Resources variability and the rise of Tahitian chiefdoms: perspectives from landscape, settlement pattern studies and oral traditions Tamara Maric Université de Paris-1, Panthéon-Sorbonne, [email protected]

M. Hinanui Cauchois University of Hawaii at Manoa [email protected]

Introduction

This paper presents an overview of chiefdoms in four major the Tamatoa in Ra’iatea as well as the chiefdoms of Maeva in locations of the (), their late Huahine and the Marama in Mo’orea. These accounts will be pre-contact importance and their link with exploitation of crossed with available archaeological data. While providing a natural resources. Many sources, ethnohistoric and oral GIS database and sets of maps combining those various traditions, emphasize the intensity of warfare during the pre- factors (archaeology, environment and oral traditions), we contact period, intensified through the arrival of the first expect to highlight some relationship patterns between Europeans in the archipelago at the end of the 18th century. territoriality, exploitation of resources and power in the We examine which factors might have influenced the Society Islands. We also hope that our perspectives will development of chiefdoms in this specific region and their contribute to set up issues for further archaeological research potential impact on the emergence of territoriality and in the region. warfare. We look at several examples of settlement patterns in four islands of the Society archipelago, identified as important chiefdoms (, Moorea, Raiatea and Huahine) and their relationship with various environmental factors such as topography, soil types, hydrology, distance to water access, rainfall and wind patterns, spatial distribution of agricultural complexes, etc. We also use ethnohistoric sources and oral traditions documenting the emergence of the Teva in Tahiti, and 1991 by the former local Department of Archaeology. The 1. Windward Islands (Tahiti and Mo’orea) numerous archaeological remains in the remote inland areas [1] show ceremonial sites with social elite features (important , archery platform) as well as small households, 1.1. The island of Tahiti associated with simple marae, and agricultural systems. Both dry and irrigated agriculture are represented. An intensive settlement is noticed on most of suitable alluvial terraces.

Leeward of Tahiti, the chiefdom : , Mataiea, Vaiari According to traditional accounts [2, 3] an ancestor from Bora Bora married a local family of Vaiari at an unknown period. His grandson, Tetuna’e nui, is known to have built the « first » « marae hui ari’i » (marae of high rank chief). After genealogical records, the foundation of the Teva line based in Papara, occured around the 15th century. The chiefdom eventually evolved within two territorial confederations, Teva i Uta (Papara-Papeari), and Teva i Tai st Valley of Papeno’o (Peninsula). 11 generations after the 1 Teva, Papara won the political supremacy upon Vaiari. During the 18th century, the Teva were the most powerful chiefdom of Tahiti. Located in the North-Eastern part of Tahiti, this The Teva chiefdom was located in the widest coastal valley is the widest of the island (18 km long). It lies in an plain of the archipelago (2 km wide), with swampy areas and intermediary zone, partly protected from the north-east winds. good soils for agriculture (taro crops). Located leeward, it has The coastal plain is narrow, there is no franging reef. The a regular and moderate rainfall. The reef and lagoon were very rainfall is quite heavy (3 m/year in the coastal area, 8 to 10 important areas for natural resources, as indicated in the m/year inland). The valley have been studied between 1975 numerous land claims from the 1850’s.

1 The archaeological investigations carried out in Archaeological investigations have shown a high Mataiea-Papeari showed an intensive settlement on the coast, concentration of sites in the Tupauru’uru area (East), where while the very narrow and steep valleys could not be densely specialized, elite structures (fare pote’e, important marae, settled. The recent research in the Taharu’u valley [4] shows archery platforms, etc.) and horticultural systems are found. the concentration of elite’s residency on the coastal plain (e.g. The construction and the occupation of residential sites in that the huge marae Maha’aiatea), while households and small area occured between mid-15th and 17th century [12, 13]. agricultural sites are spread inland until a swampy area Important horticultural systems concentrated in the Tupaururu located on a plateau, 800 m high. 173 archaeological area were used at least from the 13th century on. structures have been recorded in 2007 within 32 sites located In conclusion, the political importance of the from the coast to the plateau. The marae are all of the interior Tupauru’uru area may be directly linked to its horticultural type in the valley. While on the plain, the important marae of potential. coastal types are associated with the ari’i of Papara. 1.1.2. Valley of Papetoai, Apo’ota’ata The Peninsula : TEVA i TAI This valley (2 km long) is identified as a refuge area The Peninsula was divided into 8 districts. At the according to oral traditions, at least for the late pre-contact 18th century, the Teva i Tai chiefdom had been unified under period. A marae Taputapuatea was built on the coastal plain, the ruling of chief Vehiatua [5]. It had won the religious and as a sign that the cult of ‘Oro was established in this district. political supremacy previously leaded by the Teva i Uta [3]. The preliminary results of an ongoing archaeological research The first introduction of the cult of ‘Oro from Taputapuatea, project [14, 15] recorded 205 archaeological structures, within in Raiatea could be at the origin of this new domination. From 25 sites : 17% of horticultural sites, 23% of habitation sites, 1770’s, an alliance was concluded between Vehiatua and Tu and 12% of marae. (Pomare) families. At the death of the last Vehiatua, Tu The distribution of inland settlements shows a inherited the Title, which contributed to reinforce his political concentration of important marae/habitation/horticultural sites authority. in the middle valley in a defensive settings (part natural and The Peninsula is located leeward, and the rainfall is anthropic) versus a high density of horticultural sites isolated one of the most important of Tahiti. Three valleys (Vaitepiha, and/or associated to simple habitation sites and small marae Vaiote, and ‘Aiurua) have been studied [6,7]. They show a tupuna in a natural defensive settings (topography) at the dense settlement in the inland areas ceremonial sites, bottom and upper parts of the valley. important horticultural potential associated or not to household sites. 2. Leeward Islands 1.2. MOOREA (Windward areas)

1.1.1. Valley of ‘Opunohu 2.1. Huahine : Mata’irea hill, Maeva This valley is the best documented example for Traditionally, Huahine had eight main chiefdoms household and religious sites in the Society Islands [8, 9]. In divided around the island. The ancient history was divided the 1960’s, R. Green and al. carried out a pioneering research into several periods : hau mo’orere corresponded to a long project, emphasizing the first broad settlement pattern in period of warfare between the different groups, mostly in Polynesia. It was eventually followed by the study of ancient inland areas. Later, hau ari’i, or hau pahu roa was the agricultural systems [10], and the reconstruction of settlement unification of the eight chiefdoms. Towards 1650 A.D, Maeva patterns through domestic architecture [11, 12, 13]. became the main political chiefdom of the island. It leaded Around 1650 A.D, the Marama clan from Haapiti towards a unique socio-political and land tenure situation : the won over the Atiro’o clan from ‘Opunohu. The valley was eight chiefdoms shared a same main marae : Mata’irea rahi. then divided into two main areas : Amehiti in the Western Hotuhiva, coming from abroad (might be from Raiatea, part, and Tupauru’uru in the Eastern part. The Marama line Marquesas, Tahiti…) had eight sons with a high chief from ruled the area until the end of the 18th century. Between 1774 Huahine. They were the founders of the eight chiefdoms of and 1790, several attacks from Tahitian fighting groups were the island. Hotuhiva may be the metaphor for a new religious successfully pushed away. ‘Opunohu was considered as a order from a different island (cult of the god ‘Oro from refuge area. After 1790, ‘Opunohu was under the influence of Raiatea ?). Around that time, two chiefly lines from the the Pomares, while in 1804, Pomare II became the paramount Tamatoa attached to the marae Taputapuatea in Raiatea chief of Mo’orea. Some people were still living in the valley dominated the eight chiefdoms of Huahine. Then the political in 1804-1805, until they deserted around 1815 for the center of Mata’irea moved to Tefareri’i, in Huahine iti [16]. protestant mission in the village of Papetoai.

2 Mata’irea hill and Maeva have been the location of the soils suitable for agricultural purposes are still in use 40 years of archaeological work, mostly by Pr. Sinoto (Bishop today. Museum) [17]. The hill has no rivers, only springs mentioned In 1995, 112 archaeological structures were in ethnohistoric sources. The slopes represent from 20 to 70%, recorded in the interior of the valley, with 5 agricultural with some fallen rocks areas, and the coastal area is narrow. systems, for a total of 3,39 hectares of irrigated terraces, The settlement pattern of Mata’irea is a unique case : this associated with household units and marae. Edwards refuge area was protected by a defensive wall of 1,5 km long. concluded that the valley was not completely settled, as some The three main archaeological areas are located on the suitable inland areas have not been settled [22]. mountain side, with a high concentration of house sites and different types of marae. The area was used between 1300 and 2.2.2. Faaroa valley 1800 A.D (14C) [18]. The economy was based on both dry horticulture, with dry horticultural systems associated to In addition to those lands , the neighboring valley of houses and isolated in the Western part, and marine resources, Faaroa shows similar geographical features such as a swampy with a unique system of fishponds (‘aua i’a) in the Fauna nui area of 32,96 hectares within the alluvial plain. An lake facing Mata’irea. The hypothesis that Mata’irea was archaeological inventory carried out in the early 1990’s « abandoned » well before the arrival of the Europeans, showed that 82% out of 588 recorded horticultural terraces are matches with the oral traditions mentioning that the political irrigated structures spread upon 60% of the arable surface (10 center was transfered to Tefareri’i at some point. Ha) of the alluvial plain [23].

Valley of Tara’e, Tefareri’i Conclusion The preliminary survey of this valley [19] recorded In Tahiti and Mo’orea, the global settlement pattern many habitation and horticultural sites on alluvial flat and shows a continuous and intensive human occupation from slopes 20 to 70% steep. The valley have been identified as the coastal areas to the central mountains, as a potential indicator most intensive horticultural area around the island. The high of demographic pressure. The archaeological data from Papara horticultural potential and the « recent » status of political and Apo’ota’ata tend to validate the following, well-known center after Maeva was fought by some Tamatoa from ethnohistorical model : the elite was living in the coastal area Raiatea. while lower social classes settled inland. Household, marae and agriculture sites are often linked to each other. The irrigated systems were limited by the topography in the inland 2.2. Raiatea areas while irrigation was practiced in coastal swampy areas that are mostly destroyed today by modern development (cf. historical accounts). Both in Tahiti and Mo’orea, a link can be clearly established between suitable ecological zones and political and religious domination of the chiefdoms. In the Leeward islands, the case of Ra’iatea tends to emphasize the same tendency of a link between ecology and political leadership, with the emergence and later domination of the Tamatoa chiefdom in Opoa (16th-17th centuries according to oral traditions), occupying a favorable ecological zone, near the largest arable lands of the island. In the valleys of Opoa and Fa’aroa, the extensive horticultural systems and irrigation are close to the international marae of Taputapuatea, which may have been built between 1200 and 1700 A.D according to various genealogical sources. In Huahine, the special case of Mata’irea Hill showed a main political center dominating the entire island, with an economy based on dry horticulture and intensive exploitation of marine resources in the Fauna nui lake. Late prehistoric displacement of political center towards Huahine iti (Tefaareri’i), occured in the most extensive wet horticultural systems of the island, thus emphasizing a link between exploitation of natural resources and political power. Further archaeological research is needed 2.2.1. Opoa valley to explore such parallels to better understanding the emergence of chiefdoms in the Society Islands At the 18th century, the island was divided into nine districts withing two geographic areas: East and West coasts. The district of Opoa-te-iva, in the South-East, was the most powerful chiefdom, centered on the marae Taputapuatea. According to genealogical records [5, 20], the emergence of this chiefdom occured during the 16th or 17th century. Then, the Tamatoa expanded religious influence in the Windward islands. The environmental advantages of the geographic area of Opoa can be linked to the origin of this powerful chiefdom. 4,5 km long, Opoa is one of the largest valley of the island. Located windward, it benefits of an important rainfall. At the entrance of the valley, is a large alluvial plain with swampy areas [21]. The valley opens on a large bay with lagoon, and

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location oral traditions C 14 sources Tahiti

N/A 15th-18th (Tahinu, Papeno'o high valley) Département Archéologie 15th ? (emergence of the Salmon, 1910, Ta'aroa, 1971, Maric, 2009 Papara Teva clan) in process in process Vaitepiha N/A 15th-18th Garanger 1967 Vaihiria ? 16th-18th Cristino et al. 1988 [24]

Mo'orea before mid-17th : Atiro'o end of 7th (lower Green and al., 1967, Descantes, 1990, Opunohu and pre-Atiro'o lines valley ?) Leposfsky 1994

13th (horticultural systems) Leposfsky 1994

mid-17th and mid-18th (Marama clan rules, division of the valley in 2 areas) mid-15-mid-17th (Tupaururu area) Kahn 2005-2006 Apo'ota'ata N/A in process Cauchois 2005

Huahine no date (Hau Mo'orere, Entire island warfare period) Saura, 2005 mid-17th (Hau ari'i, Matairea Matairea political center) 14th-19th Saura, 2005, Sinoto 1996 Manunu ? 17th (marae Manunu) Saura, 2005, Wallin 2005

Ra'iatea 13th-18th (construction Taputapuatea marae Taputapuatea) mid-17th ? Sinoto 1965

13th (horticultural Fa'aroa systems) Edward, 1990, Leposfsky 1994 Table synthesizing the chronological data available for the four islands and their main chiefdoms.

4 REFERENCES [12] Kahn, J. G. 2005 Household at Community Organization [1] Edwards, E. in the Late Prehistoric Society Island Chiefdoms (French 1988 Archaeological survey of Tahinu river, Papenoo valley, Polynesia). PhD. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley. Tahiti. , Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H., Te [13] Kahn, J. 2006 Society Islands (Central Eastern Polynesia) Anavaharau. Chronology : 11 Radiocarbon dates for the late prehistoric 1990-1991 Prospection archéologique, zone Vainavenave. expansion and proto-historic periods in the 'Opunohu Valley, Ms. Punaauia, Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H., Te Mo'orea. Radiocarbon vol.48 n°3 : 409-419. Anavaharau. [14] Cauchois, M.H. 2005 Prospection archéologique à [2] Marau Ta’aroa 1971 Mémoires de Marau Taaroa. Apo'ota'ata, Papetoai, Mo'orea. In : H. Marchesi (ed) Bilan de Dernière reine de Tahiti. Traduits par sa fille la Princesse la recherche archéologique en Polynésie française 2003- Ariimanihinihi Takau Pomare. Paris, Musée de l'Homme. 2004. Dossier d'Achéologie Polynésienne n°4, Service de la [3] Salmon, T. 1910 On ari'i in Tahiti. Journal of the culture et du patrimoine, Punaauia : 23-32. Polynesian Society, vol. XIX n°1: 39-46. [15] Cauchois, M.H 2008 L’occupation de l’espace pré- [4] Maric, Butaud J.F. 2008 Prospection archéologique dans européen et proto-historique de la vallée de Papetoai, la vallée de Taharu'u, commune de Papara (Tahiti, Polynésie Mo’orea, Iles de la Société (Polynésie française), Publications française). Rapport de travaux 2007.Université de Paris du GDR 2834 du CNRS «Etudes interdisciplinaires sur les sociétés anciennes du Pacifique Sud», dirigé par Frédérique Valentin (sous presse). [16] Saura, B. 2005 Huahine aux temps anciens. Cahiers du Patrimoine 8. Savoirs et Traditions. Tradition orale. Service 1,Laboratoire de recherches Ethnologie préhistorique, UMR de la culture et du patrimoine de Polynésie française. 7041, Paris X, 211 p. [17] Sinoto, Y. 1996 Mata'ire'a Hill : A Unique Pehistoric [5] Henry, T. 2000 Tahiti aux temps anciens. Paris, Settlement, and a Hypothetical Sequence of Marae Publication de la Société des Océanistes, Musée de l'Homme. Development in the Society Islands. In : J.M. Davidson et al. [6] Garanger, J. 1964 Recherches archéologiques dans le (eds) Oceanic culture history : Essays in Honour of Roger district de Tautira, Tahiti, Polynésie française. Journal de la Green. B.P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu : 541-553. Société des Océanistes vol.20 : 5-21. [18] Wallin, P., Solsvik, R. 2005 Radiocarbon dates from [7] Garanger, J. 1980 Prospections archéologiques de l'îlot marae structures in the district of Maeva, Huahine. Journal of Fenuaino et des vallées Aiurua et Vaiote à Tahiti. Journal de the Polynesian Society vol.114 n°4 : 375-3 la Société des Océanistes vol.35 n°38 : 47-55. [19] Eddowes, M. 2002 Inventaire archéologique de l'île de [8] Descantes, C. 1990 Symbolic Stone Structures : Huahine. Rapport de prospection. Service de la culture et du Protohistoric and Early Historic Spatial Patterns of the patrimoine, Punaauia. 'Opunohu Valley, Mo'orea, French Polynesia. PhD. Thesis, [20] Emory 1927 Traditionnal History of in the Department of Anthropology, University of Auckland. Society Islands. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin, 260 p. [9] Green, R.C., Green, K., Rappaport, R.A., Rappaport, A., [21] Jamet, R. 1993 Les sols en Polynésie française. Atlas de Davidson, J. 1967 Archaeology on the Island of Mo'orea, l’ORSTOM, Paris. French Polynesia. Anthropological Papers of the American [22] Edwards, E. 1995 Prospection archéologique de la vallée Museum of Natural History vol.51, part. 2. d'Opoa, Raiatea, ïles de la Société, Polynésie française. [10] Lepofsky, D. 1994 Prehistoric agricultural Punaauia, Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H., Te intensification in the Society Islands, French Polynesia. PhD. Anavaharau. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley. [23] Edwards, E. 1990 Prospection archéologique de la vallée [11] Kirch, P.V., Kahn, J.G. 2003 The ancient "House de Fa'aroa, Ra'iatea, Iles de la Société, Polynésie française. Society" of the 'Opunohu Valley, Mo'orea : Overview of an Punaauia, Département Archéologie, C.P.S.H., Te archaeological project, 2000-2002. in : H. Marchesi (ed) Bilan Anavaharau. de la recherche archéologique en Polynésie française 2001- [24] Cristino, C., Vargas, P., Rieu, J.-L. 1988 Fouilles 2002, Punaauia, Dossier d'Archéologie Polynésienne n°2, archéologiques et restauration du site VAI-1 - Vallée de la Service de la culture et du patrimoine : 21-36. Vaihiria, Tahiti. Punaauia, Département Archéologie, CPSH.

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