renewal’ in the con- Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, text of a kingdom approach, one which Evangelical Review of Theology the author largely endorses. Others exam- ined include Dennis Bennett, Lesslie This book attempts to understand and Newbigin, Bishop Spong, Rosemary promote renewal by doing case studies of recent proposals. The writer (from Radford Ruether and Cardinal Ratziner Perkins School of Theology), known for (now Pope Benedict). several large scale works such as The The chapters feature catchy titles, point- Divine Inspiration of Holy Scripture (1981) ing clearly to Abraham’s assessment of and Canon and Criterion in Christian his subjects, which is usually presented Theology (1998) has written a short, easy very sharply. For example, chapter 6 is to read tract which he sees as the succes- titled ‘Trojan Horses from Paris’ and sor and extension of The Logic of deals with two individuals who had con- Evangelism (1989). Its ‘reverse engineers’ nections with the city of Paris— ideas of renewal present a variety of Alexander Schmemann (Orthodox) and exponents drawn from a wide spectrum of Gilbert Bilezikian (who is best known as Christianity—Protestant (evangelical, the mentor of Billy Hybels of Willow charismatic, liberal), Catholic and Creek). In the case of the latter, Abraham Orthodox. He describes their assessment is amazed that ‘someone so committed to of the ills of the church, then examines oneness should limit the unity of the their explanation of why these problems Church as a whole to that found in the have developed and then their ‘prescrip- local congregation’ and he finds it ‘extra- tion as to how to put things right’. ordinary’ that a ‘scholar of Bilezekian’s Thus, for James T. Draper, of the training should expect us to see this as Southern Baptist Convention, USA, “biblical”’. His ‘constant efforts to come ‘decline is the outcome of the erosion of up with “biblical” definitions of contested the true gospel by the major churches of ideas like leadership and ministry are the West’, through the substitution of simply far-fetched and unconvincing’. human reason in place of divine revela- Another chapter is titled ‘Quaking in the tion. The solution is ‘the recovery of the Ruins’. It includes treatment of Peter inerrancy of scripture as the foundation of Wagner and his apostolic church model the Church’s theology’. For Donald Cupitt as presented in his book, Churchquake of UK, the problem is that ‘the Church is (1999) which effectively abandons the wedded to a form of dogmatic theology church as it has been known for two that betrays the message of the kingdom’. thousand years, and calls us ‘to start all The solution is for the church to ‘redis- over again’, As far as Abraham is con- cover the kingdom message of the histori- cerned, ‘despite the excitement and the cal Jesus’ and ‘come to terms with the upbeat rhetoric’, this is ‘one more version evolving emptying out of the divine into of congregationalism, decked out this Book Reviews 279 time in a quasi-dispensationalist theology gifts, the fruit of the Spirit, offices, litur- of history driven by superficial sociologi- gy, creeds, canons and councils, in the cal observations’, in which the ‘biblical end it is not developed very much. citations operate as a thin veneer of con- Instead, the author gets sidetracked by servative apologetic’ aimed at those look- his preoccupation with what he considers ing for simple ‘blueprint’. to be one of the main problems of the After describing the ideas of renewal pre- church and ideas put forward for its sented by each pair of subjects, the chap- renewal-epistemology. Time and again he ters end with evaluation. In the process declares that renewalists have displaced Abraham skillfully presents in only a few or restricted this canonical heritage by pages an effective summary of often volu- focusing on intellectual questions and minous material and a finely etched offered ‘diagnosis and prescription in cameo of each person’s position. terms of some favoured theory of knowl- Although it does help provide a clear edge’. But he argues that ‘we are not ‘map’ in a context where the church is, as healed or saved by philosophy’ but ‘by the he says, ‘currently awash in a sea of living God’. Furthermore, ‘Christian scrip- renewal movements’ (almost to the point ture is not a norm in epistemology’ and of drowning!), it can lead to a simplistic ‘to press scripture to serve this end will assessment. For example, Draper’s lead to a deep misuse of scripture’. Southern Baptist fundamentalism is pre- However, as the book title indicates, he sented as ‘the Baptist position’ as if there recognizes the continuing and growing were none other that mattered from that importance of epistemology, especially in tradition. Also Abraham’s own assess- the light of the history of western culture. ments of the various subjects and his pre- But it is necessary to distinguish ‘eccle- liminary hints at a solution to the prob- sial canons’ from ‘epistemic norms’ and lem of renewal are presented without any once that is done, epistemology can be detailed support, biblical or otherwise. given the serious treatment it deserves Only in the last chapter does he attempt (perhaps as a ‘new sub-discipline within this task in a more thorough-going way. theology, identified as the epistemology of This solution is, as Andrew Walker states theology’) without high-jacking the main in the generous Foreword, ‘rooted in a efforts of the church and especially its pneumatological understanding of the his- unity and its thrust towards renewal. toric and catholic faith’ which calls for a Although this is sound advice, readers ‘recapitulation and reappropriation of the applying Abraham’s own technique of canonical heritage of the Christian tradi- analysis to his proposal for renewal tion’. Abraham makes it clear that ‘the would find that it needs to be fleshed out key to the renewal of the Church is the much more than is indicated in this short varied workings of the Holy Spirit, the book before they can go forward with it. Lord and Giver of Life’ because ‘the Church is from the beginning to the end a charismatic community… brought into existence, equipped, guided and sustained by the Holy Spirit’. Although he thereby extends this ‘canonical heritage’ very broadly through the history and fellow- ship of the church to include charismatic 280 Book Reviews

ERT (2006) 30:3, 280-281 goal; ‘secular’, where joint action to address secular problems is undertaken; Christians Meeting Hindus: An ‘interior’, where Christians prepare them- Analysis and Theological Critique selves for conversation or action and of Hindu-Christian Encounter in finally, ‘existential’, where direct and India open acceptance of each other and their spiritualities is facilitated. However, Bob Robinson knowledge of these patterns alone, he Carlisle: Regnum, 2004 explains, will not facilitate a mature per- ISBN 1-870345-39-8. ception unless the manner in which these Pb. 392pp. Bibliog. Index. patterns are established is also under- Reviewed by Paul Joshua Bhakiaraj, stood. Both formal and informal dialogue Mylapore Institute of Indigenous Studies, will need to be recognized. While he India. acknowledges the significance of the lat- ter, the former constitutes the major Bob Robinson, presently teaching at the focus of the book. Formal dialogue is Tyndale Graduate School of Theology, often ‘implemented and maintained with New Zealand, has done all of us interest- institutional sanction’ (p. 53) and may ed in interreligious relations a favour by more often than not take place at producing this rich and stimulating book. ‘Ashrams and Interreligous Centres’, It not only represents the substance of ‘Live-together Sessions’, ‘Shared his doctoral research but also reflects on Worship’ and ‘Conferences, Seminars his first hand experience of living and Consultations and Literature’. working amongst Hindus in Asia. Whatever form it has taken, both general Consequently it is an academically sound and more theological reasons that moti- and practically sensitive treatise on vate Christians in dialogue are important Christian-Hindu Dialogue. and Robinson serves as a mature guide The book has seven chapters discussing here. But perhaps more significant is his issues such as paths to dialogue; the observation on the manner in which dia- meaning and practice of dialogue; justifi- logue has occasioned a change within cation of dialogue; a critique of dialogue; Christianity itself. One, it has called for and the role of Christology in dialogue. conscious and intentional reflection on The remarkable breadth that Robinson the plural nature of society and covers is not, however, achieved at the Christianity’s role in that milieu. Leading expense of any significant depth. In fact on from that, it has also motivated the his detailed analysis and theological cri- search for an authentic Indian tique mines the depths of the theory and Christianity and its expression in an practice of dialogue as few others have authentic Indian theology—the welcome done. After an almost exhaustive review promotion of ‘dialogical theology’ being of the literature on dialogue Robinson one case in point. Consequently he concludes, that though no precise defini- affirms that dialogue is essential not only tion or consensus has been reached, for ‘secular’ reasons of communal harmo- broad patterns seem to be discernable. ny, though that is a most urgent concern Dialogue tends to be one of the following: today, but also as a goad toward refining, ‘discursive’, where clarity of understand- even sharpening our Christian calling in ing each other’s view point is the shared the world. For Christians dialogue is thus Book Reviews 281 both externally and internally vital. Hence alludes to it, he does not elaborate and it is to be treated with the urgency and thus his work will need to be supplement- gravity it deserves, however at the same ed, for example, by Amos Yong and time not uncritically. ’s recent work, if one is to The ensuing discussion on Christology as keep abreast of the current state of the the justification for dialogue builds on debate. these observations. It has often been said Notwithstanding those observations, it that Christology and its attendant scandal must be said that Robinson’s work stands of particularity is the bane of interreli- as a model of a critical analysis of both gious dialogue. In contrast Robinson theology and praxis of dialogue and a argues that far from stalling the discus- book that makes an important contribu- sion even before it has begun, tion to Christian-Hindu Dialogue in its Christocentrism (a term he prefers to own right. It will be a valuable invest- exclusivism) may actually provide a ment for anyone interested in interreli- sound basis for dialogue. This, however, gious relations and doubtless that will is qualified by four nouns—humility, mean all those interested in Christian patience, modesty and charity—which mission. emphasize the ‘dynamic nature of dia- logue as a relationship’, and that ‘ortho- praxis should matter to the Christian as ERT (2006) 30:3, 281-283 much as orthodoxy’ (p. 262). This quali- fied Christocentrism, he argues, is a Beyond the Impasse: Toward a specifically Christian approach to dialogue Pneumatological Theology of for it violates neither Christian self-under- Religions standing nor integrity, yet it does not nec- Amos Yong essarily exclude God’s universal revela- Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2003 tion and action. This proposal is then ISBN 1-84227-208-4; articulated by establishing an Indian Pb pp205 Indices Christological basis for dialogue. Reviewed by Keith Warrington, Regents This is a rich and stimulating book. The Theological College, England depth of discussion and the almost exhaustive use of literature are only two Writing as a Pentecostal and Professor of of its many appealing features. However Theology (Regent University, Virgina one area that I felt could have been more Beach), Amos Yong posits a ‘pneumato- precisely defined was the fact that while logical theology of religions’ as providing the sub-title suggested ‘Hindu-Christian a contribution that may help in inter-faith Encounter’ was the subject of the book, it dialogue. Given this premise, he broaches actually tends to focus more specifically the question as to whether the Spirit is at on dialogue. It would perhaps be more work only in and through the church. accurate if ‘dialogue’ was used instead of Undergirding what will be a complex ‘encounter’ in the subtitle. The other matrix of ideas and dialogue is a practical comment that deserves mention here is issue relating to the eternal destiny of the that more recently discussions have unevangelised. Briefly exploring exclu- moved on to include, besides Christology, sivism, inclusivism and pluralism, he con- the role of the Holy Spirit in the study of cludes that each is determined by interreligious encounter. While Robinson Christian assumptions concerning soteri- 282 Book Reviews ology and christology and is thus less the same time, he is aware that where helpful when applied to a theology of reli- the latter is stressed in inter-faith dia- gions. logue, such dialogue breaks down irre- He establishes the importance of a pneu- trievably. A pneumatological approach, matological theology, briefly identified as however, allows for the possibility of dia- the quest to explore that which the Spirit logue that is less threatening, given the has been doing, is doing and will do, as a assumption of ‘the Spirit’s “saving pres- result of which he concludes that the ence” and “saving power” in the non- Spirit is busier in more contexts than Christian faiths’. many have assumed. Thereafter, he As well as devoting forty-five pages to makes his case for a pneumatological exploring the views of those who have approach to a theology of religions on the trod a similar path, he advocates a more basis that it is fully trinitarian. He then robust pneumatological approach to a the- provides three axioms that are founda- ology of religions. In the final two chap- tional to his thesis: ‘God is universally ters, he returns to affirm the three present and active in the Spirit’, ‘God’s axioms outlined earlier and presents a Spirit is the life-breath of the image Dei framework for discerning the presence of in every human being’, and, more contro- the Spirit. After examining a number of versially, ‘The religions of the world, like biblical texts where the concept of ‘dis- everything else that exists, are providen- cernment’ is included, he promotes tially sustained by the Spirit of God for charismatic and phenomenological dis- divine purposes’. cernment as essential criteria in deter- As a result of the latter perspective, he mining the presence of the Spirit. In this rejects the notion that ‘the religions lie regard, one may hear what the Spirit may beyond the pale of divine presence and say internally and also what experience activity’, partly because the Spirit ‘leads and outward manifestations may offer to the quest for truth amidst all those who the determining of the conclusion, though are searching for it’. He emphasizes that he notes that a dogmatic method cannot to concentrate on the presence of the be devised that determines for certain Spirit in other religions should not de- where the Spirit is or is not. emphasize the centrality of Christ to sal- This is a complex book dealing with an vation or undermine the role of evange- important topic, the argument proposed lism. His task is to find a way to dialogue being controversial but significant with with other religions in their quest for regard to inter-faith dialogue—especially ‘otherness’ rather than to provide a if the premise is right, that the Spirit is means of evangelising their members. already working throughout the world in Although there is a connectedness all areas of life, including religion, where between dialogue and conversion between people are seeking for ultimate truth. It Christianity and other faiths, it is possible will be of particular value to postgraduate that the one can occur without the other level students as well as theologians and and that the event still be a positive those involved in inter-faith dialogue. development and not a failure. Given its importance to all believers and He is aware that in advocating a pneuma- especially those who advocate a signifi- tological paradigm, there is the danger cant role to the Spirit, it would be of ben- that the normativeness of Christ as medi- efit if it could be also presented in a more ator of salvation may be undermined. At accessible fashion for a broader reader- Book Reviews 283 ship. It would be a shame for this to be promised and sold out to the contempo- read and appreciated mainly by profes- rary cultural values. sors and preferable if it could be adapted The views of these evangelicals are not to a wider audience who may be put off always discussed in great detail, but dev- by the detailed argumentation and who astating evaluations (often in footnotes) may assume incorrectly, gleaned from a are made of people like Donald cursory glance at a few pages, that this is McGavran, Gordon McDonald, Brian advocating a flexible universalism. It is in Maclaren, Middleton and Walsh, and reality, well researched, tightly argued, Stanley Grenz. However, Wells does developed in partnership with the devote extended treatment to Pinnock thoughts of others and thoughtfully pro- and Open Theism, faulted not only for moted. departing from Calvinism but also for The author is to be commended for his ‘flirting with the old, discredited Christ- willingness to risk misunderstanding in of-culture position which brought Liberal order to progress to a fuller appreciation Protestants to such a sorry end’ (p. 248). of the flexibility and creativity of the Then in the closing stages of the book, Spirit throughout the world, including special attention is given to the seeker- areas where it may have been assumed he oriented Willow Creek Church and its could not or would not enter. founder, Bill Hybels, and the new way of ‘doing church’ which he has pioneered. The first two chapters traverse the well- ERT (2006) 30:3, 283-285 trodden path of the former dominance of modernism and the transition to postmod- Above all Earthly Pow’rs ernism, although Wells puts his own Christ in a Postmodern World interpretation on this situation. For exam- David F. Wells ple, he argues that it would be ‘quite Grand Rapids/Leicester: unrealistic’ to think that the elitist philos- Eerdmans/Inter-Varsity, 2005 ophy of the Enlightenment somehow ISBN 0-8028-2902-3 trickled down to popular culture; instead, ISBN 1-844474-106-0 he argues that the extraordinary power of Hb, pp 339, Bibliog. Index modernism is to be explained by ‘the Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, modernization of our world, which has Evangelical Review of Theology produced its own psychological environ- ment which parallels the intellectual cli- Above all Earthly Pow’rs, David Wells’ mate of the Enlightenment’ (p 58). He fourth volume in a series which began in argues the same for the relation between 1993 with No Place for Truth, offers a postmodernity (the intellectual move- forceful re-statement of orthodox ment) and postmodernism (popular cul- Reformed teaching over against postmod- ture), querying ‘what is often left unex- ern values. Wells feels this is especially plained is how we get from Foucault to necessary because of the failure of evan- MTV, from Derrida to the centerless gelicalism to respond properly to this young people whose canopy of meaning in challenge. He claims that instead of con- life has collapsed, from Fish and Rorty to fronting postmodernism with a Christian our movies’ (p 65). He sees postmod- world view which exalts the lordship of ernism, with its lack of a comprehensive Christ, evangelicals have typically com- worldview and purpose, and with no place 284 Book Reviews for truth, as part of ‘a major shift in mood ment, to provide authentic answers to the and outlook’ in the culture, which never- problems caused by postmodernism and theless is not ‘deep enough, and decisive multi-culturalism: ‘Far from challenging enough to have established a clean this emptiness and futility, evangelical breach with modernity’ (p 66). churches have too often been its exem- Another chapter deals with the impact of plars… pitching their “product” to “con- changes to US laws in 1965 which per- sumers” and emptying themselves of mitted immigration from non-European every vestige of spiritual gravitas as if countries, thus introducing into the striving for a serious faith were a failing American scene an entirely new cultural of great magnitude and one to be avoided component—non-Christian religions and at all costs’ (p 47). He argues that the cultures from ‘the south’ and from ‘the innovative methodology introduced by the east’. This new multi-religious environ- seeker churches sells out to postmodern ment has created an unprecedented mis- values, and is inimical to doctrinal sionary opportunity within the American integrity. This leads to a loss of authen- society itself, but Wells considers that, ticity because there is no truth claim at judging by the ethnic composition of the foundation of this approach, which, many churches, it has been generally Wells argues, is precisely the problem squandered by evangelicalism. This new facing postmodernism. multi-cultural phenomenon, coupled with This is a particularly serious challenge post-modernism, has also led to the for those who claim to be biblically-based appearance in the US of new forms of Christians, because, like liberal spirituality—which is a highly significant Protestants of earlier times, they have new factor calling for the attention of compromised the gospel truth. Their ‘airy evangelicalism. These new spiritualities, indifference to the place of biblical doc- the author claims, are a manifestation of trine’ has led to a situation where there is the paganism which flourished in the ‘a disconnect between the biblical ortho- early Christian centuries and appeared doxy which is professed and the assump- then in the form of Gnosticism. tion off which seeker churches are build- After giving this wide-ranging cultural ing themselves. Seeker methodology rests analysis, Wells turns to a positive presen- upon the Pelagian view that human tation, showing how Christ and the gospel beings are not inherently sinful…. that in of grace answer the new spiritualities of their disposition to God and his Word the multi-religious culture, and the mean- postmoderns are neutral, [and] that they inglessness and loss of focus so charac- can be seduced into making the purchase teristic of postmodernism. This part of of faith even as they can into making any the argument provides an opportunity for other kind of purchase’. Wells laments Wells to reinforce many of the familiar that it would be ‘quite foolish to think doctrinal themes, such as judgement for that using what was once a dreaded the sinfulness of humankind, justification word—Pelagian—to describe all of this by faith, eschatology, divine revelation would create dismay’ because evangeli- and the authority of Scripture. cals are ‘deliberately undoctrinal’ and Wells then turns to the main thesis of the their ‘criterion of “truth” by which seeker book, the failure of the new forms of con- habits of church building should be tested sumer-oriented church and worship, as is simply the pragmatic one, Is this work- typified by the Hybels-led seeker move- ing?’ (p 299). Book Reviews 285

Written in a post-9/11 context, this, the ERT (2006) 30:3, 285-286 final volume in Wells’ provocative series (which also includes God in the Wasteland, Treasures Old and New: Essays in 1994, and Losing our Virtue, 1998—all the Theology of the Pentateuch reviewed in this journal—see vols. 18/4, Joseph Blenkinsopp 22/1, 23/2), fittingly refers to the person of Christ as the hope of the world. The Grand Rapids/Cambridge: author’s passion for this subject and his Eerdmans, 2004 ISBN 0-8028-2679-2 Pb frequent sermonic touches may therefore Pb, pp228 Indexes be readily understood. This topic alone could have provided material for an entire Reviewed by Joseph Too Shao, Biblical volume, but it is only one thread in this Seminary of the Philippines, Metro-Manila, work. Although almost exclusively Philippines focused on the American scene, readers in other contexts will find one of the Joseph Blenkinsopp is a well-known scholar and professor of the Old other themes, the analysis of the post- Testament. The book is a collection of his modern culture, stimulating. However, essays published over the last four neither this cultural analysis or the pre- decades. The essays reflect his interpre- sentation of a strongly Christological tive skills as a seasoned exegete of the gospel are the main burdens of the book Old Testament. The book complements even though they take up much of its his previously published work The space and are reflected formally in the Pentateuch: An Introduction to the First subtitle. Five Books of the Bible (New York: The author’s main concern, as in his ear- Doubleday, 1992). lier volumes, is with the evangelical The book has twelve chapters, dealing church. But even though there is tren- with some of the author’s own interests chant criticism of its methods and values, and research. He revised a few chapters which go hand in hand with the view that that he contributed before, but some of this church is doctrinally challenged, the the chapters have not been published reader looks in vain for practical sugges- elsewhere. As a candid interpreter of the tions about alternative ways of ‘doing biblical text, he explicitly states that his church’ in today’s world, using methods methodology is both critical as well as based on the conventional doctrinal prin- ‘basically conservative’. He is doubtful of ciples advocated by this book. ‘readerly’ approaches to biblical texts. He is to be commended for his many original thinking and fresh approach to some the- ological themes in the Pentateuch. As a knowledgeable scholar, he is very aware of issues regarding construction of the past in Ancient Israel as seen in his discussion on the topic of memory and tradition (chapter 1). Oral tradition and writing do have their own respective con- tributions, and they are mutually exclu- sive. In his view, historians are not the 286 Book Reviews principal custodians of society’s memo- careful and sensitive interpreter of bibli- ries. In the case of Deuteronomistic cal texts. He usually first states issues History, the Levites as religious educa- related to the topic under discussion and tors were responsible to transmit collec- its existing interpretations before offering tive memory. He shows his interests in his ideas. He offers many new insights understanding the problems of biblical into important topics in the Pentateuch. narratives in dealing with the biographi- Although his discussions are wide and in- cal patterns in the narrative (chapter 9), depth, there are some portions of the and also with the issues inherent in the Pentateuch that he focuses on more than Sinai-Horeb narrative (chapter 10). The others. Creation and its related issues on author offers his reconstruction of events mankind are discussed in three chapters which really happened at Sinai. He pre- (chapters 3, 6, 7), which means one- sents an original reflection that Aaron led fourth of his book. His perceptive mind the group to ‘sacrifice, eat, drink, and works on issues related to narratives participate in an orgiastic ritual’ (p. 169). which are keys to understanding the Thus the Levites are never called ‘sons of Pentateuch (chapters 9, 10). Being Aaron’ in Deuteronomy. trained and well-versed in critical The subject matters are wide in scope. He methodologies, he discusses issues of presents OT Theology with its Jewish Priestly and Deuteronomistic writings, roots and other historical debates as a and also issues between oral tradition Christian scripture (chapter 2). With sen- and written canon. Since canonicity is a sitivity to the texts and their applications, significant issue in the Pentateuch, he is he deals with the important issue of cre- to be commended in presenting his ation and care for a damaged world thoughts on this topic that only few (chapter 3), and sacrifice and social main- scholars are qualified to discuss. tenance in Ancient Israel (chapter 4). Although his arguments on the politics of Moreover, he argues that Deuteronomy is postmortem existence and Deuteronomic the first canonical biblical text, and the prohibitions could be correct, I find them Deuteronomy legislation is directed wanting and disturbing. Additional inves- against the cult of death (chapter 11). tigations are needed on this neglected With his understanding of Ancient Near topic. Eastern texts, he clearly presents the The author’s honesty in his methodology religion of Israel in its setting (chapter is admirable. If a reader would like to find 5). He also compares and discusses the a straightjacket to his inquiry of theology stories of Gilgamesh and Adam, sharing in the Pentateuch, then the book is not the theme of the lost opportunity of suitable for him. If however, he is search- immortality (chapter 6). With his interest ing for an honest guide to some issues of in post-biblical haggadic midrash, Genesis theology in the Pentateuch, then this 18:22-33 is discussed in its rabbinic con- book is suitable for him. I strongly recom- texts (chapter 8). Canonicity is presented mend this book to both the learner, as in its Christian milieu, and also its related well as the specialist of Old Testament. Jewish traditions (chapter 12). The author calls his book a ‘little sketch- book of biblical theology’ (p. ix). Indeed, it deals with many aspects of biblical the- ology in the Pentateuch. The author is a Book Reviews 287

David Wenham: Paul and Jesus: The True Story. London: SPCK, 2002. ISBN 0-281-05480-0. Paper, 195 pages, Indexes, In this book, the author writes at a popular level to disprove the idea that Paul was a ‘freelancer who did his own thing with the Christian religion’, ignoring the teaching and example of its founder, Jesus Christ. Wenham shows how much of Paul’s teaching is sim- ilar verbally and thematically to that of Jesus, and how historically consistent his letters are with the material in Acts. The author uses a chronological approach to study the first four letters of Paul (with only very brief treatment of the remainder). He gives special emphasis to the impact of Paul’s Damascus Road experience on his subsequent thinking, and employs a ‘mirror’ style of approach to reconstruct (as a detective would) the situa- tion existing in each of these churches, However, although he suggests that some recon- structions are only speculative due to the lack of information, the cumulative effect of so many instances creates the impression of more certainty than really exists, despite the disclaimers. But overall this is a book which repays careful study and offers many useful insights to understanding ‘the true story’ of Paul and of Jesus. Reviewed by David Parker, Editor of Evangelical Review of Theology

Christine A. Mallouhi, Miniskirts, Mothers and Muslims: A Christian Women in a Muslim Land. Oxford: Monarch Books, 2004 (rev. ed.) Paper, 184 pages, Bibliography. ISBN 1-85424-662-3 Miniskirts, Mothers and Muslims, written by an Australian woman married to an Arab Christian from a conservative Muslim background, aims to help people, especially women, who want to ‘live honourably among Muslims for Christ’s sake’. It consists of dozens of anecdotes mainly related to personal and family life, only very loosely orga- nized around themes such as ‘Living with Veils’, ‘Living with Stereotypes’, ‘Living with Segregation’ and ‘Living with Hospitality’. Backed by more than thirty years living in many different Middle East countries, as well as in multi-cultural Australia, the author effectively shares many of the finer points and potential pitfalls which can occur when dif- fering cultures encounter each other. Many stories come from the author’s own experi- ences, while others are reported from elsewhere. This revised version of an earlier publi- cation is not only invaluable for those planning to live in such a culture, but fascinating to anyone who wants an insider’s view of cross-cultural issues. A useful by-product is the help it gives biblical readers because of the light thrown on cultures similar to those depicted in Scripture. Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, Evangelical Review of Theology

Thomas C. Oden and J. I. Packer: One Faith: The Evangelical Consensus. Downer’s Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8308-3239-4. Hb, 223 pp Oden and Packer have done evangelicalism a valuable service in this work, affirming and outlining its underlying unity contra a reputation for fragmentation. Drawing upon a wide array of trans-denominational and international confessions, they posit a remarkable coherence among evangelicals regarding ‘primary’ doctrines. As senior statesmen of the evangelical movement they are uniquely qualified for this endeavour, representing (some 288 Book Reviews would say) opposite ends of the evangelical spectrum (Wesleyan and Calvinist). Their col- laboration is itself indicative of the unity they further affirm. Oden and Packer’s own analysis of and vision for evangelical unity strengthens the work substantially. Some repetitiveness is evident but this is a very readable book. However, while One Faith takes an important step toward not only affirming but also advancing evangelical unity, it does not deal with what its authors consider ‘secondary’ doctrines that admittedly involve controversy. Is the alleged unity substantive when it is decided in advance to ignore diversity? How contemporary evangelicals deal with differ- ences says something too. Nevertheless, the distinction between ‘primary’ and ‘sec- ondary’ status issues is an ancient and useful one, potentially capable of carrying the bur- den and blessing of diversity. Though not a specifically scholarly work, students of evan- gelicalism as well as evangelical laity and clergy will benefit from this book. This review, Tony Richie, Knoxville, TN, USA, was previously published by Religious Studies Review Vol. 30, no. 4 (Oct. 2004), p. 290 and is used with permission.

REGNUM STUDIES IN MISSION Mission Possible Biblical Strategies for Reaching the Lost Julie Ma Written as Julie Ma hiked the mountains to share God’s news, this is a missiology book for the church which liberates missiology from the specialists for every believer. Nevertheless, it serves as a textbook that is simple and friendly, and yet solid in biblical interpretation. This book links the biblical teaching to the actual and contemporary missiological setting, thus serving two important purposes. Examples are clearly given which aid understanding, and the biblical development is brought in to our contemporary setting, thus making the Bible come alive. Julie C. Ma teaches Intercultural Studies at Asia Pacific Theological Seminary, Baguio, Philippines, and is Editor of the Journal of Asian Mission

1-870345-37-1 / 229x152mm / 158pp / £19.99 Christians Meeting Hindus Bob Robinson An Analysis and Theological Critique of the Hindu–Christian Encounter in India This book focuses on the Hindu–Christian encounter, especially the intentional meeting called dialogue, mainly during the last four decades of the twentieth century, and mainly in India itself. Bob Robinson teaches at Tyndale Graduate School of Theology, New Zealand

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ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. REGNUM STUDIES IN MISSION Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Christology in Dialogue with Muslims Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, Illinois 60606-5834 USA, E- mail: [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ A Critical Analysis of Christian Presentations of Christ for Muslims form the Ninth and Twentieth Centuries MICROFORM I. Mark Beaumont This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, This book analyses Christian presentations of Christ for Muslims in the most creative periods of Christian–Muslim dialogue, the first half of the ninth century and the second Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 half of the twentieth century. In these two periods, Christians made serious attempts to present their faith in Christ in terms that take into account Muslim perceptions of him, with a view to bridging the gap between Muslim and Christian convictions. Subscription rates Mark Beaumont is Director of Mission Studies at Christian College, UK

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