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Limb Patterning Genes and Heterochronic Development of the Emu Wing Bud Craig A

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Limb Patterning Genes and Heterochronic Development of the Emu Wing Bud Craig A Smith et al. EvoDevo (2016) 7:26 DOI 10.1186/s13227-016-0063-5 EvoDevo RESEARCH Open Access Limb patterning genes and heterochronic development of the emu wing bud Craig A. Smith1*, Peter G. Farlie2, Nadia M. Davidson2, Kelly N. Roeszler2, Claire Hirst1, Alicia Oshlack2 and David M. Lambert3 Abstract Background: The forelimb of the flightless emu is a vestigial structure, with greatly reduced wing elements and digit loss. To explore the molecular and cellular mechanisms associated with the evolution of vestigial wings and loss of flight in the emu, key limb patterning genes were examined in developing embryos. Methods: Limb development was compared in emu versus chicken embryos. Immunostaining for cell proliferation markers was used to analyze growth of the emu forelimb and hindlimb buds. Expression patterns of limb patterning genes were studied, using whole-mount in situ hybridization (for mRNA localization) and RNA-seq (for mRNA expres- sion levels). Results: The forelimb of the emu embryo showed heterochronic development compared to that in the chicken, with the forelimb bud being retarded in its development. Early outgrowth of the emu forelimb bud is characterized by a lower level of cell proliferation compared the hindlimb bud, as assessed by PH3 immunostaining. In contrast, there were no obvious differences in apoptosis in forelimb versus hindlimb buds (cleaved caspase 3 staining). Most key patterning genes were expressed in emu forelimb buds similarly to that observed in the chicken, but with smaller expression domains. However, expression of Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) mRNA, which is central to anterior–posterior axis development, was delayed in the emu forelimb bud relative to other patterning genes. Regulators of Shh expression, Gli3 and HoxD13, also showed altered expression levels in the emu forelimb bud. Conclusions: These data reveal heterochronic but otherwise normal expression of most patterning genes in the emu vestigial forelimb. Delayed Shh expression may be related to the small and vestigial structure of the emu forelimb bud. However, the genetic mechanism driving retarded emu wing development is likely to rest within the forelimb field of the lateral plate mesoderm, predating the expression of patterning genes. Keywords: Emu embryo, Limb patterning, Heterochronic, Sonic Hedgehog, Limb bud, Limb development Background by changes in the expression patterns of a common set A major question in the field of developmental biology of deeply conserved genes (the genetic “toolkit”) due to is the relative contribution of changes in gene regula- sequence divergence of cis-regulatory regions [1–3]. The tion versus changes in gene structure in generating mor- vertebrate pentadactyl limb is an excellent model system phological diversity. The current view of evolutionary in which to explore this question [4]. The forelimb in par- developmental biology proposes that diversity is driven ticular shows remarkable diversity among vertebrates. Within the avian lineage, the most striking morphologi- cal variation of the forelimb is associated with the loss *Correspondence: [email protected] of flight among ratites. Modern ratites (emus, ostriches, 1 Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash rheas, cassowary and kiwi) have lost the ability to fly University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia Full list of author information is available at the end of the article and have structurally altered or vestigial wing elements © The Author(s) 2016. This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/ publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Smith et al. EvoDevo (2016) 7:26 Page 2 of 17 [5]. Ratites were once considered a monophyletic group, expression of fibroblast growth factor-8 (Fgf8) in the distributed across the world through vicariance follow- AER and establishes an auto-feedback loop between the ing the breakup of Gondwanaland. However, recent AER and ZPA, coordinating patterning of the A–P and molecular analyses show that extant ratites are polyphy- P–D axes [18, 19]. Targeted deletion of Shh in the mouse letic, most having evolved the loss of flight independently embryo results in truncated limb buds at the zeugopod– through dispersal followed by convergence [6–8]. This is stylopod boundary, and a single distal digit [20]. The consistent with the fact that the forelimb structures of same phenotype is seen in mouse mutants lacking the living ratites vary significantly. The rhea and ostrich have deeply conserved long-range cis-enhancer of Shh, the well-developed forelimbs (wings) but with reduced distal ZRS (ZPA regulatory sequence) [21]. In the chicken, mis- elements compared to carinate (flying) birds, while in the expression of Shh in the limb bud induces digit anomalies kiwi, cassowary and emu, all elements are reduced in size consistent with its role as an anterior–posterior organ- and only a single digit is present [9]. In the extinct ratites, izer [22]. Genes 5′ in the HOXD cluster also play a role in the elephant bird and the moa, forelimb structures were anterior–posterior patterning of the limb bud (reviewed different again, with a major reduction in limb skeletal in [23]). elements in the elephant bird, and a complete absence To shed light on the molecular basis of vestigial fore- of wings in moa. Phylogenetic studies, together with the limb development in the emu, key patterning genes were comparative anatomy, suggest that at least three differ- examined during development. The emu forelimb shows ent genetic mechanisms may mediate forelimb develop- heterochronic development relative to that in chicken, as ment in the different ratite groups. Understanding these the developing forelimb bud is small in size and fails to mechanisms will shed light on questions of evolutionary grow into a typical avian wing. Although it does exhibit developmental biology. mesenchymal condensations demarcating the three Changes in the pattern of gene expression during avian digits, only a single digit (III) is present at hatch- embryogenesis must underlie the divergent morphology ing and in adults [9]. We found that emu forelimb buds of ratite wings. However, the molecular basis of vestigial do not proliferate to the extent of hindlimb buds during forelimb development among these birds is unknown. early bud outgrowth. However, patterning genes were Limb morphogenesis has been extensively studied in expressed in emu embryonic forelimb buds with profiles the chicken embryo, which has a typical avian forelimb comparable to that in chicken, but in a smaller domain. structure, comprising well-developed skeletal elements The notable exception was Shh. Expression of Shh was and three digits. A complex interacting network of gene delayed in emu forelimb buds compared to other pattern- expression results in patterning the chicken forelimb ing genes at the same developmental stage and compared bud in three axes: anterior–posterior, dorsal–ventral and to stage-matched chicken embryos. Meanwhile, the neg- proximal–distal [10–12]. Each of these has a key signaling ative regulator of Shh, Gli3, was up-regulated and the center that directs differentiation along its axis and inte- positive regulator, HoxD13, was down-regulated, in emu grates genetic information from the other axes. Growth forelimb buds. This suggests that the molecular changes and patterning along the proximal–distal (P–D) axis is associated with vestigial wing development in emu could largely driven by fibroblast growth factors derived from involve altered regulation of Shh signaling. These data the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), an epithelial thick- show that most key patterning genes are still expressed ening of the limb bud [13–16]. Dorsal–ventral polarity in the rudimentary emu forelimb, although Shh appears involves antagonism between dorsally secreted WNT delayed, representing a heterochronic shift in expression. growth factors and ventrally expressed engrailed-1 gene. Changes to the expression pattern of Shh have been iden- The most finely studied axis is the anterior–posterior tified in other vertebrates with divergent limb structure (A–P) axis, which is controlled by secretion of the mor- [24], indicating that this gene might be particularly ame- phogen, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh). Shh is a major player in nable to evolutionary plasticity and that it may act as an limb bud growth and development, in both chicken and important mediator of limb diversity. mammals [17]. It is produced in the posterior region of both fore- and hindlimb buds, demarcating the so-called Methods zone of polarizing activity (ZPA). In a classical morpho- Emu embryos gen gradient, Shh binds to its receptor, Patched-1 (Ptc1), One hundred fertile eggs of the emu (Dromaius novae- and regulates expression and proteolytic cleavage of the hollandiae) were obtained from a commercial breeder Gli transcription factors. These factors pattern the ante- located in rural Victoria, Australia, during the 2013 rior–posterior axis of the limb bud, responsible for the and 2014 breeding seasons. Eggs were obtained under number and identity of digits,
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