okRves181 99 Reviews Book 153 W.George 136 Harper 119 Christianity Filipino of Future the and Pentecostalism American Latin TonguesFire? Philippine of Lang’at Robert Context African East the within Responsibility Church’s The Oden C. Thomas Church the in together Working Men and Women On Parker David 100 Century 21st the for Theology Evangelical World of Directions and Dynamics Editorial paternoster periodicals Global TrendsGlobal Contents Theme: 0144-8153(200204)26:2;1-S

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Laser Proof H VNEIA EIWO HOOYVLM 6N.2ARL2002 2/APRIL 26/No. THEOLOGY/VOLUME OF REVIEW EVANGELICAL THE April 2002 April 2 No. V TheologicalWORLD Commission EVANGELICAL ALLIANCEGLOBAL TRENDS olume 26 olume Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 26 • Number 2 • April 2002

Articles and book reviews original and selected from publications worldwide for an international readership for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 26 No. 2 April 2002

Copyright © 2002 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Executive Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected]

Typeset by Profile, Culmdale, Rewe, Exeter, Devon EX5 4ES and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. 0144-8153 ERT (2002) 26:2, 99 Editorial

Whatever may be the resolution of God. In difficult circumstances, we the ‘war on terror’ being waged (at are called to stand with the lowly and the time of writing) in the wake of the marginalized in the name of Christ Sept 11, 2001 events in New York over against the loud voices that seek and Washington, the context for other ways to solve the problems of global theology is now quite different the world. from before. So these age-old themes which are In this new climate of international of deep concern to evangelicals–sov- relationships in which religion has ereignty and judgement, grace and been thrust to the forefront, the ini- forgiveness, sin and salvation, humil- tial events raised anew the question ity and discipleship, mission and the of our approach to justice and for- God of love–are once again central giveness at a national level and in the to our thinking. context of national policies and cul- Thus it is appropriate to open this tural pride. This is an issue which has issue of our journal with a review of many pastoral implications as well. trends in global evangelical theology Closely linked to it is the Christian and then to pass on to some detailed ministry of reconciliation and our studies drawn from around the attitudes towards people of other world. Dr Thomas Oden sums up his faiths and cultures. Here then is a call thinking on the place and role of to radical mission in the name of the women and men together in the God of love and sacrifice. church, a practical issue which raises We have also been forced us to fundamental theological considera- think once again about the reality of tions. Dr Robert Lang’at of Kenya evil and the ease with which person- calls our attention once more to the al thoughts can turn to revenge and responsibilities of the church in evan- even hatred. This, no doubt, reveals gelism, compassion and social jus- our sense of insecurity in a world that tice. Finally, Dr George W. Harper is is suddenly so uncertain, but we need interested in trends in church growth to pay more attention to the biblical and provides a meticulous analysis of witness which urges us to place our the situation in the Philippines set confidence in the sovereign God against the background of trends in alone. Even more than that, we need Latin America to remember that we have a saving, Together these papers highlight redeeming God who works in the both local and global issues which most unlikely circumstances. typify our call to theological reflec- The shock of the events on Sept tion that is both honest to God and 11 and their aftermath, as well as potent in its application to our forces surrounding them, have human context. reminded us again how precious is each person made in the image of David Parker, Editor. ERT (2002) 26:2, 100–118 0144-8153 Dynamics and Directions of World Evangelical Theology for the 21st Century David Parker

Keywords: Salvation, hermeneutics, unity, social responsibility, globalisation, spirituality, fellowship, reform, scholarship

1. Introduction particular regions, confessions or I compliment the Korea Evangelical denominations, schools or areas of Theological Society on its desire to theological interest. But our special include the global perspective in this interest is to serve the international conference. The Korean church is evangelical community by publishing well known for its global missions quality articles and book reviews perspective and so it is natural for (both original and re-published) you to have this topic on your pro- which foster global perspectives and gram. It is a delight for me too to par- interchange. ticipate in this way, not only because It is more obvious than ever that of my own personal interest, but also Christianity as a whole is truly a glob- because of the purpose of Evangeli- al phenomenon—that is, it is cal Review of Theology to be a ‘catholic’ or ‘universal’—already in forum and channel for global evan- these days we are able to experience gelical theology. I think this is a something of the perspective of the unique perspective in the field of the- book of Revelation when it speaks of ological journals. Many other fine ‘every tribe and tongue and people journals are, of course, devoted to and nation’ who share in the fellow- ship of Christ our Lord. For more than two hundred years now, Protes- Dr David Parker is Editor of Evangelical Review of Theology. He is an Adjunct Lec- tant Christians have been able to turer at Queensland Baptist College of Min- have something of this global per- istries and Bible College of Queensland in spective—ever since William Carey Brisbane Australia in Theology and New Tes- tament, and holds degrees from the Universi- read the journals of English explorer, ty of Queensland and the University of Lon- Captain James Cook (whom we don. This is a slighted edited version of a paper delivered at the Korea Evangelical The- honour in Australia), and as a result, ological Society International Conference on commenced the first major effort in ‘Evangelical Theology for 21st Century’ held the modern period to express a at SungKyul University, Anyang City, Korea, October 25-27th, 2001. world missionary vision in practical WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 101 terms. Before Carey’s time, the faith the developing world, which con- had reached many countries, trasts strongly with the situation in although sometimes at the edge of western European countries where sword and in company with colonial- traditional Christianity is in decline. ists and merchants. In many cases, Yet this rapidly growing church these links were too close for safety, needs to be matured and deepened and this is still a continuing problem to strengthen it and to ensure it does for us today. not make the same mistakes as the But now more than ever we do not West.1 It also needs to be more indi- have to travel or look at world Chris- genised to refute claims that it is only tianity from a foreign missions per- a western or colonial religion. At the spective. With the advent of globali- recent Triennial Assembly of the sation, mass communication, travel Asian Theological Association held and migration, the many splen- in Malaysia August 7-10, 2001, the doured fabric of the Christian family chairman, Dr Sang-bok David Kim, (Eph. 3:10; 1 Pet. 4:10) is close at emphasized this point by saying it hand geographically and in terms of was not a post-Christian situation in information and relationships—we Asia but pre-Christian, and that are are urged to ‘think globally, act while much had already been done locally’. We need only to consider for the kingdom of God, much more the large numbers of people from remained to be done in the future. various parts of the world now resi- My task is to bring some perspec- dent in other locations, and the fact tive on this global scene, both past that there are now thriving churches and present, and to think about the based on these immigrant communi- future trends. I can do so only from ties. For example, in the state of New my own particular perspective2 and South Wales in Australia, there are within the very limited range of my about 300 Baptist Churches but knowledge—the amount and extent there are fifty churches and fellow- of activity makes it difficult for any- ships based on migrant communities body to have much more than a par- representing 23 different lan- tial view of the whole. Yet, despite guages—Korean is the largest single this, it is impossible for theologians group. The same kind of situation today to carry out their tasks authen- can be found in many other areas of tically without a global perspective. the world of course, especially North We are in fact much closer to the ear- America and the United Kingdom. ly church than we imagine, both in its Within the broader picture of glob- al Christianity, evangelicals are also widespread, numerous and varied. 1 Wonsuk Ma, ‘Mission: nine hurdles for Asian This is true of their evangelism, mis- Churches’, Journal of Asian Mission, 2/1 (2000), pp. 103-124 sions, church planting and of their 2 cf William A. Dyrness, Emerging Voices in theological understandings Global Christian Theology (Grand Rapids: Zonder- van, 1994); William A. Dyrness, Learning about There is no doubt that the church Theology from the Third World (Grand Rapids: is on the move globally, especially in Zondervan Acadamie, 1990) 102 DAVID PARKER multi-cultural context and its intima- ment; urban issues, feminism and cy of fellowship; even though the dis- power; nuclear issues and peace; tances are great and the cultural and matters of critical concern in divides significant, it is possible particular areas of the world includ- through the benefit of communica- ing South Africa, and Latin and Cen- tion to be aware of the rest of the tral America. Evangelism itself and Christian world as if it were as close its relation to social justice has also as it was in the days of the apostle been on the agenda. Paul.3 The WEF Theological Commis- sion has during the last twenty-five 2. Evangelical Issues years focused on a range of topics in In this context it is interesting to its consultations, including, Defend- reflect on issues of concern to evan- ing and Confirming the Gospel, gelical theologians in the recent past. Nature and Mission of the Church, For example, in the 25 volumes of Jesus Christ our Redeemer and Lib- Evangelical Review of Theology erator, The Unique Christ in our Plu- which we are just completing this ralistic World, and Faith and Hope month, some of the most prominent for the Future. (http://www.worlde- topics have been: culture, contextu- vangelical.org/theology.html) alisation and the reporting of region- In the North American scene, a al theologies; salvation, pluralism prominent theme has been culture and dialogue; doing theology and wars involving a large number of theological education; the church, issues such as gender, sexuality, pro- Scripture, hermeneutics and tradi- life, science, peace, and race; other tion; women, ministry and gender interests have included forms of spir- issues; and social justice, poverty and ituality (both innovative and tradi- the environment. Since 1984 the lat- tional), restructuring and refocusing ter area has been taken up strongly the church to reach Busters, Gen-X by the journal of the Oxford Centre and other such groups, pluralism, for Mission Studies, Transforma- inter-church relations, the achieve- tion, which had its original roots in ments of (American) cross-cultural the Theological Commission. Other mission, eschatology (exacerbated important concerns which this jour- briefly by the advent of the new mil- nal has discussed include poverty, lennium), tele-evangelists and the environment, globalisation and the charismatic/Pentecostal movement. Jubilee 2000 call, population, eco- This period was the era of Libera- nomics, work and employment; tion Theology, the inerrancy contro- church and state, political praxis and versy, the Lausanne movement and philosophy in a Christian perspec- its congresses, with the important tive; refugees, relief and develop- Covenant of 1974. The Pentecostal and Charismatic movements have stepped into the mainstream during 3 cf Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern this period, and closely associated World (Grand Rapids: Baker Bridgepoint, 1999) with this has been the rise of the WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 103 mega-church and the wholesale habits related to personal and social restructuring of the institutions of the behaviour. church, its leadership and its worship; However, the feeling that there is a in many cases, far-reaching changes lack of uniformity and a loss of com- have also taken place in cross-cultur- monly held beliefs only opens up the al missions from the sending per- question of whether there may be a spective, partially in response to the need to identify a new more basic and rapid growth and relative independ- valid centre of unity deriving from the ence of national churches. Some of fundamental identity of the move- these churches have now begun to ment. That is, the claim that evangel- become more indigenised, which icalism is in danger of losing its roots means clarifying their own history and identity due to recent changes and colonial heritage, and also tack- touches on the role of the movement ling some of their own local problems and its very reason for existence. such as ancestor worship and the We shall come back to this ques- spirit world, nation building and pub- tion again later, but in the meantime, lic ethics, and church nurture and we may state in defence that some of leadership training. the observable changes at least arise The changes and developments in from the genuine commitment to the the global context as well as the question of on-going relevance in a growing maturation of evangelical world which is itself rapidly changing scholarship have both resulted in as well. A glance at the history of the profound and far reaching shifts in church shows that the forms, expres- evangelical thought and attitudes. sions and conceptualisations of the This demonstrates the diversity and Christian faith have never been stat- vitality of evangelicalism as it ic. In fact, they were never meant to responds vigorously to the contem- be, at least if we take seriously the porary issues. However, this diversi- metaphors used by Jesus and ty and change is too great for some throughout the New Testament who believe that in the rush to be rel- about growth, development and the evant, not enough of the foundation- pilgrim nature of a body of God’s al elements of evangelicalism are people on the move. Great diversity being conserved, and that there is and rapid expansion and growth in too little united focus on essentials. many different cultures of the world While there is a lamentable lack of make it hard, indeed impossible and local variety in some areas, due to perhaps unwise, to give any absolute the effects of evangelical globalisa- judgements on these matters, but we can at least offer some impressions tion in the hands of major book pub- in the hope that they may stimulate lishers, to take but one example, deeper reflection and better under- there is at the practical level the lack standing. of uniformity which can sometimes be uncomfortable—whether it be the use of Bible versions, the songs used 3. Some Classic Concerns in worship, or the customs and Some of the battles that engaged our 104 DAVID PARKER attention in earlier times are still with thought to the stewardship of our us, at least in some areas. These environment as the gift of our Cre- include the inerrancy and infallibility ator God. of Scripture; social justice and the This does not mean of course that gospel; varieties of eschatology; the there are not still positions that need place of critical scholarship; spiritual to be defended. Resurgent world reli- gifts and baptism in the Spirit; the gions make mission and beliefs about role and place of women in the salvation and the uniqueness of church and ministry; contextualisa- Christ key areas of concern, while tion and mission; and separatism and ordinary Christians in the now multi- Christian unity. Some, like eschatol- ethnic urban areas of the West must ogy, have received renewed inter- come to practical terms with plural- est—if only temporary—with the ism in their own communities. Fur- change of the millennium and the thermore, at regional, national and September 11 attacks on the World international levels, the economic Trade Centre in New York—and oth- and political implications of these ers seem to persist despite new con- developments must also be taken into texts, as revealed in the article ’Don’t account, with questions of religious hate me because I’m an Arminian’.4 freedom being a key concern. The Thankfully though, many are no revival of local religions, especially in longer the hindrance they once were their more assertive forms, are hav- to our life and work, because they ing a significant impact on the atti- have been resolved by adjustments to tudes and life of Christian communi- thinking, clarification of misunder- ties in many parts of the world. standings or some kind of pragmatic In the West and areas affected by working arrangements that allow the it, the practical atheism of secular contending parties to move on posi- materialism and the vagaries of post- tively. In some cases, the old battles modern culture are making their have lost their point because it has mark, both at the conceptual level become necessary to consider them affecting theology and ethics, and at in a new light brought on by chang- the practical level of evangelism, ing contexts and the emergence of community involvement and daily other related issues. For example, Christian living. questions of hermeneutics and the Then in matters of theology and entire issue of how the Bible is used church life, liberalism which places have overtaken the inerrancy reason and relevance above the debates. Similarly, great issues of authority of the Word of God, human survival related to the abuse though mostly a spent force, may still of our ecological resources have be found. Denials of the resurrection made it obligatory for even conser- especially when made by a bishop or vative Christians to give serious other prominent church leader, calls to take a modern approach to the

4 Christianity Today (ChrT) 6 Sept 1999 pp. Bible or to update the church and its 87-94 worship are sure to attract the atten- WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 105 tion of the media. There is consider- demographic transformation’ in the able hope, however, that these old- Christian population from western style liberals whose appeal is often to to eastern and southern hemi- the popular audience, will be seen in spheres and the overall result is seen a more balanced perspective as ‘The as a massive change in the global New Theologians’ (to use a term face of Christianity, as it turns into a from a recent issue of Christianity ‘faith without borders’.6 Just one Today5) and church leaders who example of the changing balance can have a more positive approach to be seen in the way non-western bish- the faith take a higher profile. ops dramatically re-directed the deci- Although for some of them it is true sions of the 1998 Lambeth Confer- that ‘the word “evangelical” makes ence of the Anglican Church in a far academics nervous’, it is also true more conservative direction on some that a new climate exists in many social issues than had been expected. areas which has created ‘open Although it is dangerous to gener- space’ and that ‘the intellectual world alise too much, it is obvious from is no longer dominated by a liberal- events like the WEF General Assem- conservative polarity’. bly (May 2001, Kuala Lumpur, Evangelicals in the West are Malaysia) that this globalised faith increasingly comfortable in moving has certain characteristics. One of into this ‘space’. Their counterparts the most prominent is a holistic from developing countries are appreciation of the Christian faith, emerging with high quality theologi- even what might be called ‘a positive cal education, and their character worldliness’ that pays attention to and faith tested and tried in the fires political involvement and nation of experience to develop credible building, the expression of faith in and impressive post-colonial indi- culture, the arts and public life; this is genised expressions of the age-old a faith that is comfortable with areas gospel. There are also others from such as ecology, economics, ethical around the world whose Christian behaviour and social transformation. experience has been affected strong- As Jun Vencer, recently retired Inter- ly by the impact of the Spirit in national Director of WEF, has said, recent times through the rapid ‘There are some negatives to this expansion and renewal of the [involvement in public life], of course, church. Some are recent converts but by and large, it doesn’t change from previously unchurched back- the fact that they are picking up a grounds who therefore sit loosely to biblical agenda to be truly evangelical the traditional evangelical or general and take, as we say, the whole ecclesiastical culture. Notice must gospel to the whole world.’7 also be taken of the ‘enormous If there is a positive dynamic regarding public life, there is also a

5 9 Feb 1999 featuring Kevin Vanhoozer, N.T. Wright, Richard Hays, Ellen Charry and Miroslav 6 ChrT 19 May 1997, p. 39 Volf 7 ChrT 19 May 1997, p. 45 106 DAVID PARKER corresponding confidence in mis- their place in the academic world in sion. The rapid growth of the church areas such as exegesis and back- in non-western areas is one clear grounds, even if their basic assump- example of this, but we can also tions and perspectives about biblical notice the transformation of the tra- authority and hermeneutics are not ditional missionary culture with ‘tent- always accepted. Opinions such as making’, short-term and third-world the following are sometimes found in missions, re-structuring of older mainstream scholarship: ‘The vari- organizations and the creative use of ous papers are necessarily confined all kinds of new technologies and to a rather narrow theological spec- opportunities. Church planting and trum and unlikely to appeal to those innovative efforts of worship, wit- readers not sharing evangelical con- ness and service in many older estab- victions’8 or ‘It collects recent schol- lished Christian areas are also arly opinions and debates about encouraging signs even if they have Mark, supports those that cohere not yet restored the church to its for- with a conservative perspective, but mer strength. rejects more innovative readings’.9 There is also a fresh approach to This often patronising approach is the church, emphasizing communi- not a reason for evangelicals to aban- ty, spirituality and compassionate don their basic convictions about ministry in the world. In some cases, Scripture as the Word of God, but it this may be seen as a negative factor, is a reminder of the gap that contin- arising out of a weak or almost non- ues to exist between evangelicals and existent ecclesiology, but overall, it is the mainstream. This has been a serious response to mission in a extended by the significant revolu- post-Constantinian context, often tion in biblical interpretation that has backed up by careful thinking and taken place in recent times with the solid scholarship. advent of the new literary and socio- Although the evangelical wing of logical criticism. Evangelical scholars the church globally can marshal high are well aware of the challenge, and quality scholarship, experienced need skill in handling it.10 practitioners of ministry and extraor- Furthermore, they need wisdom in dinary examples of sacrificial faith which give it great hope for the future, yet there are areas of genuine 8 Review of The Land of Promise (IVP/Apollos, concern that need to be addressed. 2000) in Expository Times July 2001 112/10, p. 350 9 Review of Ben Witherington III, The Gospel of 4. Some Areas of Continuing Mark: a Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Eerdmans, Concern 2001) in Expository Times Aug 2000 112/11, p. 390) a) Scripture 10 Gordon J. Thomas, ‘Telling a Hawk from a Handsaw? An evangelical response to the new liter- Fundamental for our faith is a sound ary criticism’. Evangelical Quarterly, 71/1 Jan 1999, pp. 37-50; Christopher J.H. Wright, ‘Inter- and authentic approach to Scripture. preting the Bible among the world religions’, Evangelical scholars can easily take Themelios, 25/3 June 2000, pp. 35-54 WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 107 showing how their insights make a the benefits of mutual enrichment.14 definite and positive contribution to This problem may be the result of the actual exegesis and exposition of lack of courage on the part of our the text in practical pastoral settings. leaders who are not prepared to take One ambitious attempt to do this is the sometimes controversial position the new Asia Bible Commentary that is needed in reforming the series, edited by Dr Bruce Nicholls church. However it may be a more and launched at the Triennial Assem- fundamental problem—as David bly of the Asia Theological Associa- Wells has pointed out, there is in fact tion in Malaysia in August 2001.11 ‘no place for truth’ in a postmodern According to Dr Nicholls, ‘Our man- church or world.15 date is to produce commentaries of Whatever may be the final analy- 125-300 pages that are exegetically sis, the importance of theological faithful to the whole of Scripture, education and pastoral training for theologically and missiological con- moulding the life of the church and textualised in the plurality of cultures its leadership in the current context of Asia and are pastorally oriented to cannot be underemphasized. While the needs of the churches.’12 Thus ‘the issue of doctrinal integrity is this project takes full account of the paramount for a theological semi- ‘Globalization of Hermeneutics’ nary’16 it is obvious that a much more which along with the globalised comprehensive approach is needed approach to theology mentioned for pastoral training and indeed for above is an essential part of our work the life of the church generally, today.13 which leads us to the consideration The temptation is to use the of spirituality. insights of scholarship selectively, b) Spirituality and thus to lose authenticity both as A second area of concern is spiritu- scholars and as Christians. This also ality, including worship, nurture and separates academia and the church, discipleship. It is striking how much thereby contradicting the basic interest evangelicals are now taking integrity of heart and mind, and denying both church and academia 14 Moises Silva, ‘Can two walk together unless they be agreed?’ JETS 41/1 Mar 98, pp. 3-16, especially p. 11f Silva warns against the danger of ‘scholars who in one way or another identify them- 11 The first two volumes in the series are The selves as conservative know that they have aban- Gospel according to St John by Dr Jey Kaanagaraj doned distinctive evangelical principles and are sim- and Rev. Ian Kemp, and Song of Songs by Dr ply not very honest about it.’ Even more ‘alarming’, Andrew Hwang and Rev. Samuel Goh. Details can he says, are those who are ‘blissfully unaware of be obtained from the General Secretary, Derek Tan having adopted approaches or positions that con- ([email protected]) flict with their religious convictions at a fundamen- 12 Report on the Asia Bible Commentary project tal level’. to the Triennial Assembly, Asia Theological Associ- 15 David F. Wells, No Place for Truth, or what- ation, August 2001. ever happened to Evangelical Theology? (Grand 13 See Craig Blomberg’s article of this title in Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993) Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 16 Quoting a slogan used in a recent advertise- (JETS), 38/4 Dec 1995, pp. 581-593 ment in Christianity Today 2 Apr 2001 108 DAVID PARKER in traditional types of spirituality and We all know, or we think that we do, what the number of evangelicals taking it is that we are redeemed from; but what are we redeemed for?…. It is, in my the journey to Iona, Canterbury, experience, a question that many modern Istanbul or Rome, apparently in Christians find it difficult to answer. Indeed, search of a more satisfying expres- they have not really asked it; for the sion of devotion than they have Christian discipling that they have received has emphasised only redemption from found in their own classic evangelical something, and that is how they have forms.17 The tensions that have come to conceive of the Christian life existed between evangelicalism and overall. They have a fairly good idea, Charismatics and Pentecostalism is therefore, about what they are against; but they are vague to the point of as much a matter of spirituality as it incapacitation when asked what it is that is of exegesis and theology. Thus they are for…. All of this, I suggest, is Stanley J. Grenz can say, ‘Funda- related to (although not exhaustively mentally, I believe, the evangelical explained by) a fundamental theological problem; that such Christians … possess understanding of what it means to be no sufficiently robust idea of creation, with a Christian focuses on a distinct spir- which to undergird and explain their idea ituality.’ 18The revolution in worship of redemption… . Holistic Christians they in many western churches is another therefore cannot be. Holistic ministry they therefore cannot practice, for they have example of the same quest for spiri- not even conceived, yet, of its tual reality. possibility… While there could be considerable In answering this question, Dr discussion about the secondary mat- Provan pointed to the divine image, ters of styles of music, forms of litur- conferred on humankind and lost, gy and prayer and aesthetics, tem- but restored in Christ, as the key to perament and cultural context, per- our identity and vocation. 19 haps Dr Iain Provan of Regent Col- What are we redeemed to be? Bearers of lege Vancouver points us in the right the divine image in every aspect of our direction in his Bible Study on Gene- lives. What are we redeemed to do? To live sis chap 1 and 2 at the WEF Gener- out that reality with integrity and joy, doing whatever our hand finds to do in particular al Assembly in May 2001 when he instances, at particular times, and in asked the question, ‘What are we particular places. redeemed for?’ He said: If we follow through on this line of approach, we will find a focus and 17 See, for example, Robert W. Webber, Evan- empowerment that will enable us to gelicals on the Canterbury Trail, (Waco: Word, move on towards a positive goal 1985), and Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith: and also be able to cope with the Rethinking Evangelicalism for a Postmodern World, (Grand Rapids: Baker Bridgepoint: 1999) diversity that is a normal part of the 18 Stanley J. Grenz., Revisioning Evangelical kingdom. Theology: a Fresh Agenda for the 21st Century (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1993; cf David c) Church unity Parker, ‘Evangelical spirituality reviewed’, Evangeli- cal Review of Theology (ERT) 16/2, April 1992, For years the slogan of the World pp. 152-166) Evangelical Fellowship was ‘Spiritual 19 ‘Creation and Holistic Ministry: A Study of Genesis 1:1 to 2:3’ by Iain Provan, ERT 25/4 Oct Unity in Action’. Although it almost 2001, pp. 292—303 sounds like a contradiction in terms, WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 109 it is an effective way to sum up the Whatever the background, ecclesi- attitude of many evangelicals to the ology and hence the nature and uni- issue of Christian unity—there is a ty of the church is an unresolved profound unity ultimately created by issue for evangelicalism. This is like- the Spirit (Eph. 4:3; 2 Cor. 13:14) in ly to be made more difficult by uncrit- which we are to exist as Christians ical and even absolutist emphases on and which we are to express in our the controlling role of the church and relationships, ministries and activi- the faith community by those influ- ties. While this is a sound approach, enced by postmodern hermeneutics. it is possible to use it as an excuse not This will raise new concerns by evan- to face the more difficult questions of gelicals on both the Protestant ideal visible unity, and worse, to use it as a of ecclesia semper reformanda and shield to hide selfish and unchristian the spiritual renewal and biblical efforts of empire building or inde- basis of the church. For this reason, pendence. In such cases, there is a the WEF Theological Commission shocking lack of theological and spir- gave attention to this matter at its itual integrity. recent Consultation in Kuala Part of the motivation for main- Lumpur, papers of which will be pub- taining the traditional stand on spiri- lished in Evangelical Review of The- tual unity is biblical, but it is also part ology in January 2002. There is also of the non-denominational heritage a task force being set up to review of much evangelicalism. Although the WEF Statement of Faith, which, this is an inescapable aspect of our in common with many similar state- historical background (which needs ments, has no clear or definitive arti- to be considered again later), it does cle about the visible church. The mean that there is likely to be either WEF statement reads: ‘We believe a lack of ecclesiological thinking, or in … 6. The Unity of the Spirit of more, a strong resistance to it. Some all true believers, the Church, the strands of evangelicalism are explic- Body of Christ.’21 itly non-denominational or para- When Evangelicals apply their church, and so are not expected to minds to the doctrine of the church be concerned with ecclesiology as and its unity to develop an under- such—their role is to work alongside standing that speaks specifically to of ecclesial structures. Others, how- this present age, they can be confi- ever, set aside or demote their dent of making a particular contribu- church-related thinking for the pur- tion where previous institutional, poses of greater unity, or often sim- confessional and sacramental ply because of weak or undeveloped approaches have proven to be unsat- theological convictions. Yet another isfactory. factor is the emergence of new con- First of all, they can draw upon the cepts of post-denominational church life in a postmodern context.20 21 For a good piece of foundational theology in this area, see Miroslav Volf, After Our Likeness: 20 Robert Webber, Ancient-Future Faith, chap- The Church as the Image of the Trinity, (Grand ters 8-10 Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998) 110 DAVID PARKER vast variety of expression that is the continuation of Christ’s found in their movement to bring a anointing by the Spirit.’22 rich treasury of experience and Intrinsic to this ‘Spirit of Jesus’ insight into the arena of discussion. approach to the nature of the church Evangelicals, for example, have is another which the evangelical learned to work together in their mis- movement can bring with confi- sionary, evangelistic and service min- dence—the missiological element istries with an extremely broad range (understood in the broadest possible of people, and they have quickly way, including the concept of the adapted and innovated their strate- kingdom of God.) As Volf concluded gies and methods to make their work his paper: ‘The only thing that truly more effective, especially in the area matters is that the Church be reflec- of the use of technology. The rapid tion of Christ’s own light in that it renewal of the missionary movement continues his mission anointed by with the advent of new forms of pio- the Spirit.’23 neer and short term agencies at the Thus we can envisage an under- present time is only one more exam- standing and praxis of the church ple of a long line of progressive inno- centred on the Spirit endowed peo- vations in the past that include such ple of God in mission, building developments as the faith missions strong but flexible communities for movement, the science of linguistics worship, service and witness which and the use of radio, film and sound are in integral fellowship with others recordings. If evangelicals can draw even though the institutional and effectively upon this legacy, then they bureaucratic links may be minimal. will not be held up by the traditional But in the meantime, practical and parochial attitudes that often efforts at unity and cooperation are exist in mainstream church life. Thus difficult enough to realize within the the sheer reality of interdenomina- confines of the evangelical and tional partnership (koinonia) that is Protestant world, but they become an everyday fact of evangelical life on even more problematic in other con- local and global levels will be a strong texts. The WEF Theological Com- incentive for progress towards viable mission has been engaged in conver- understandings of unity. sations with the Roman Catholic Then at the doctrinal level, we can Church now since 1993 when the refer to the concept of spiritual uni- late Dr Paul Schrotenboer began the ty, and point to the church in its one- process. Dr George Vandervelde is ness as the creation of the risen Lord the current convenor of this Task who showers upon it the blessing of Force which will conclude its current his Spirit (Eph. 4:8). As Miroslav Volf round of talks early in 2002 when a put it at the recent WEF General joint statement summarising the four Assembly: ‘Here, then, you have a definition of the church that is capa- 22 Miroslav Volf, ‘The Nature of the Church’, ble of providing impetus for new and ERT, Jan 2002, 26/1 pp. 68-75) p. 69 fruitful developments: the church is 23 Volf, ‘The nature of the Church’, p. 75 WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 111 sessions is expected to be finalised. It The Gift of Salvation has been made is anticipated that the WEF Theolog- possible by a major realignment in ecumenical discourse: the coalescence of ical Commission will also be involved believing Roman Catholics and faithful in joint talks with other confessional evangelicals who both affirm the substance groups in due course. of historic Christian orthodoxy against the This can be a painstaking process ideology of theological pluralism that marks much mainline Protestant thought and one that is considered too con- as well as avant-garde Catholic theology. troversial for some. So the approach Thus, for all our differences Bible-believing adopted by those individuals involved evangelicals stand much closer to Cardinal in the March 1994 ‘Evangelicals and Joseph Ratzinger than to Bishop John 26 Catholics Together’ statement in Spong! North America is worthy of atten- d) Relations with other Faiths tion. In that particular context (which Developments such as globalisation is not necessarily comparable to any and the September 11 terrorist other area), the desirability of what attacks are causing Evangelicals James Packer described as ‘non- along with other Christians to to proselytising joint action for the con- reconsider their relationships version and nurture of outsiders’24 towards the other world faiths and has led a number of prominent indi- their attitudes to their adherents. viduals on both sides of the Evangel- This has been the case over many ical/Roman Catholic divide to draw years for those in the non-western up a statement of commonly held world where Christianity is in the positions, without prejudice to the minority. Then, as we have noted clearly acknowledged theological above, it is a new but pressing issue issues that remain between them.25 for many in the old world where This informal approach has not there are increasingly large popula- been clearly understood or accepted tions who adhere to these religions. by all observers, of course, but it does However, in this case, the situation is hold some promise of providing a reversed, and Christianity, at least in workable procedure for progress, a nominal form, is the majority reli- especially as several doctrinal points gion. of concern were clarified in a later There are at least three critical document, The Gift of Salvation areas for evangelicals in these kinds (1997). One important factor that of inter-faith and ecumenical rela- made such a development possible tionships—the integrity and was the change in the theological resilience of our own personal faith landscape, which Timothy George and confidence in the gospel; the explained when releasing it. practical application of commonly held ethical positions and moral val- 24 see ChrT, 12 Dec 1994, J.I. Packer, ‘Why I ues in public life; and questions of signed it’, pp 34f ; he used Francis Schaeffer’s term, theology and belief. By drawing grassroots ‘co-belligerence’. 25 Charles Colson and Richard John Neuhaus, Evangelicals and Catholics Together: toward a common mission (Dallas: Word 1995) 26 ChrT, 8 Dec 1997, pp. 34 112 DAVID PARKER upon their spiritual resources, the fellowship, rather than on doctrinal doctrine of common grace and bibli- agreement, a shared religious expe- cal authority, evangelical Christians rience or organizational links. As the should have little difficulty in princi- Preamble to the Kingdom Affirma- ple in maintaining a positive and tions issued by the conference stat- faithful witness in all these areas. ed: ‘We believe that focussing on the Another approach to the matter of Gospel Jesus himself announced can cooperation between apparently unite and empower the church for competing or rival interests is illus- costly obedience and wholistic mis- trated by the findings of a conference sion.’ held in Malaysia 1984 on ‘Word, e) Social change Kingdom and Spirit’ as the final part With the massive cultural changes of a programme dealing with chron- facing the world, different in each ic misunderstandings between evan- area for sure, there is need for a body gelicals, social activists, and the such as the church with its remark- Charismatic/Pentecostals. The con- ably long heritage, deeply held tradi- 27 ference Manifesto stated: tions, elaborate institutions and com- When we understand the Gospel as the plex patterns of authority to be par- Good News of the Kingdom, we are better ticularly alert to the questions of rele- able to overcome the tragic onesidedness that has torn apart proclamation, social vance and strategy. Even evangelical- transformation and renewal in the Spirit. ism, which has a far shorter heritage Jesus specifically commanded us to share than the church at large, has a prob- the Gospel in the way he did in the Power lem with entrenched traditions. Thus of the Spirit (John 20:21-22). We believe we need to bear in mind that this was that Jesus both joyfully welcomed all people into the Kingdom and modelled a matter which our Lord seemed to costly incarnation and identification with target specifically in his engagement the poor, weak and oppressed. Since he with the religious leaders of his day. cared about the whole person, so must we. In many cases, the problems are The church is called to be the visible ones of priorities, methodology, expression of the Kingdom, a new community of reborn men and women, communication and even percep- transcending differences of race, class and tion; as such they can be dealt with gender, serving the world, suffering through education, patience and courageously for righteousness’ sake, love—and sometimes applying the witnessing through its communal life to principle of ‘the strong and the Jesus Christ its King and growing in likeness in him. weak’ (Rom. 14; 1 Cor. 8). In other cases it is a matter of strategy and This line of approach focuses, policy, where prayerful discussion therefore, on carrying out the mis- and common sense must be used to sion Jesus has given us in his role as seek unanimity of purpose. Thus, for the embodiment and herald of the Africans, whether to direct resources kingdom of God as the criterion our to the equally desperate needs of leadership training to meet the dra-

27 Transformation Vol 11/3 July-Sept 1994, matic numerical explosion of the pp 2-3 church or compassionate assistance WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 113 in response to the devastating AIDS driven by a genuine desire to meet epidemic is not a matter of basic deep human needs in the name of principle but of practical guidance Christ, but there is also considerable and fellowship. activity at the theoretical level. However, there are other matters However, more reflection is need- which require more profound ed in these areas, especially at the thought and adjustment to attitudes local level, because a naturally con- and values. In the West, the advent of servative membership requires care- postmodernism, considered by ful teaching about the biblical and many to be as far-reaching as any of practical aspects of controversial the great conceptual revolutions of issues if uncertainty and even divi- the past, calls for radical re-thinking sion over questions such as gender and re-strategizing by evangelicals and ministry, life and family issues no less than by any other section of (abortion, contraception, euthana- the church. For other regions, the sia), sexuality, or race are to be advent of liberal democracies and avoided. their associated social-economic sys- But whether it be matters of tems, or the downfall of traditional methodology, strategy, ethics or cultures may be the issue. Certainly worldview, evangelicals will find that for the world in general, the church a missiological and spiritual as a global body is in the forefront. approach to the church and a These changes throw up various par- dynamic view of scripture will pro- ticular issues, such as worship, gen- vide important guidelines and norms der, and the leadership structure and for progress. These factors will also governance of the church, which be relevant in tackling areas of doc- must also be addressed one by one, trinal controversy currently exercis- but always with the larger context in ing the minds of evangelicals, mind. In some cases, we may need to although more theoretical factors revise our received interpretations of will be needed to resolve them. Scripture to correct mistaken posi- Among the more interesting of the tions, or to fill out gaps in our world- doctrinal matters on the evangelical view (such as a Westerner dealing agenda at present are open theism, with the spirit world of an African annihilationism, the nature, mission society); in other situations, new and ministry of the church, the issues, such as bio-ethics, may call for impact of postmodern thought and fresh applications of basic principles. culture, salvation and the Lordship of As our survey of trends in recent Christ, and especially the role and times mentioned above shows, evan- ministry of women in the church. gelicals have made considerable There are also many interesting progress in dealing with many of the developments in the Pentecostal and new ethical issues.28 In this they are Charismatic area as these move- ments move towards greater theo- 28 See, for example, John R.W. Stott, Issues Facing Christians Today, (London: Collins Marshall Pickering, 1990) 114 DAVID PARKER logical maturation.29 The events sur- In the past, evangelicalism has rounding the terrorist attacks in the been characterized variously as a US on Sept 11, 2001 have thrown confessional position by its adher- up a whole new context for theolog- ence to certain doctrinal positions, ical work which affects evangelicals, or as an ecclesiastical party (espe- as well as others, with a focus on cially in the Anglican world), or espe- such key issues as reconciliation and cially of late in North America, as a forgiveness, the nature of God, jus- cultural option. Historically, it has tice and evil, relations with other carried out the role of a reform (or faiths and the mission of the church. protest) movement, witnessing against doctrinal and spiritual decline both negatively by standing for the 5. Trends in understanding fundamentals, and positively by its Evangelicalism active commitment to evangelism, From this brief and rather selective missions and spirituality. With the survey, it is clear that the new con- passing of time, this cause has text of a globalised, post-denomina- achieved considerable success, mak- tional, post-colonial Christianity ing it now appropriate to speak of causes us to review many of the old- evangelicalism in sociological terms er issues and turn our attention to as a kind of loosely knit denomina- new ones, or at least to develop a tion.30 It is difficult to hold all these new perspective on existing issues. elements together in any meaningful Many of the concerns are intrinsic to way, but David Wells has proposed evangelicalism and the wider church, with some success the triad of con- but others are the products of a com- fessional, transconfessional and plex, but overbearing global socio- charismatic to interpret recent British political climate where human rights, and American evangelicalism.31 In crimes against humanity, abuse of this paper, I have tried to avoid focus- economic power and ecological irre- ing on any particular strand, but have sponsibility are rife. Others arise concentrated on what is held in com- from profound changes in the world- mon and what characterizes the view and religious outlook. We need movement at its heart. a revived and re-envisioned evangel- What is obvious, however, is that icalism for these circumstances that the older definitions are not neces- is capable of pursuing the goal of sarily any longer appropriate or faithful discipleship on the broadest advantageous, at least in their tradi- possible spectrum as it has done so tional forms. Furthermore, the rapid successfully in the past.

30 See a brief discussion of this idea of George 29 See, for example, William W. Menzies and Marsden in Robert K. Johnstone, ‘Orthodoxy and Robert P. Menzies, Spirit and Power: foundations Heresy: a problem for modern evangelicalism’ of Pentecostal experience (Grand Rapids: Zonder- (Evangelical Quarterly LXIX/1 Jan 1997, pp. 7- van, 2000); Sam Hey, ‘Changing roles of Pente- 38) costal Hermeneutics’, ERT, 25/3 July 2001, pp. 31 ‘On Being Evangelical’ in Evangelicalism, 210-218; and Asian Journal of Pentecostal Stud- edited by Noll, Bebbington and Rawlyk, (Oxford, ies OUP, 1994), pp. 390-393 WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 115 growth of the movement has Assessments of the current state of inevitably produced wider variety evangelicalism have therefore been and increased fragmentation. Hence set against both the old and the new there have been attempts to produce definitions, but often in these discus- new definitions of the movement, sions, the protest or reforming such as David Bebbington’s famous nature of the movement has been ‘quadrilateral of priorities’—bibli- insufficiently noticed. Robert cism, conversionism, activism, cruci- Letham,36 for example, points to this centrism.32 Richard Turnbull argues feature by noting that ‘Evangelicals that Bebbington’s list is too general tend to consider as axiomatic that and seeks to improve upon it by theirs is the quintessential expression offering ‘four centres of evangelical of the Christian faith’. He then goes spiritual identity: authority, doctrine, on to argue that in comparison with spirituality and practical commit- some classic expressions of Chris- ment’.33 Roger Olson, however, tianity, evangelicalism falls short by reverts to a stricter position, believ- being insufficiently God-centred or ing that evangelicalism is ‘primarily a Trinitarian and for holding a low view theological movement’ and there- of the church. After drawing atten- fore lists the following four as ‘mini- tion to current forms of evangelical- mum characteristics’—biblical ism that emphasize regeneration and authority, a supernatural worldview personal spiritual experience, world centred in a personal transcendent missions and personal evangelism God, the grace of God in conversion and the defence of the authority, as the ‘center of authentic Christian infallibility and inerrancy of the Bible, experience’ and the role of theology he concludes, ‘Evangelicalism at its to serve the mission of the church in best has marched off at a tangent bringing this grace to the world in from the trajectory of the historic witness and service.34 However, it is church. It has followed interests it evident that even this ‘theological’ has perceived as important in the approach spills over into areas of confidence that it, more than others, experience, spirituality and action, has a true understanding of the indicating that evangelicalism is best Christian faith.’ As a result, he finds, defined in terms of ‘a specific vision ‘evangelicalism is a variant form of of what it means to be a Christian’.35 Christianity, and one that … could now be in danger of losing its grasp 32 Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A Histo- of the faith it seemingly holds dear’.37 ry from the 1730s to the 1980s (London: Rout- ledge, 1988), pp. 2-17. See John Stott’s comments Despite this negative assessment, on this in his Evangelical Truth: a personal plea for the evangelical movement in its vari- unity (Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1999), pp 24-28 ous has emphasized from the days of 33 Richard Turnbull ‘Evangelicalism: the State of Scholarship and the Question of Identity’ Anvil 16/2, 1999, p. 95 34 Roger E. Olson, ‘The future of evangelical 36 Robert Letham in Robert Letham and Donald theology’, ChrT 9 Feb 1998, pp. 40-48 Macleod, ‘Is Evangelicalism Christian?’ Evangelical 35 Stanley J. Grenz., Revisioning Evangelical Quarterly LXVII/1 Jan 1995 pp. 3-33, p. 3 Theology: a Fresh Agenda For The 21st Century 37 Robert Letham, ‘Is Evangelicalism Christian?’ (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 1993), p. 30f. p. 16 116 DAVID PARKER the Protestant Reformation the Australian Evangelical Alliance refers importance of such key features of to ‘the faith therein set forth and Christian truth as justification, holi- summarised in such historic state- ness, evangelism, cross cultural mis- ments of the Christian Church as the sion, the transforming empower- Apostles’ and Nicene Creeds, and in ment of the Holy Spirit and the particular, the assertion of doctrines authority of Scripture.38 summarily stated as follows’ (which It is obvious, however, that there includes seven familiar statements of are difficulties with a protest move- evangelical emphasis). The Scripture ment and its negative message when Union and the Evangelical Fellow- it achieves a measure of success and ship of the Anglican Church (EFAC) becomes dominant (as in USA and adopt a similar approach. some other parts of the world), or if the causes of concern against which 6. The way forward it is directed are rectified or removed (as is the case with some forms of lib- It is understandable that in this eral or Catholic doctrine). If protest process some people may fear their or opposition to the mainstream is position has been compromised and what defines a group rather than a that evangelicalism will lose its iden- positive message, then the (fighting) tity. So we are brought back to a fundamentalist spirit, (that is, fight- problem we mentioned at the out- ing for one’s position as the sole set—the need to identify a new more object of one’s existence), easily basic and valid centre of unity deriv- emerges. When there is nothing ing from the fundamental identity of important left to fight against, its the movement which people could proponents can only perpetuate adopt enthusiastically and without obsolete controversies, or worse still, any fear of compromise. turn upon each other and their Certainly, adjustments will need to friends. be made to evangelicalism as time It is better therefore to see evan- progresses such as corrections to gelicalism as a reform movement statements of faith, re-formulation to taking its place within the broader maintain relevance in newly emerg- church, enjoying its fellowship and ing situations, not to mention more supporting its mission. This radical changes to reflect new approach is seen in some recently insights and its own continual need revised statements of faith which to be reformed. This is true for any retain the standard evangelical claus- movement, but particularly for a es on Scripture and Christology but reform movement. Some particular relate them primarily to the central ways of making the transition from doctrines as reflected in the ecu- one period to another have been menical creeds. For example the already identified earlier in this paper, but two more general ones may be mentioned in conclusion as 38 Stott, Evangelical Truth, draws a helpful dis- tinction between ‘evangelical essentials’ and ‘evan- suggestions for the way forward. gelical distinctives’ (p. 9) One has already been alluded to— WORLD EVANGELICAL THEOLOGY FOR THE 21ST CENTURY 117 the historical relativity that is intrinsic ed sets’ and ‘centred sets’.41 In the to any human movement. It is only former case, evangelicalism would necessary to think of well known be defined by ‘a list of essential char- contemporary cases of historical acteristics which allow clear bound- ghettos, where customs and rules of aries to be defined and maintained.’ a bygone era are still literalistically Examples of such a list would be the applied, to see the point. An appli- five ‘fundamentals’ or other doctrinal cation of this principal to the area of statements, or a set of behavioural belief is to consider the concept of norms, giving a static condition in the ‘progress of dogma’ (to refer to which orthodoxy is defined with James Orr’s book of this title) and extreme clarity and variance is as see that theology has focused on dif- obvious as it is difficult.42 ferent issues as it has expanded and ‘Centred set’ thinking however, matured. We need also to think of focuses on what holds people theology as a derivative exercise, not together at the heart of their move- a primary one. One way in which ment with less emphasis on the this can be seen is in Robert Web- boundaries, which are defined only ber’s discussion of the difference in terms of the centre. ‘Here the rela- between ‘creeds, confessions and tionships are dynamic, not static. personal opinion’. He further points One can be moving towards or away out that in accordance with the real- from the centre. There is still clear ity of the Incarnation, ‘the task of the division as to who belongs …’ John- church is to articulate truth within the stone interprets recent American context of history and culture’. Thus evangelicalism as a transition from we can see that creeds and theolo- bounded to centred set thinking, and gies have been developed ‘as means accordingly offers his definition of to communicate truth, not as ends in the movement in terms of solus themselves.’39 Hence there is scope Christus and sola Scriptura. for re-presentation of theological A clear application of this kind of statements in varying contexts with- thinking is to focus on the question out any threat of assault upon funda- of discipleship, finding our unity, not mental truth.40 doctrinally, organizationally or cul- A second mechanism is the now turally, but in the Lordship of Christ familiar distinction between ‘bound- and our ‘obedience of faith’ (Rom.

41 A clear explanation of this in the current con- text may be found in Robert K. Johnstone, ‘Ortho- 39 Robert E. Webber, Ancient-Future Faith, pp. doxy and Heresy: a problem for modern evangeli- 195-199 calism’ (Evangelical Quarterly LXIX/1 Jan 1997, 40 See also Brad J. Kallenberg, ‘Conversion pp. 7-38); see also Roger E Olson, ‘The Future of Converted: a Postmodern Formulation of the Doc- Evangelical Theology’, ChrT 9 Feb 1998 p. 41ff. trine of Conversion.’ (Evangelical Quarterly 67/4 42 Cf the 2002 Annual Meeting of the Evangelical Oct 1995, pp. 345.f) for a discussion of George Theological Society in North America with its adver- Lindbeck’s distinction between first and second tised theme, ‘Defining Evangelicalism’s Boundaries’ order propositions. (http://www.etsjets.org/meetings/annual_2001.html) 118 DAVID PARKER

1:5). This does not rule out intellec- so convincing or definite for those tual or other interests, for we are to who want absolute answers and neat worship God with our minds, but it definitions, but what could be more does put them into the proper per- Christian, and what could be more spective. To put it another way, we appropriate if indeed the Spirit is are fundamentally evangelicals, or with us to empower and guide?44 gospel people.43 This may not seem

44 I would like to thank Dr George Vandervelde of Toronto, Canada, for his advice in editing this 43 Stott, Evangelical Truth, pp. 29ff. 135-146. paper for publication here.

Where Wrath and Mercy Meet Editor: David Peterson The cross of Jesus is central to evangelical Christianity. Yet the theology of atonement is under attack, not only from those outside the evangelical fold, but also from those within who challenge the doctrine of penal substitution. In this collection of papers, delivered at the Oak Hill College Annual School of Theology 2000, four members of the faculty defend a strong articulation of penal substitution in the face of contemporary challenges. David Peterson surveys the atonement in both Old and New Testaments; Garry Williams examines the nature of punishment at the heart of a penal doctrine; Michael Ovey expounds how sin is the ‘de-creation’ of God’s world; and Paul Weston reflects on John’s Gospel and the lessons it provides on proclaiming the cross today. The collection is then completed with an appendix on justification by faith by a former vice- principal of Oak Hill, Alan Stibbs. ‘Thank God that someone is prepared to cut through all the therapeutic nonsense written about this issue and present a solid, biblical case for an atonement which places penal and substitutionary categories at its very heart. David Peterson and the staff at Oak Hill have placed all those who love the truth in their debt’.

Carl Trueman, Senior Lecturer in Church History, University of Aberdeen. David Peterson is the Principal of Oak Hill College and has written amongst other volumes ‘Possessed by God’. This is the third in the Oak Hill College Annual School of Theology series. Other volumes are Proclaiming the Resurrection, edited by Peter Head, and Witness to the World, edited by David Peterson.

1-84227-079-6 / 229 x145mm / p/b / 180pp / £14.99

Paternoster Press, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS, UK 0144-8153 ERT (2002) 26:2, 119–135 On Women and Men Working Together in the Church Who Will Lead Us? Surely the One whom the Spirit Gifts Thomas C. Oden

Keywords: Incarnation, creation, image, sin, sexuality, gender, gifts, church, ministry, learning, worship, subordination, child-bearing, gospel, redeemer

‘Male and Female God Created representing some 150 million evan- Them’ (Gen. 1:27) gelicals worldwide. I have been invit- There are two audiences for this ed to present this one paper, or por- paper: The Women’s Commission tions of it, to serve both audiences. of the World Evangelical Fellowship The agenda for this discussion is (mostly women), and the Theological largely shaped by the concerns of the Commission (mostly men), together Women’s Commission, but since it deals with the biblical and theological issues of the gifts of women and men Thomas C. Oden is Henry Anson Buttz Pro- working together in the church, it fessor of Theology at the Theological School will be of interest, I think, to the The- of Drew University in Madison, New Jersey. He is general editor of the Ancient Christian ological Commission. Few issues are Commentary on Scripture. He also served more pressing for evangelical Chris- over a decade in pastoral ministry and has written a number of works dealing with psy- tians world wide than the relation of chotherapy and pastoral theology. Oden doc- men and women. umented his theological pilgrimage in Agen- How does the Bible invite us to da for Theology (Harper and Row, 1979; revised in 1990 as After Modernity—What? understand the giftedness of women He has also written a theological trilogy, The and men through the Holy Spirit? In Living God (Harper and Row, 1987), The Word of Life (1989) and Life in the Spirit what providential ways does the (1992). One of his latest works is Requiem: Spirit marvellously distribute to both A Lament in Three Movements (Abingdon, 1995). This is part of a paper delivered to ses- genders? I am honoured to be asked sions of the Women’s Commission and Theo- to attempt to represent fairly both logical Commission of the World Evangelical genders in this presentation. I ask Fellowship during the General Assembly, May 4-10, 2001 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. your prayers, that my words be 120 THOMAS C. ODEN respectful to every person present. the plausible hypothesis for why the The first and most important ques- Saviour was male: If the mother of tion has to do with the fairness of the Saviour must of necessity be God. female, since only females are mothers, the Saviour would logi- I. The Giftedness of Women cally have to be male for both sex- and Men through the Holy es to be significantly involved in Spirit the salvation event. The only alter- native would be to have a female 1. Does God show bias toward mother of the Saviour and a female one gender or another in the Saviour. For one cannot have a male Incarnation? mother of the Saviour. More so a Augustine wrote: God’s ‘temporal male plus female (hermaphrodite) plan ennobled each sex, both male Saviour would fail entirely to share in and female. By possessing a male the specific either/or nature of our nature and being born of a woman human sexuality as male or female. He further showed by this plan that Surely the female birth-giver is no God has concern not only for the sex less an intrinsic part of the divine He represented but also of the one economy than the Messiah in the through which He took upon Him- male line of David as promised.4 This self our nature’.1 ‘Not only that sex hypothesis reverses egalitarian argu- which He assumed pertains to ments, by making the female birth- God’s care, but also that sex by giver the primary basis upon which which He did assume humanity.’2 the incarnate Lord became male. If both sexes are to be honoured The incarnation indisputably con- and blessed in the incarnation, and if vinces us that God is not ashamed of the one giving birth must be female, either female and male bodies, or of then the one born must be male.3 Do human embodiment, or of sexuality. not hasten over this point. Linger. Augustine must have been in a play- Meditate. Savour a delicious classic ful mood when he wrote, comment- inference: if the incarnation required ing on the biblical narrative of Jesus’ birth, that males cannot do— there is baptism: ‘Now the reason why the no way physiologically — this forms Holy Spirit was not born of a dove, whereas Christ was born of a woman, is this: The Holy Spirit did 1 R.J. Deferrari, ed., Fathers of the Church: A not come to liberate doves, but to New Translation (100+ vols. to date. Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1947), declare unto humanity innocence 27:236 and spiritual love, which were out- 2 On Faith and the Creed, P. Schaff et al., eds., A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene wardly symbolized in the form of a Fathers of the Christian Church, Series 1 and 2 (14 vols. each) (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature, 1887- 1894), (Reprint, Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, and 4 Thomas C. Oden, The Living God, Vol. 1 of Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1952-1956, Reprint, Systematic Theology (San Francisco: Harper & 1971-79), 1 III:325 Row, 1987), pp. 7-9, 222-3; Thomas C. Oden, The 3 Augustine, Eighty-three Different Questions, Word of Life, Vol. 2 of Systematic Theology (San Fathers of the Church, 70, p. 42. Francisco: Harper & Row, 1989), pp. 117-8, 148 ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 121 dove. The Lord Jesus Christ, having when the time had fully come, God come to liberate human beings, sent his Son, born of a woman, born including both men and women des- under law, to redeem those under tined for salvation, was not ashamed law’ (Gal.4:4). It is an article of faith of the male nature, for He took it that Jesus was born of a particular upon himself, or of the female, for he woman, without male assistance, not was born of a woman.’5 born of woman and man. Augustine delighted in imagining 2. Are Spiritual Gifts Distributed the ancient Deceiver’s exasperation according to Gender? at both the female and the male sex- We find Paul’s teaching of spiritual es being decisively used by God for gifts concentrated primarily in human salvation: ‘There is a pro- Romans 12, and 1 Corinthians 12 found mystery that, as death had and Ephesians 4 (compare these befallen us through a women, Life with 1 Pet. 4:10). Charisma is the should be born to us through a gift of some God-given ability to ren- woman. By this defeat, the Devil der a service empowered by grace. would be tormented over the The gifts of the Spirit are given by thought of both sexes, male and the risen Lord to build up his body female, because he had taken delight (Eph. 4:11) . The Spirit administers in the defection of them both. The them, knowing what gift best befits freeing of both sexes would not have each believer for service (1 Cor. 12), been so severe a penalty for the Dev- and each congregation’s needs, and il, unless we were also liberated by the world’s needs. 6 the agency of both sexes.’ The distribution of gifts is not strat- Mary is female, Jesus is male. ified according to gender. These gifts God’s way of coming involves both are abundantly found among both genders in a particular way fitting to women and men. By the Spirit ‘Oth- those genders: female, for the niel judged; Gideon waxed strong; birthing of the One Mediator, the Jephtha conquered; Deborah, a God become flesh, without human woman, conquered’, wrote Cyril of father, and male, for the mission of Jerusalem.7 the messianic servant, according to Spiritual gifts are not given to indi- Jewish expectation, of a male of viduals as such, but to individuals on Davidic descent. behalf of the whole body, the com- The core of this classic equilibrium munity of faith, not for self-advance- between female and male is found in ment but for upbuilding the body Paul’s Letter to the Galatians: ‘But (oikodomen tou somatos, Eph. 4:12,16,29). When a symphonic conductor selects violinists for a diffi- 5 Augustine, Christian Combat 22, Fathers of the Church, 21:339; see also Augustine, Of True cult repertoire, he does so not to Religion,. J. Baillie et al., eds., The Library of Christian Classics (26 vols. Philadelphia: Westmin- ster, 1953-1966), XIV, 27 7 Catechetical Lectures XVI.28, A Select 6 Augustine, Christian Combat 22, Fathers of Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Church 21:339; see also Letters, 3 the Christian Church, 2 VII, p. 122 122 THOMAS C. ODEN advance their careers but to insure the ability to distinguish true and that the music they create will be false revelation (1 Cor. 12:10), rightly balanced and harmonized. showing mercy and generosity Similarly, when the Spirit distributes (Rom. 12:8), diligent leadership, wis- gifts to the body of Christ, they are dom, and knowledge (Rom. 12:8; 1 not for personal advancement, but Cor. 12:28), prophecy, where one rather for the health and upbuilding speaks the Word of the Lord (1 Cor. of the body.8 God has joined the 14:1); evangelization, proclaiming members of the body so that ‘its good news to all (Eph. 4:11; Acts parts should have equal concern for 21:8); teaching the truth (Rom. each other. If one part suffers, every 12:7); the gifts of confession (1 John part suffers with it; if one part is hon- 4:2), exhortation (Rom. 12:8); heal- oured, every part rejoices with it’ (1 ing (1 Cor. 12:9, 28, 30) and mira- Cor. 12:25,26). cles (1 Cor. 12:28); ecstatic utter- God’s gifts continue to be given, ance, speaking in other languages, even to those unaware of them, in and the interpretation of other ways providentially adapted to finite tongues (Acts 2:4,8; 1 Cor. 12:10). capacities. All of us are called to Married persons experience the gift show mercy, but to some are given of generativity and the privilege of special gifts of showing mercy, or nurturing families (1 Cor. 7:29, 33). hospitality. While the command to Those called to the single life enjoy serve one another applies to the the gift of freedom from entangling whole church (Gal. 5:13), the gift of commitments, in order to have the serving is given to some in greater opportunity to serve the Lord more measure. These gifts are not sorted freely (1 Cor. 7:32). Above all there out between men and women, but is the consummate gift of love, which are given to both men and women. shows forth God’s own benevolence Several varied lists of gifts of the and mercy (Rom. 12:8), poured out Spirit are found in the New Testa- upon both women and men. ment. Those frequently listed include 3. How do women and men work the gifts of discernment (1 Cor. cooperatively in the gift based 12:10), of serving (Rom. 12:7), and church? of governance (kubernesis) which The evangelical vision of the church seeks to enable the work of ministry is a community in which the gifts of of others (1 Cor. 12:28; cf. Rom. the Spirit enable and energize every 12:8). Also described among the member. We delight in and uplift the spiritual gifts are faith (1 Cor. 12:9), vision of the gift-based church, espe- hope, (1 Cor. 13:13), joy, (Rom. cially as it applies to the relation of 15:13), patience, meekness (1 Tim. men and women working together in 5:11), encouragement (Rom. 12:8), the church. The essential meaning of deacon (diakonos) is servant. Paul frequent- 8 John Chrysostom, Homily on Ephesians. X, XI, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene ly used diakonos to describe his own Fathers of the Christian Church,1 XIII, pp. 99-108 ministry and that of others (Rom. ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 123

16:1; 1 Cor. 3:5; 2 Cor. 3:6; Col. To do this we need to reflect on 1:23; 4:7), even as Jesus served as some of the biblical and theological the model for the servant ministry teaching on the relation of men and (Mark 10:45). Persons in serving women in relation to the Giver of ministries must give able leadership their maleness and femaleness in the in family life, being faithful to one Body of Christ. I ask your permis- spouse and nurturant of children (v. sion, for the sake of order and unity, 12). Diakonia is not merely a silent to set aside for now the highly con- ministry of service but a speaking troverted question of ordination ministry, wherein one gives the cup about which evangelicals have vary- of cold water in the name of Christ, ing views, an important topic for speaking Christ’s name through the some other discussion. If pursued service. here and now it could easily throw us In the gift-based church, everyone off course from our search for unity is called and enabled to serve on the in the truth of the gospel concerning basis of their giftedness. Everyone the gifts of women and men. This has a sense of belonging because will help us bring into sharp focus the they contribute something of value, urgent questions relating to the gen- something of their very own, to the eral ministry of the church, the whole whole body of Christ. Leadership ris- gospel of the whole church to the es from the awareness of who has whole world. the most appropriate gifts for each 4. Are women to learn and teach? task. Each one is invited to ask: ‘In Paul focuses in 1 Timothy 2:11-15 response to God’s self-giving, what on the excellence or virtue of ‘quiet- would I rather do than anything ness’. Note that Paul’s injunction is else?’ When we are trying to do not to prevent women from learn- things for which we are not gifted, ing Christian teaching, but to per- we easily exhaust ourselves. When mit—’Let a woman learn’ (v. 11). we serve according to our gifts, our This represented a major step joy in service overflows. beyond the late Judaic view of the We see evangelical men and status of women, who by contrast women today the world over sharing were not allowed to prophesy or leadership. In the Spirit-led commu- read Torah, confined as they were to nity, giftedness is the decisive factor the outer court of the temple. Greek rather than simply gender as such. women experienced even more lim- Both men and women lead by iting conditions. Even the fact that a empowering others rather than with- few women were causing mischief in hierarchical constraints. for Timothy at Ephesus was itself a This calls for an end to the battle of kind of indirect evidence of the the sexes striving for power against improvement of the position of each other, and a beginning for women in Christianity as compared working together in humility and with Jewish and Hellenistic circles, mutual respect. God wills us to live where these troubles would far less out our gifts joyfully and together. likely be connected with any sort of 124 THOMAS C. ODEN

‘learning’. protest the natural limitations of their The learning to be commended for particular gender. Sexuality is a gift women, Paul thought, was best and a responsibility. Men are asked accomplished with a particular atti- to refrain from complaining to God tude of tranquillity fitting to the spe- about the special burdens of their cial gifts of women: in he¯suchia maleness. Women are asked to resist (tranquillity, quietness, calm), silence crying out against God for the special with all submissiveness. The Greek tasks of their femaleness. To learn phrase (gune¯ en he¯suchia man- tranquillity with all attentiveness is to thaneto¯ en pase¯ hupotage¯) implies: learn that tranquillity from God Let a woman be a learner under tran- through humility. The obedience is quil conditions inwardly and out- to God, not patriarchy. wardly, showing attentiveness to the (This section of Paul’s letter to received apostolic teaching. The Timothy cannot be read without rais- point is not to be silent, but to seek ing blood pressure. But the fact that inward quietness and attentiveness our emotions enter strongly into dia- to the proclamation. Long before the logue with the text attests the fact King James English translators ren- that what Paul says is indeed impor- dered this flatly ‘silence’, John tant to us. This is a passage I have Chrysostom understood clearly that always disliked, resisted, and until ‘he is speaking of quietness’—a par- now avoided at all costs. But in so far ticular virtue. as I have allowed myself to be exam- The same demeanour at public ined anew by the text, I have slowly worship for women—quietness ( come to realize that Paul requires my he¯suchia)—is elsewhere commend- closest attention in grasping his ed for men (Acts 22:2; 1 Thess. deeper meaning and intention. 4:11; 2 Thess. 3:12; 1 Peter 3:4; cf. However I may resist it, it comes to 1 2:2; Titus 2:2). Certain women at me as the word of God, asking me to Ephesus may have been disturbing listen and pray for guidance. So even services of worship in some unspec- against my reservations, the text has ified way under the influence of dis- gradually invaded my consciousness ruptive teachers. This preempting of and made its mark). leadership roles was not occurring at Verse 12 inserts a matter of per- Thessalonica or Rome or Philippi, sonal instruction from Paul, as if it but apparently was occurring at could be parenthetical—’I permit no Corinth, and probably at Ephesus woman to teach or to have [or more where Timothy was. Paul was not specifically usurp] authority over suggesting that women should be men’; she is to pursue inward quiet- reduced in power in the life of the ness (this great virtue of he¯suchia, church but that their centring and serenity, silence) (v. 12). ‘I permit’ is resourcing for the exercise of power arguably a personal opinion as dis- be based upon inner serenity. tinguished from a formal apostolic Men and women are encouraged instruction. Wesley translated this by Paul not to resist or despairingly phrase: ‘to usurp authority over the ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 125 man—by public teaching’ (p. 776). critics, ‘showing by the scriptures Wrote Jacob Bengel: ‘Over the that the Christ was Jesus’ (Acts man—implying not merely a hus- 18:24, 26, 28). It was this same band but the whole human race’.9 Priscilla (Prisca) whom Paul had The intent appears to be this: I per- repeatedly commended (Rom. 16:3; sonally do not allow a woman to 1 Cor. 16: 19; 2 4: 19). In Philippi- teach or claim inordinate authority ans, Paul commended the way in (to domineer, or dictate, lord it over, which Euodia and Syntyche laboured usurp, rule) over ‘the man’. It is not with him in the gospel (Phil. 4:2-3). that women in general cannot teach Philip’s four daughters are described but that a woman cannot teach in in Acts as prophetesses (Acts 21:9). such a way as to usurp authority over 5. Are the Spirit’s Gifts to teachers already duly designated. Women Distributed Widely in the That Paul’s statement here General Ministry? addresses a particular situation at The New Testament did not limit Ephesus seems probable from the women to duties of family and fact that he did not take this position household. Women played impor- about women in the other churches tant roles as prophets, an office that (Rom. 16:1-3; Philp. 4:2-3). This was typically ordered second only to verse likely pertains primarily to a the apostles (1 Cor. 12:28; Eph. special time and place, Ephesus, 4:11; Acts 2:17,18; 21:9; Rom. with a particular problem. This prob- 16:1,2; cf. Num. 11:29; 2 Kings lem was teaching church doctrine in 22:14). a public worship setting, which had Paul’s first public proclamation in apparently been disrupted by the Europe was to a group of gathered women who assumed a disputatious women ‘outside the city gate’ by the type of teaching role, under their river at Philippi. His first convert in false teachers, that evidenced a dom- Europe was a woman named Lydia ineering attitude toward their hus- (Acts 16:9-15). At the head of a long bands or other men in general. list of greetings in Romans 16, Paul Elsewhere it is clear that women commended to Rome ‘our sister had teaching roles and offices in the Phoebe’ who was ‘also a minister of New Testament church: in Titus 2:3- the church in Cenchrea’ [kai 4 older women were specifically diakonon tes ekklesias], and a pro- asked and authorized to be good tectress [prostatis] of many (Rom. teachers of the younger ones. It is 16:1,2). evident elsewhere in Paul’s writings Contrary to the Jewish practice of that Priscilla has served as a teacher, initiatory rites only for males in cir- even of the learned Apollos, ‘a native cumcision, in Christian practice of Alexandria … an eloquent man, women were not only baptized but well versed in the scriptures’. For Priscilla and Aquila ‘expounded to 9 Bengel, John A., New Testament Word Stud- him the way of God more accurate- ies (Gnomon Novi Testamenti) (Reprint of 1864 ly’, so as to enable Apollos to answer ed., 2 vols.) (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 1971), 2:515 126 THOMAS C. ODEN baptized others.10 Women were the provide abundant evidence of the first to proclaim the good news of ministries of such women, to whom Jesus’ resurrection to doubting male even Pliny’s letter to Trajan made disciples (Matt. 28:7-9, 17). ‘She, note. Paul hopes that faithful while apostles shrank, could danger ‘women helpers’ would resist false brave; Last at the cross, and earliest teachings. As men were warned at his grave.’11 against double-talk, women were Among those who are by faith warned against malicious gossip. All baptized into the body of Christ, hav- their efforts should be marked by ing become clothed in Christ, ‘There self-control and integrity, from alms is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor distribution to instruction of women free, male nor female, for you are all seeking baptism. one in Christ Jesus’ (Gal. 3:28). 7. What are the gifts and 6. Do women serve in ministry? responsibilities of men and Having spoken in 1 Timothy 2:11 of women in public prayer? women in public worship, Paul The key passage on women and men returns in 3:11 to the theme of in public worship is 1 Timothy 2:8ff. women in serving ministries. He It begins with a call for peaceful char- could be referring here to deacons’ acter among men who lead public wives or deaconesses or female dea- prayer: Men in public worship are cons or simply women. In any case, instructed to lift holy hands without the women who served in ministry anger or quarrelling. To lift holy were perceived as working right hands is to pray sincerely, in a way alongside men in ministry, with congruent with one’s behaviour, courage and ability, labouring ‘side without hypocrisy, single-mindedly, by side’ as full partners with Paul and with a pure heart focused upon the other leaders (Philp. 4:3; Rom. one thing needful—attentiveness to 16:1-2). There can be little doubt the will of God. that women held offices of ministry Paul then proceeds to discuss the in the early church, of which widows conduct of women in public worship, devoted to works of mercy may have in the light of this distinctive excel- been a subgroup or a separable order lence of women, quietness. In this (1 Tim. 5:9-10). References to context, he speaks of the adornment Phoebe of Cenchreae (Rom.16:1), of women who participate in wor- Euodia and Syntyche (Philp. 4:2), ship. The general subject under con- Tabitha (Acts 9:36-41), and others sideration is public prayer, viewed in terms of the two genders: male and female. This text is intrinsically con- 10 Council of Carthage, IV, XII, A Select nected with the previous sentence, Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of not accidentally. The connection the Christian Church 2 XIV, p. 41 11 Amos Binney and Daniel Steele, Binney’s seems odd at first: As men are called Theological Compend Improved (New York: to pray without anger, so women are Phillips and Hunt, 1875), p. 195; cf. Matt. 26:56; Matt. 27:55,56; 28:1; Elizabeth Schüssler-Fiorenza, called to adorn themselves modestly In Memory of Her (New York: Crossroad, 1983) and sensibly in seemly apparel (v. 9) ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 127 fit for the occasion of public prayer. from a small group of women under Why this odd connection? The link the guidance of disruptive teachers keys upon behaviour fitting to the life who had not made a sufficiently sig- of prayer in a community of prayer nificant commitment to sexual of men and women: (1) Men are to chastity and moral purity; they were pray without anger and (2) women self-indulgent (1 Tim. 5:6); they are to pray without ostentation. The ‘learn to be idlers, gadding about kind of prayer Paul thought that men from house to house, and not only most need is that which reaches out idlers but gossips and busybodies’ (1 for others in trust and mutual caring. Tim. 5:13). If members of the Eph- The kind of prayer that women most esian church came to public worship need is that which actively manifests wearing clothing that announced a good deeds. lack of commitment to the poor, they We diminish the depth of this pas- were forgetting the one who became sage if we think of it primarily as an poor for our sakes. instruction to men on the posture of 8. Did God personally show the prayer or an instruction to women way of subordination for both on physical clothing. For the most fit- sexes? ting adornment of the person, man Consensual Christian teaching did or woman, is good works of love not uniformly affirm only passive or rooted in faith. The most fitting pos- restricted roles thought to be tradi- ture of prayer, for men or women, is tionally assigned to women. It sought with accompanying deeds of moral a theological language shaped by responsibility. reciprocity between women and The apparel one wears should be men.12 But this did not mean that all fitting to one’s life as recipient of subordination metaphors must be God’s mercy in Jesus Christ. Women abandoned, for none other than God should adorn themselves in worship the Son has taken on the ultimate ‘not with braided hair or gold or subordinate role, and called men and pearls or costly attire but by good women to follow this serving model deeds, as befits women who profess with the male serving and caring for religion’ (v. 10). Paul does not pro- the woman, and the female serving mote drabness, which itself can and caring for the man. ‘In the become a matter of display and Lord’s fellowship woman is as essen- pride. Nor does Paul condemn all tial to man as man to woman. If decoration or excellent clothing. woman was made out of man, it is Rather he was resisting the through woman that man now hypocrisy that would pretend verbal- ly to come before God in penitence, yet contradict that penitence 12 John Chrysostom, Homily on Ephesians, A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene through one’s whole physical self- Fathers of the Christian Church, 1 XIII, pp. 115-6; presentation. 123-4; 143—52; cf. David Ford, Women and Men in the Early Church: The Full Views of St. John A part of the trouble in the Christ- Chrysostom (St. Tikhon’s Orthodox Theological ian community at Ephesus sprang Seminary, S. Canaan, PA, 1995) 128 THOMAS C. ODEN comes to be; and God is the source man the many were made sinners’ of all’ (1 Cor. 11:11-12). (Rom. 5:19). For ‘by the trespass of ‘Be subject to one another out of the one man, death reigned through reverence for Christ. Wives, be sub- that one man’ (Rom. 5:17; cf. 1 Cor. ject to your husbands as to the 15:21). Yet far from exempting Eve Lord…Husbands, loves your wives, from any responsibility, it empha- as Christ also loved the church and sizes the power of woman to tempt. gave himself up for it’ (Eph. 5: 21- Rabbinic teaching suggested that 25). Eve, who would become the ‘mother There are three kinds of subordi- of all living’, was created to complete nation or subjection, only one of something left quite incomplete in which is Christian. (1) A subjection the male. This is not a statement of which is coerced, such as rape or inferiority or superiority, as often slavery. (2) A subjection which is interpreted, but completion of the socially constructed, economically spouse’s limitation. (But one impor- determined, or based on class tant way that this glorious comple- oppression. (3) A voluntary subject- tion would occur, thought Paul, is ing of ourselves to others out of love through her potential capacity for and reverence for Christ, who serene quietness. This larger capaci- became servant unto death for our ty for tranquillity may just be a part of sakes. Only the last is biblical. what makes women incontestably more beautiful than men). That man was created before woman does not II. Rethinking Eve and Mary imply that the male was complete in 1. If Eve went first in himself, for otherwise there would transgression, how are women to have been no Eve. The great Puritan be saved? preacher, Matthew Henry, com- Equally man and woman broke the mented: command of God. If woman was first Eve’s being made after Adam, and out of in yielding to temptation, man was him, puts an honour upon that sex, as the 13 glory of man (I Cor. 11:7). If man is the first in following. Paul explained head, she is the crown. … The man was that ‘sin entered the world through dust refined, but the woman was dust one man, and death through sin, and double-refined, one removed further from in this way death came to all men, the earth. [She was] not made out of his head to rule over him, nor out of his feet because all sinned’ (Rom. 5:12). The to be trampled upon by him, but out of his fall is thus a federal act, involving all side to be equal with him, under his arm to humanity, but only through the be protected, and near his heart to be cooperation of both genders did the beloved.14 fall occur. Indeed Paul says that it was The rabbis generally held the view ‘through the disobedience of the one

14 Matthew Henry, Matthew Henry’s Com- 13 Gen. 3:6; John Chrysostom, Homily on Gen- mentary on the Whole Bible (Rev. and corrected. 6 esis, 16, Fathers of the Church: A New Translation vols.) (New York: Revell) (Reprint, Iowa Falls, IA: 74, pp. 207-21 World Bible Publishers) ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 129 that though woman was the second Paul does not imply here a work- in creation, she was first in making righteousness by which women are an opening for sin. This was hardly saved through a particular work, an invention of Paul’s.15 There is no bearing children, which would be suggestion here that Eve was men- contrary to everything else he wrote. tally inferior or morally more per- Women will be saved just as men verse or spiritually deficient. If any- through ‘the Childbearing’ (the thing, Eve the rabbis portray as being incarnation), assuming that they more curious, more eager to experi- abide in faith, love, and holiness, ment than Adam. The result was that using good judgement. Eve was the first to be deceived— The seed of this one woman alone, ironically ‘ahead’ of Adam. She ate without male intervention, would first, then offered the fruit for Adam become the Saviour of all. All human to eat. Hence the fall of humanity history would come from her seed was caused by a collusion of man and and be unified in her seed. While one woman, with woman leading the woman was called Eve (life-giving) way and man following. ‘because she would become the mother of all living’ (Gen. 3:20), the 2. Does childbearing redeem other was called Mary, after Miriam, women? because she would deliver the Deliv- Just as hard labour in the dirt is the erer. Paul was not referring to child- context in which Adam’s moral birth generally but to a particular awareness would grow, so the hard Childbirth, that of the Lord, a man labour of childbirth is the context in born of woman, the promised seed. which Eve’s moral awareness would The woman (Eve) will be saved by the grow. The pain of childbirth was not Childbearing (of Christ by Mary). man’s sentence but woman’s; yet in 3. Why was the gospel first undergoing this pain, salvation proclaimed to woman? would appear through the coming of Salvation was promised to come God to save humanity. The curse of through the seed of woman. Nor- Eve’s transgression (that ‘in pain you mally the metaphor of seed refers to shall bring forth children’, Gen. the male seed, the semen, which 3:16) proved a blessing, according to implanted in the egg enables life. Yet Paul’s ironic interpretation. For Eve, the prophecy immediately after the the mother of all living, is the one fall revealed that the promised seed from whose seed springs the Christ, would be the seed of woman, the God’s own coming. The salvation of mother of all living, through the seed woman comes through ‘the Child- of Abraham as prototype of the bearing’, the birth of the Saviour. faithful, and descendant from the royal seed of David (Gen. 13:15, 16; 15 The ‘deception of Eve’ had a complex history Ps. 18:50; 22:23; 48). of rabbinic interpretation: II Enoch 31:6; IV Macc. Genesis 3:15 prophesied that the 19:6-8; Yebamoth 103b; Rabbah Genesis 18:6; Philo, Questions on Genesis 1.33, 46; Perke Rabbi tempter’s temporary victory would Eliezer 15a ultimately be thwarted. The Lord 130 THOMAS C. ODEN said to the serpent: ‘I will put enmity suffer,16 but would be himself defeat- between you and the woman, and ed. Thus through a man born of between your seed and her seed; he woman, God would guilelessly undo shall bruise your head, and you shall what the tempter of human freedom bruise his heel.’ Virtually all classic guilefully had done, and by holy love Christian exegetes understood the on the cross would bind up the seed of Eve as the coming Christ, strong man. Ambrose reasoned that who would crush the serpent’s head, it was fitting that a woman be bind up the demonic powers, and appointed as first messenger of the bring salvation to Eve’s descendants. gospel of the resurrection to all The first clue in scripture of the humanity, in order ‘that she who first coming gospel came in the form of a had brought the message of sin to promise to Eve that the Saviour man should first bring the message of would come from the seed of the grace of the Lord’17. Tertullian woman. Yet woman does not have commented: ‘It was while Eve was seed. That is just the point. Without yet a virgin that the ensnaring word the seed of man, through the ‘seed’ had crept into her ear which was to only of woman, deliverance would build the edifice of death. Into a vir- occur. Through a woman the devil gin’s soul, in like manner, must be had tempted. Through a woman the introduced that Word of God which devil would be bound. This passage was to raise the fabric of life; so that is often called the ‘earliest gospel’ or what had been reduced to ruin by this ‘protoevangelium’ or ‘first hint of sex, might by the selfsame sex be good news’ already embedded in the recovered to salvation.’18 This is the narrative of the fall. crucial role of woman in salvation The Redeemer would come by a history, announced from the begin- female (from the seed of woman). ning. The Redeemer promised to crush the demonic power would be male 4. Is the metaphor of the church (‘he will crush,’ as a ‘man born of as Beloved Bride viable today? woman’). Thus the crucial event of The New Testament characteristical- salvation was revealed from the out- ly employs the metaphor of the bride set: God turning toward the sinner in to understand the church. The Son reconciling love to reverse the human condition from sin to prom- 16 ‘strike his heel’; John Calvin, Commentaries ised salvation by grace (Gal. 4:4). (J. King, trans. 45 vol. in 22. Edinburgh: Translation A Redeemer from a virgin, that is, Society, 1845-56. Reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981), I pp. 170-1 by the seed of woman alone, without 17 Ambrose, Of the Holy Spirit, III. XI.7, A male initiative, and without any male Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene implanting, would deal the death Fathers of the Christian Church, 2 X, p. 145 18 On the Flesh of Christ, 17, A. Roberts and blow to Satan’s head at the cross. J. Donaldson, eds., Ante-Nicene Fathers (American Satan would cause the Redeemer to reprint of the Edinburgh ed., 10 vols., Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature, 1885-1896. Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1951-1956. Reprint, 1978- 80) III, p. 536 ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 131 loves the church with a love willing to 8), Psalms (64), and the Song of risk all for the beloved. ‘Christ loved Songs, and all this before it was the church and gave himself up for transmuted in the New Testament by her to make her holy, cleansing her Pauline and Johannine traditions. by the washing with water through Scripture views the relation of God the word, and to present her to him- and the redeemed people with the self as a radiant church, without stain most intimate symbol of bonding: as or wrinkle or any other blemish, but a marriage bond existing between a holy and blameless’ (Eph. 5:25-7). beloved husband and wife. The com- The bridegroom willingly dies for ing reign of God is often presented the bride, to ready her for the end as an end time wedding celebra- time wedding by cleansing her with tion.20 The readied church prepares baptism, washing away every hurt, as a bride adorned for her husband so that she will be comforted, and (Rev. 21:1-4.21 The espousal of the without blemish, holy, completely bride begins at Pentecost. The wed- ready for the final marriage feast cel- ding will be consummated at the final ebrating the reconciliation of God day of history.22 and humanity (Rev. 19:7). As dowry precedes marriage, so The intensely personal love of Christ provides gifts (dotes beato- Christ for the church is richly rum, the dowry of the blessed) to described by John Chrysostom: enable the spouse to enjoy eternal He espoused her as a wife, life and to enhance and beautify that He loves her as a daughter,He provides for enjoyment . The key event of the her as a handmaid, He guards her as a virgin, Revelation of John is the marriage He fences round her like a garden supper of the Lamb (Rev. 19:6ff.). And cherishes her like a member: The scene is the messianic banquet. as a head He provides for her, The bride, the church, appears in a as a root He causes her to grow, as a shepherd He feeds her, spectacular wedding garment, as a bridegroom He weds her, clothed in the righteousness of the as a propitiation He pardons her, bridegroom, Christ. The other sym- as a sheep He is sacrificed bolic woman, Babylon, gaudily Many are the meanings in order that we may enjoy a part even if it be but a small dressed, clothed in unrighteousness, part of the divine economy of grace.19 is brought to nothing (17:4). The The relation of Christ and the church prefigures the redeemed 20 Methodius, The Banquet of the Ten Virgins, union of man and woman (2 Cor. 11; VIII, Ante-Nicene Fathers VI, p. 319; Council of Vienne, H. Denzinger and C. Bannwart, eds., Eph. 5:21-33; Rev. 19:7-9). The Enchiridion Symbolorum: Definitionum et Decla- metaphor of the bride has a long bib- rationum de Rebus Fidei et Morum. (Ed. 14 & 15) lical history, from Hosea (1-3), (Berlin: Herder, 1922), p. 901 21 Second Helvetic Confession, J. Leith, ed., through Ezekiel (6, 23), Isaiah (54:4- Creeds of the Churches (Richmond, VA: John Knox Press, 1979), p. 143 22 Irenaeus, Against Heresies, V.25, Ante- 19 John Chrysostom, Eutropius, A Select Nicene Fathers I, p. 566; W.M. Abbott, ed., Docu- Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of ments of Vatican II (n.p.: America Press, 1966), the Christian Church 1 IX, p. 262. Ch 6. 132 THOMAS C. ODEN wedding feast ends sensationally its intent may have been generic to with the fireworks of the conclusion both genders, the tradition’s lan- of the existing heaven and earth, and guage has sounded exclusionary to the creation of a new heaven and many, who regrettably may have too earth (Rev. 21:1), a new Jerusalem readily dismissed the biblical tradition (21:9-11), where God and the Lamb on the grounds of language alone are worshipped, and where ‘the before allowing it a reasonable hear- dwelling of God is with men, and he ing. will live with them. They will be his The crux of the language fairness people, and God himself will be with issue hinges on whether Father-Son them and be their God. He will wipe language, with the reference to God every tear from their eyes. There will as he, results primarily from male- be no more death or mourning or dominated social structures, and crying or pain, for the old order of therefore degrades the dignity of things has passed away’ (21:3,4). women and men, or whether such All members of Christ’s body will language is a part of the scandal of in the end time be gathered from particularity that accompanies all around the world (Mark 13:27). The claims of historical revelation. The dross having been burned away, and ‘scandal of particularity’ means that, unworthy members having been according to biblical history, God removed, the church will receive her meets us in specific times and places completed form (Matt. 13:41,42), amid people with specific names and and will celebrate her marriage ‘pre- genders and of particular parents of pared as a bride beautifully dressed a particular race and culture. To back for her husband’ (Rev. 21:2), being away wholly from gender reference welcomed into the city of God (Rev. is to stand offended at the gospel of 21:8-10). a man born of woman, which remains an intrinsic aspect of God’s historical self-disclosure, and thus III Language Fairness actually seeks to promote the dignity 1. Is biblical language unfairly and healthy self-identity of women masculine or oppressively male- and men when rightly understood. dominated? 2. Is the Spirit addressable as Classic Christian teaching holds that feminine? neither of the sexual pronouns, he or May we appropriately, within the she, adequately reflects the fullness bounds of classic Christian assump- of the divine being. Yet it is not pos- tions, address the Spirit in the femi- sible to speak in a literally sexless nine gender? We cannot settle the way of God, for that would require issues on grammatical grounds giving up all personal pronouns. alone: Ruach in Hebrew is feminine. Naming conveys power. The naming Pneuma in Greek is a neuter, yet of God normatively or exclusively as even when the neuter is used, mas- ‘he’ tends to limit the idea of God by culine pronouns may accompany it. human sexual categories. Even when Even in the New Revised Standard ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 133

Version, whose mandate specified Grammatical heroics that attempt that ‘masculine-oriented language a complete withdrawal from mascu- should be eliminated as far as this line language too often result in can be done without altering pas- rhetorically awkward, contorted, and sages that reflect the historical situa- unwieldy communication. We see tion of ancient patriarchal culture’, this especially where nouns are crucial passages could not be ren- repeated to avoid the pronoun dered in the neuter: ‘When the Spir- regarded as offensive, where verbs it of truth comes, he will guide you are preferred that require no object, into all the truth; for he will not speak with the odd repetition of the word on his own, but will speak whatever ‘God’ as a substitute for ‘he,’ and he hears [akouei lale¯sei], and he will with the shifting of direct address to declare to you the things that are to ‘you.’ come’ (John 16:13, NRSV). God is The great biblical teacher, Gregory repeatedly named by Jesus as Abba Nazianzen, in the fourth century, (Father). The messianic Son (ben, was long ago amused by those who huios) stands in the male line of foolishly held ‘God to be a male’, David. The Spirit is ruach or pneu- which he regarded as a misplaced ma (feminine or neuter). Grammati- analogy. Just as one cannot say that cal gender, however, does not neces- God because Father is therefore sarily imply sexual distinctions. We male, so one cannot conclude that cannot with clarity appeal either ‘to ‘Deity is feminine from the gender of Hebrew or Greek to determine the the word, and the Spirit neuter,’ choice of English pronouns for the since the designation ‘has nothing to Holy Spirit’.24 do with generation. But if you would While God has become self- be silly enough to say, with the old revealed in scripture largely but not myths and fables, that God [flatly and exclusively in masculine terms (such literally] begat the Son by a marriage as king, lord, husband, master, and with His own Will, we should be father), the work of the Spirit is at introduced to the Hermaphrodite times compared to mothering and god of Marcion and Valentinus who nurturing actions: ‘As a mother com- imagined these newfangled forts her child, so will I comfort you’ Aeons.’26 (Is. 66:13; Ps. 22:9, 10; 139:3). 3. Do modern sexist premises God the Spirit is not named Mother undermine classic understandings but compared to a mother.25 of the relation of the gifts of men and women? 23 John Chrysostom, Baptismal Instructions, Evangelicals are committed to allow- J. Quasten et al., eds., Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation (55 vols.) ing biblical texts to speak for them- (New York, NY: Paulist Press, 1946-) 31, pp. 27-30 selves, hence classic biblical teaching 24 Alvin F. Kimel, Jr., A New Language for God? (Shaker Heights, OH: Episcopalians United, 1990), p. 8 26 Gregory Nazianzen, Orationes, XXXI.7, On 25 Roland M. Frye, Language for God and Fem- the Holy Spirit, A Select Library of the Nicene and inist Language (Edinburgh: Handsel Press, 1988) Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2 pp. 17-22 VII, p. 320 134 THOMAS C. ODEN maintains faithfulness to the historic Giver of grace as ‘it’ or prays to an language of the church, but in doing ‘it,’ even if steeped in modernity. so, seeks fairness and balance in the 4. Is God rightly called Abba contemporary use of language. (Father) by women struggling for It is because grace comes to us per- justice? sonally that sex has become a deci- Elizabeth Achtemeier has astutely sive theological issue. Sexual differ- shown that the Hebrew prophets did entiation is not a novel or recent not suffer from a failure of imagina- issue for biblical interpretation, but a tion to grasp God as female, for they question lodged already in the Incar- were already surrounded by cultures nation event. dominated by feminine deities. Whenever we speak personally, Rather they deliberately chose in whether of ourselves or God, we use their context not to apply feminine personal language, the language that language uncritically to God, she speaks of he and she, and not mere- says, ‘because they knew and had ly it, i.e., with personal pronouns ample evidence from the religions (him and her), rather than imperson- surrounding them that the female al pronouns (it). Ironically when we language for the deity results in a speak personally of God it seems to basic distortion of the nature of God trap us in sexual categories, because and of his relation to his creation’ — the English language does not have a namely, the deification of nature, capacity for generic personal terms pantheism, and immanental religion. (that would remain personal while Even as male terms for God are not preferring one gender or anoth- prone to diminish the fullness of er) except for them. Yet historically God, so are female. ‘When you have these personal terms for God have a Goddess as the creator, it’s her own been preferred to the flat deperson- body that is the universe. She is iden- alization of all language about God. tical with the universe.’27 This the Even then all personal plurals must prophets called idolatry and classic be ruled out to avoid idolatry. Christianity has defined as panthe- The Giver of grace is less a deper- ism. These dangers call us to make a sonalized ‘it’ than the divine person- sustained effort to use language fair- al Thou who addresses us as respon- ly and without sexist bias, according sible, free individual persons. Only to the mission of God which redeems through a particular Person, God the and embraces both sexes. Son, is the love of the Father offered Liturgical ‘reforms’ that systemati- up. It is only through a particular Per- cally expunge the name Father from sonal Thou, God the Spirit, that the all acts of worship are uncon- Father’s love incarnated in the Son is scionable to the believing communi- applied inwardly. One is sorely ty. Jesus repeatedly called God tempted to rewrite scripture to gain a more advantageous posture with 27 D. Miller, ed., The Hermeneutical Quest some modern audiences. But no (Allison Park, Pennsylvania: Pickwick Publica- well-instructed believer thinks of the tions.1986), p. 109 ON WOMEN AND MEN WORKING TOGETHER IN THE CHURCH 135

Father (Abba). This is a singular fea- times and places amid people with ture of his teaching, quite unusual in specific names and genders (notice, the Jewish tradition. God is not not a single hermaphrodite), as ordi- merely like a father; God is Father, nary people with particular parents named as such by the Son. God the of a particular race, an unrepeatable Spirit teaches us to cry out ‘Abba’ time, and a distinctive culture. To (Rom. 8:16). The church is that com- back away wholly from gender refer- munity that celebrates God as ence is to stand offended at the Abba.28 Christian worshippers reti- gospel of a man born of woman, and cent to address God by the name the Spirit who utterly transcends the Jesus specifically taught them to linguistic limitations of gender differ- speak can hardly be said to have ences that only seem to be implied in learned how to pray. ‘We are bound the feminine ruach and the neuter to be baptized in the terms we have pneuma. received and to profess belief in the To denude language of all gender terms in which we have been bap- reference reveals an ideological bias tized’.29 Yet the spiritually reborn do reflecting an anti-historical preju- not utter the name of God as Father dice, a hatred of actual history, that (Abba, Papa) without the communi- fails to reason with the believing ty of faith as mothering matrix).30 The life of faith is never motherless church over all generations. This is (ametor, Heb. 7:3). quintessential modern chauvinism. The scandal of particularity This exclusion tends toward an remains. God meets us in specific implicit denial of our very created- ness as sexual beings. No woman or man I know wishes to be called an 28 Irenaeus, Against Heresies, V.8, Ante- Nicene Fathers I, pp. 533-4 ‘it’. If so, how can one finally rest 29 Basil, in Thomas F. Torrance, The Trinitari- easy with ‘it’ language addressed to an Faith (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1988), p. 193 30 Cyprian, Letters, 39, Ante-Nicene Fathers God? God is not rightly viewed as V, pp. 316-9 even less personal than ourselves.

MISSIONS IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM: 21 Key Trends For The 21st Century Stan Guthrie A book driven by the fact that there are too many people without Christ in their lives, Mis- sions in the Third Millennium presents a realistic and provocative analysis of how the Church is living up to the demands of the Bible. Tackled in helpful segments and full of practical suggestions, this book is both accessible and essential for anyone who takes the commission to share their faith seriously. Stan Guthrie is the managing editor of Evangelism and Missions Information Service based at Wheaton College USA. 1-84227-042-7 / 197 x 127mm / p/b / 240pp / £9.99 Paternoster Press, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS, UK ERT (2002) 26:2, 136–152 0144-8153 The Church’s Responsibility within the East African Context Robert Lang’at

Keywords: Evangelism, mercy, justice, culture, community development, good works, restitution, land, business

1 Introduction This is very important particularly in The purpose of this article is to draw the continent of Africa where the attention to some of our neglected masses are uneducated and poor. Christian responsibilities. We will We have many Christians in Africa identify the priorities of the Christian who need education to develop skills church and the role that it plays in for earning a living. What are evan- various societies in bringing changes gelicals doing to meet some of these that God wants. The model used in needs? This paper is an attempt to the study is Jesus in Jewish society answer this question. and that of the great preachers such as John Wesley. 2 Church Responsibility It is my conviction that evangelicals Church responsibility is a very broad could be very influential in our soci- discipline. Therefore, my discussion eties if they maintained a balance is narrowed down to evangelism and between spirituality and social work. the way Christians and the church must work out their salvation in Dr Robert Lang’at, served as an urban and response to their social context. rural pastor of the Africa Gospel Church and as a hospital chaplain in his native Kenya a) Evangelism before joining Kenya Highlands Bible Col- The church must give priority to the lege, Kericho, Kenya first as deputy principal and then for six years as principal. He cur- ministry of evangelism. Jesus com- rently serves as a lecturer at this school where manded his disciples to be witnesses he undertook his initial education before studying at Columbia International Universi- starting from Jerusalem, then to ty, SC, USA (BS, MA) and Fuller Theological Judea and Samaria and to the rest of Seminary (MA); his PhD (University of Denver the earth. The purpose of evangelism and Iliff School of Theology) is in religion and social change. He has also taught Bible and can be captured in a statement of the missiology at Taylor University. Dr Lang’at is Amsterdam Assembly of the World currently developing a theology for the Kip- Council of Churches which states in sigis people and studying the missionary movement amongst them. no uncertain terms, that evangelism THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 137 is making Christ known to people so Wesley was a preacher who that each is confronted with the believed in heart holiness, experience choice of making a personal decision and practice. Outward witness in dai- to accept Christ as their saviour.1 The ly living should be a confirmation of Lausanne Covenant of 1974 also has inward experience of the work of the a clear statement which recognizes Holy Spirit in a Christian. Christian that ‘our Christian presence in the experience must be made visible in world’ and dialogue with others are the life of a Christian through the tes- ‘indispensable to evangelism’ and but timony of their works. Realizing this, are not to be confused with evangel- John Wesley organized his converts ism itself — the ‘proclamation … of into societies. He related these soci- Christ as Saviour and Lord’.2 eties to church sacraments and Chris- Once we have identified the main tian discipline. He encouraged Chris- priority of the church, we raise the tians to share life in the Spirit. He question, is that all? Are there other organized evangelistic enterprises things Christians can do once they that were rooted in the laity who were have given their lives to God? We the workers of the society of that must bear in mind that there is a time. The laity carried the Christian broad view of Christian work depict- testimony to the market place, to the ed in the Bible. Jesus himself gave work place, and to their communi- guidance on this by saying, ‘You are ties. Wesley’s evangelistic tradition the salt of the earth’. To be the salt brought reformation in all sectors in means to be tasteful. Is there any England. He brought reform within place for Christians to think about the organized work force, prisons people who are hungry, poor, and institutional slavery. Wesley’s unskilled and oppressed in the same programme addressed the social context as evangelism? Commenting problems affecting the common peo- on the Wesleyan tradition of evan- ple of his time, Outler states: gelism, Outler stated: He wanted to prepare men and women for …evangelism must issue in visible social the daily triumphs of grace but always effects or else its fruits will fade and wither. within a corporate matrix of disciplined Christian proclamation must take on fellowship. He knew…that men shall not visible form and the Christian community live by bread alone nor yet without bread; must be committed to social reform, or not by violence but also not in servility and else it will stultify our Lord’s prayer that destitution; not by institutional self- God’s righteous will shall be done on earth maintenance nor yet without institutions.4 here and now, in justice and love and peace as always it is being done in The Wesleyan tradition of evangel- heaven.3 ism is rooted in the love of God and neighbour and is expressed in mean- ingful social action. If the church 1 Samuel H. Moffett, The Biblical Background of translates what God is doing in her, Evangelism (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1962), p. 9 the result will be transformation of 2 The Lausanne Covenant, para 4, ‘The nature of evangelism’; see also paras 5, ‘Christian social the society. Social work or rendering responsibility’ and 6 ‘The church and evangelism’. 3 Albert C. Outler, Evangelism in the Wesleyan Spirit (Nashville, Tennessee, 1971), p. 25 4 Outler, Wesleyan Spirit, p. 32 138 ROBERT LANG’AT services to society is an expression of tors today are trained to be good lis- God’s love to people. The church teners to their clients. The idea that must love the work of mercy for it is people talking about their problems a way of expressing the grace of to a counsellor makes them feel bet- God. The integration of social work ter, is not relevant to all cultures. This and evangelism is very important in approach is perhaps appropriate to reaching the world and showing that an individualistic culture, where peo- God loves the people regardless of ple are always concerned with their their sins. own life and problems, and become b) Motivation for Evangelism careless of others around them. Tra- ditionally, Africans had ways of Christian witness is not for glorifying counselling themselves. This was personalities or to earn spiritual done through extended families or ‘brownie’ points to advance our own friends who cared for each other’s status as Christians. Loving those needs. What does a pastor do when who are Christians means we desire a family comes for counselling not the best for them. The ‘agape’ love because of a spiritual problem, but which God manifested to us while we because they cannot make ends were yet sinners should be in our meet? Third World countries are full hearts and our daily practice. It is a of such Christians. It is not easy to love which is not based on merit. Outler has described this love in this quote a scripture to those who are manner: hungry and expect their needs for hunger or shelter to be met. The sto- Methodism… is the old religion, the religion of the Bible, the religion of ry of the good Samaritan should give primitive Church… This old religion is no us some clue on how we should deal other than love, the love of God and of all with human needs. The priest and mankind…This love is the greatest the Levite were religious people who medicine of life…Wherever this is, there are virtue and happiness going hand in were supposed to render help to hand…this religion of love and joy and those who were afflicted. Sometimes peace has its seat in the inmost soul; but is religious people may not be doing ever showing itself by its fruits… spreading 5 God’s will; they may be doing what virtue and happiness all around it. they think is God’s will. We also The work of evangelism is the learned this from the Pharisees. work of the Holy Spirit. We cannot They were very strong ‘church’ convert people. This is the work of members of that time, but Jesus dis- God. If we portray the impression approved of their religious practices. that we use the work of evangelism Caring for human beings is the ulti- to advance our interest, people will mate concern of God. The Pharisees resent the preaching of the word of cared more for their religious prac- God. tices than for people. The theology of pastoral care If pastoral care is to be relevant to comes in here. Most evangelical pas- the people and their situation, the leadership must be aware of the vari- 5 Outler, Wesleyan Spirit, p. 39 ety of needs represented in their con- THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 139 gregations. For instance, within the his life Jesus demonstrated the inte- congregation there are those who gration of evangelism and social are needing remedial care, those work. He fed those who were hungry feeling hurt, those already involved, and healed those who were sick. He and those who are against construc- counselled those in need and warned tive social change. The people who against injustice and evil practices. need remedial services are those His process of doing ministry who have been hit by certain crises brought transformation within com- such as death caused by accidents, munities with corrupt practices. unhappy marriages, financial prob- d) The Work of Mercy lems, severe sickness in the family, or children’s misbehaviour and so The work of mercy can be defined as on. These needs may differ from one an act of kindness. The church culture to another, so pastoral care should be known for this. The must be approached in context in Roman Catholic nun, Mother Tere- order to meet the needs of the peo- sa, was an example of what I am try- ple. ing to convey here. She worked A further problem must also be among the poor and the needy in noticed. People going through such India. difficulties are so caught up with A story of the work of mercy is nar- emotional pain that they do not have rated very well by Jesus when deal- any resources left to minister to oth- ing with the question from a lawyer, ers. Their attention is directed ‘Who is my neighbour?’ Jesus told toward their own emotional and the story using two religious leaders physical survival. So their problems (Luke 10:25-37). The expert in the must be dealt with first before they law was familiar with the functions of are free to take responsibility of the priests and the Levites. They addressing concerns beyond them- were supposed to show compassion selves. This is the situation for most to those who were hurting and to pastors in East Africa for they are care for the needy. Jesus told of a immersed in conditions of economic man going down from Jerusalem to hardship and stress. Jericho. He was caught by robbers and beaten. The robbers stripped c) Caring for the Saved everything from him and left him When evangelistic services are held half-dead. This man might have been we get converts. These converts a Jew. The priest and the Levite, come to the church with various being godly people, should have needs, and they have a hope that been the first to show compassion, God will meet their needs. These but they walked on their way. needs could be spiritual or physical in A Samaritan, who belonged to nature. The church is responsible for group who were despised by the creating channels for meeting those Jews, came and saw the man. He needs—for example establishing stopped and provided the help the medical institutions, agricultural proj- man needed. He not only helped to ects, or educational institutions. In dress the man’s wounds, but also 140 ROBERT LANG’AT provided transportation to a hotel larly when it comes to the distribu- and paid the bills. The priest and the tion of wealth; this is where their Levite were lacking in compassion or people are hurting. The basis of mercifulness. injustice is a heart problem for often What do we lack today in our its cause is selfishness and greed for churches? Who are our neighbours? material wealth. Corson-Finnerty There are children classified as points this out by saying that people ‘street children’, people we call in all parts of the world and through- ‘homeless’, or ‘poor’. The church out history have often suffered must preach the gospel and at the oppression at the hands of others.6 same time do social work (or the The church should not be oppressive work of mercy, as I would prefer to because that is not what God wants. call it). The church must make efforts Social injustice occurs within a socie- to meet the spiritual as well as the ty or social groupings or social insti- physical needs of people. tutions. It has its roots in the rejec- The work of mercy can easily tion of people because they are per- thrust the church into the world if ceived to be different from others. care is not taken. The church must Some of these oppressive attitudes be a light, salt and yeast. She should within religious institutions are so not be a friend to the world but seek subtle even honest Christians fail to to transform the world (Rom. 12:2, recognize their existence until the Matt. 5:16; 13:33). The book of victim cries out for help. The power Acts provides a picture of individuals of pastors must be checked because who cared for each other and they can also oppress their mem- showed special concern for widows bers. Peter the apostle warned the and orphans, although these efforts church elders against an attitude of may have been limited to those of oppression. In 1 Peter 5:3, for ‘the way’. However, individual Chris- example, we read that pastors tians, such as Dorcas in Acts 9:36- should be an example to their flock. 41, performed acts of mercy wher- Because of the way they use God’s ever need was found. word, some pastors and councils can The biblical examples should be be dangerous if not checked by the our model when approaching issues members. The church exists on earth that affect our church members and the people in the world at large. as a witness to God through nurtur- ing people spiritually and empower- e) The Practice of Justice ing them to explore and use God’s The subject of a just society is purposes and gifts. addressed throughout the Bible. It is For leaders to develop fair prac- an easy subject to talk about but dif- tices of justice, they must encourage ficult to attain. Policies may be drawn a participatory approach in decision up to address the issues, but usually making by the members of the social the practice proves to be difficult.

Third world theologians are con- 6 Adam Daniel Corson-Finnerty, World Citizen cerned with issues of justice particu- (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 1982), p. 61 THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 141 group or religious institution. The our faith from parents or people United Methodist form of govern- such as our sisters, brothers, Sunday ment is an ideal one. An oppressive school teachers, and the pastor or pastor can be weeded out by the con- missionary. These people pass on gregation. The practice of justice Christian stories to us. These stories needs careful evaluation, using a bib- are not limited to Bible stories but lical paradigm to consider decisions also cover cultural beliefs and prac- taken by church councils. The most tices. The younger generations are vulnerable group affected by injustice told that these are ‘our Christian her- are the uneducated, who might not itage’. No one questions if these val- be aware of their God-given rights. ues are oppressive or just, or even if James warned the Christians of his they are biblical. day not to practise favouritism. The The third stage starts at age thir- poor and the rich should be given teen, and continues throughout equal treatment (James 2:1-4). Our adulthood. In this stage we learn churches today are not free from this our faith within our environment problem. The disciples tried to or through our neighbours. We oppress the children, but Jesus learn to stick to norms of our rebuked them saying that the king- church. Whether these norms are dom of God belongs to such little right or wrong, we practise them ones (Matthew 19:13-14). Religious without question. The people in institutions, by invoking the name of this stage like to stay in the middle God, can be oppressive to naïve peo- of the group—not to be too far ple. ahead or behind the group; this is f) The Root of Injustice to protect one’s security within the In order to correct the injustice, the group. church should first uncover the root The fourth stage is the stage in of injustice. Cultural Christians which we realize that Christian faith (those born into their parents’ Chris- is not based on groups or church tian beliefs) can easily practise injus- organizations, but that each individ- tice unintentionally. Faith develop- ual must give an account to God of ment, which social science scholars what he or she did with their faith. describe in six stages, shows the We will have to give an account for practices of injustice that we may not our actions and value systems. This be aware of as cultural Christians. stage is where we take our individual In the first stage (extending from responsibility for what we believe. infancy to six years), we learn our While the fourth stage may begin faith from our parents, by picking up as early as sixteen, the fifth stage their attitudes toward prayer, church, begins at thirty. At this stage we and God. This is learning through become eclectic in our theology; diffusion from the people with whom wishy-washy acceptance becomes we are in immediate contact. the trait of this stage. Walsh The second stage extends from describes this stage as a ‘kind of the- ages seven to twelve, when we learn ological jello flowing every direc- 142 ROBERT LANG’AT tion’.7 their Christian faith. This examina- The sixth stage contains seven cat- tion has resulted in the call for an egories namely: form of logic, form African Theology. of world coherence, role taking, 3 The Approach of Evangelism locus of authority, bounds of social and Mission awareness, form of moral judgement The influential missionary today in and role of symbols. We cannot dis- Third World countries is the one who cuss all these categories because our provides soup, soap and the gospel purpose here is to help us think of to the people. These are the more the values of cultural Christianity that influential ones, whereas others are are accepted and practised without likely to be irrelevant. Jesus himself question. set the example of preaching the Most Christians die in stage three. gospel while at the same time pro- They cannot evaluate their mission viding bread and healing for those and the changes of society and come who needed them. Evangelism must up with new approaches of doing the go hand in hand with social work in work of God. Churches or institu- order to be effective, Batchelor tions made up of Christians who states,… ‘for the Christian, social remain in stage three of their faith and economic development cannot will die a slow death. A church, or be separated from evangelism’.8 For any religious institution, can practise the church to be the salt of the earth, injustice. Without the members rais- the ministry of evangelism must be ing questions they can continue to integrated with social work and oth- hurt those who are affected. The er works of mercy. Throughout his churches and other religious institu- ministry, Jesus showed concern for tions are the most vulnerable, the whole person. In Mark 6:34, we because if anyone raises a question see a crowd waiting to hear from against her practices it would seem him. He taught the people about the that one has questioned God’s com- kingdom of God but he did not stop mand. there; the people had physical as Religious personalities can also be well as spiritual needs. The disciples in the same category. Paul faced the would have wanted the people to go problem when he was abused by the away and find food but Jesus asked high priest in Jerusalem. The high the disciples to collect what food the priest was so highly respected that people had and bring it to him. With no one could question his orders Jesus’ blessings, the two fishes and (Acts 23:2-4). The book of Acts nar- the five loaves were enough to feed rates the struggles of change against the crowd. God is interested in the injustice and Jewish religious dis- development of the whole person; crimination. Most African Christians denying people their physical needs today are examining themselves and is not right before God. He created

7 John Walsh, Evangelization and Justice 8 Peter Batchelor, People In Rural Develop- (MaryKnoll, New York: Orbis, 1980), p. 6 ment (Carlisle UK: Paternoster, 1993), p. 161. THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 143 good things for human beings to people. We must also do some work enjoy. The only problem is how peo- to show the love of God to people. A ple have used these things. Selfish- Christian is also likened to light that ness and greed are what God hates. exposes things hidden in darkness Material things sometimes have been and shows the way to God. A Chris- used to oppress others who have lit- tian must keep his light shining; this tle. Christians should fight this mis- light is the word of God in him. use of material things. Things that are hidden in darkness a) God’s People in the Society could be corruption, injustice, oppression, craftiness, discrimina- In Matthew 5:13, we find Jesus tion and jealousy, and so on. The teaching his disciples to be the salt Christian must expose these by and light of the world. We know that teaching and preaching against salt is used for flavouring and pre- them. He must also live a life style serving the food we eat. Without salt free from these vices. the food will be tasteless and the food will probably go bad if it is kept for a b) Doing Good Works few days. The disciples also were For a Christian to be influential in instructed to be the light of the society he must do good works. A world.. What do these two symbols Christian must strive for excellency mean today for the followers of Jesus in whatever he does. Mediocre serv- Christ? Or to the church? ice does not honour or glorify God. The first thing that the Christian Jesus told his disciples to let their worker, evangelist, missionary and light shine before men so that they Bible teacher must do is to study con- may see their good deeds and glorify stantly the Word of God and our God. Good works done to others will changing societies to be sure that the cause them to glorify God (Matthew Word of God remains true and 5:16). What kind of good works can speaks to contemporary issues. We a Christian do that will help people in must not water down the word of their lives? What did Jesus do to the God to fit our interests and those of people? In Mark 7:32, we find Jesus our societies. The second thing that healing the deaf. People had brought they must do is live what they preach the man to him, just like we take our and teach. We can preserve the word sick people to hospital for treatment of God only if we are devoted to and wish to see them become well. studying it carefully and practising Therefore, the creation of hospital, what we teach and preach. Societies clinics, community health services, and cultures of the world keep and any other similar services that changing but the word of God is the would cure or prevent diseases of same yesterday, today and forever. any kind are good works. If it is done What do we need as a ‘flavour’ (or right, this is where good deeds are salt) for people to taste? First of all, manifested. our lifestyle must draw people to Another area is educating people. God. A life which expresses itself We have institutions of higher learn- through God’s love will be tasteful to ing which are meant to develop 144 ROBERT LANG’AT potential skills and intelligence so includes promoting thinking ability, that people can use them to earn a language and communication skills, living and serve the community. decision making, social concern and Jesus was called a teacher (Mark responsibility, and a sense of per- 9:38) and emphasized the need for sonal identity and moral character. It good morals. He also warned his dis- is very important to help people ciples against religious groups who think for themselves; then they can offered misleading teaching, such as make responsible decisions and the Pharisees who were very strict in become the kind of persons God their religious laws. Jesus said, ‘Be meant them to be. Theologians must careful… watch out for the yeast of have a broad education in order to the Pharisees and that of Herod’ serve God’s people well in our mod- (Mark 8:15). Yeast was used at that ern cultures. They will then be able to time to ferment large amounts of see ideal values that Christians ought dough. In this context it refers to the to pursue—moral values such as evil disposition of both the Pharisees honesty and justice for all. So it is and Herod Antipas who wanted important for Christians to venture Jesus to produce a sign of divine into the world of education and authority (Luke 23:8). Jesus taught develop good education pro- against religious groups who used grammes with broad curriculums others in their own interest. The that address the needs of the chang- Pharisees burdened others with reli- ing cultures. gious rules that they themselves The church, or the Christian edu- could not keep. cator, should be careful when devel- Modern education is very influen- oping an educational programme. tial in our societies. It is a very strong The curriculum should be broad in salt. Many people want to get this order to avoid what I call ‘oppressive education’. Oppressive education is kind of education. Therefore, Chris- a narrow education developed for tians must get involved in education. the poor people by charitable organ- This is one good work that can help izations or oppressive governments God’s people. Educational ethics for the purpose of using the results to affects the students’ values, hence advance the interest of the educa- the society. Holmes states: tors. For instance, in 1911 the …education is not job training, although it British were interested in African will of course have career outcomes. It is not just broad learning across various arts education, so they created the and sciences. Nor is it just an introduction Department of Education for Africa to the heritage of our past… Education and appointed J. R. Orr as its direc- helps shape people, cultivating abilities tor. He was the wrong person to be and qualities that last throughout life and 9 given this post, because J. R. Orr transfer to a myriad of tasks. had a wrong view of African people. To develop people educationally Tignor states: Orr’s philosophy of African education was 9 Arthur F. Holmes, Shaping Character (Grand based on stereotyped, racialist, and Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1991), p. 4 educationalist ideas … He believed African THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 145

people to be primitive and child-like and c) Community Development argued that education had to be adapted to this essential fact. The African mentality Community development is another was ‘undeveloped,’ he contended, and like powerful tool for influencing society the mind of a small child, it must be and in manifesting good works that stimulated into more disciplined and would glorify God. It is only through energetic activity by means of handicrafts and manual training. Eye and hand the help of the Holy Spirit that we training held to be valuable in developing can do excellent work to glorify him. the motor centers of the brain.10 We learn from the Bible that creation Since Orr had a racist educational groans in pain (Rom. 8:22). It is view that advocated that Africans God’s will that things should be must proceed from ‘sensation to pre- brought to the state they were in cept to concept’, he made the gov- when God created the world. Chris- ernment-controlled elementary tians must strive to do excellent schools devote three-fifths of their work. We are aware that we have time to gardening and local handi- weaknesses which might hinder us crafts such as mat-weaving, basket doing good works, but the spirit of making, and pottery. Orr’s goal was God is there to give us the power to to offer Africans skills which would fit do that which meets his standards. the development of rural areas for Since good works are important the ultimate purpose of producing for God’s glory, how should Chris- raw materials for British industries. tians do their work? Every Christian He acted as if he wanted to secure who knows God must do whatever a suitable education for African they are doing well with the aim of needs, but he wanted to prevent glorifying God. For instance, if you Africans receiving professional edu- are a producer of bread, you should cation. This was revealed when Orr produce good bread which people became sceptical of missionary edu- will like. If you are a teacher, teach cation because of its emphasis on lit- well. If you are a cook, cook so well erary training. Orrs’ idea of educa- that people would like to come to tion was oppressive because it was your hotel to eat. If you are the may- not geared toward the interests of or of a city, you should create an the learner but the interests of the environment free from corruption in provider. Christians participating in which people would enjoy doing this kind of educational process their business. All that I am saying is, without trying to bring change would a Christian should do good works, not be right. We cannot glorify God not mediocre works, that will glorify with that kind of education. We must God,. bear in mind that God values souls more than material things. I use the d) Salvation and Good Works term ‘soul’ to mean people. We Christians must take care not to think that we earn our salvation through good works. It is only by the 10 Robert L. Tignor, The Colonial Transforma- tion of Kenya (Princeton, NJ: Princeton UP, 1976), grace of God that we are saved (Eph. p. 205 2:8-9). Also, the apostle Paul tells us 146 ROBERT LANG’AT that the quality of our work will be ology of love comes into practice. assessed by God with fire (1 Cor. This I believe is a recognition of indi- 3:12-14). Paul is talking about spiri- vidual sins. The individual has to bear tual life, but we cannot separate our the responsibility for putting right spiritual life and our daily works. what they have done wrong. Spiritual people must manifest their f) Structural Sins spirituality by what they do. Chan describes spirituality11 as a ‘lived real- Every culture has its own sins. Social ity’. To be closer to God is to follow sins such as racial and sexual dis- Jesus’ footsteps. It is not the best crimination are very dangerous preaching that measures our spiritu- because no one seems to bear the ality (for even a sinner can be a good responsibility for them. The church, preacher) but rather the life we live the community of God’s people, and the demonstration of Christian must be careful not to fall into this love for our neighbour. If the Holy trap. The Pharisees and the priests Spirit lives in our lives then his fruit referred to by Jesus in the gospels should be manifested. seemed to fall into this trap. They e) Making Restitution thought that they knew God better than anyone else. We do not find God is involved in restoration of men anywhere in the Bible that this group and women to himself. He wants ever repented. They were the ones things to be put right with him. who wanted to have Jesus put to Therefore, Christians should also be death. involved in putting right the wrongs A group of people who view them- which sinful acts have produced. selves as righteous before God can Zacchaeus set a good example when be dangerous in society. They can be he came in contact with Jesus. The oppressive to those who are igno- Bible does not tell us directly that he rant. The church of Jesus Christ did repent of his sins, but Jesus said should be free from social sins. that salvation has come into Zaccha- eus’ home. What did Zacchaeus Today Christians must be specific in want to do? First, he wanted to share pointing out sins just as Paul was. his wealth with the poor. Secondly, When Paul talked about the sins of he wanted to restore property that the flesh he listed them so that no he gained through cheating people. one could mistake them. Chan tells These were the two things that us that the Bible does not make dis- brought salvation to his home. These tinction between small sins and big served as a testimony to people who sins. He states: knew him as a corrupt person. Resti- The sins of slander and envy, for example, tution helps one to live rightly with are mentioned along with sins of murder and adultery because they all come from other people in society. This is an evil heart (Mk. 7:21-23).12 where the vertical and horizontal the- We have sins which an individual is

11 Simon Chan. Spiritual Theology (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1998), p. 16 12 Chan, Spiritual Theology, p. 64 THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 147 more responsible for—for example, are converted, the Holy Spirit must sins of the mind (evil thoughts), sins be allowed to work in the hearts of of attitude (hatred, envy), sins of the people and bring conviction in their tongue (slander, gossip), and sins of lives. It is the Holy Spirit that action (theft, deceit). These can be changes people. It is important for turned into collective sins once a every Christian to embrace a certain group works closely with each other rule which will remind them of God and builds close relationships with and how they should do their work in each other. the secular world. It is important to g) Revival Meetings encourage Christians to build good, honest businesses. There is nothing Some churches have revival meet- wrong with a Christian acquiring ings in which God is expected to wealth honestly. The church should speak to every individual who is pres- encourage this, particularly in Third ent so that they may correct their World countries where people are so ways. It is a time designed for indi- needy for material things. vidual examination. This of course This is where the theology of resti- should bring repentance and restitu- tution is very important. Again, we tion after we become aware of the learn from Zacchaeus, a tax collec- sins that affect ourselves, God, and tor. At first, he was not a good mod- other people. Ministers of the gospel el for Christians in business because also are included. There is a wrong he was a greedy, dishonest person assumption that the pastor, the who sought to acquire his wealth ordained leader, the missionary, and through the wrong means. But when church are saints. History shows that he was saved he sought to rectify all the most vulnerable of all are those that he had done wrong. Christians deemed to be the best preachers of should also be encouraged to seek the word. Church leaders should professional training in areas of good view revival as if it is designed for works that can serve as a witness and them also. The missionaries also a Christian testimony. Paul, though should view themselves as vulnerable he was called to be a missionary, to sin. The scholars of the word are worked as tentmaker to support also in this category. Attitudes of himself so that he would not be a bur- hatred, jealousy, and greed, for den to anyone and could be free example, can be hidden before peo- from human subordination (often ple but not before God. brought about when you are reliant When attempting to contextualize on others for material things). biblical teachings, it is important to list the sins of the culture that the h) Land Issues Bible ought to address. God is The question of our attitude to land is against the sins but not the culture of discussed in the Bible, especially the the people. This is very important in Old Testament. Christians have to live doing missionary work. Often mis- on earth while waiting for the return sionaries transmit their own cultural of our Lord Jesus Christ. No one sins to other cultures. When people ‘owns’ land because we did not create 148 ROBERT LANG’AT it. We can’t take it anywhere, either. ket economy. Work has become the The problem that we are facing is that means of survival. To get work one the concept of land ownership in must have the skills to do that work. Africa today was introduced by Euro- Professional training is necessary for peans. This form of land ownership one to earn a living today. has created landless people. What about the church? It should What did Jesus say about land? do the same. To pretend that we Jesus did not deal with this issue very don’t need money to organize much. However, when he was asked church functions is not being realistic by Peter what would those people or truthful. Churches need resources who have given up everything and to carry out their ministries. Some follow him get, Jesus answered him churches and Christian missions by saying that as well as eternal life oppose the idea that Christians can they would receive double what they involve themselves in business. They left behind. Land is included among say, ‘Doing business will lead to these things (Matt. 19: 27-30). The immorality.’ However, the same answer was given in the context of a people will go to church and ask for community which believed that financial support for their ministries. wealth was a sign of divine favour. This group would view the church’s This will happen at the renewal of all activities as not in any sense of the things. If those things were not word a business. They generalize important, then Jesus would not have that businesses are conducted in a promised to restore them. Everything worldly way and not God’s way. that we use comes from the land Before Christian leaders prevent which God himself has created. their congregation from doing busi- To build a strong church and soci- ness, they should know that there are ety, Christians must be taught the business aspects to their ministries good use of all natural resources. which are the same as those of any Jesus did not condemn wealth, but profit or non-profit organization. rather greed for wealth. If we are to Christian enterprises are not in the be effective in Christian ministry, we business of making a profit, but all must practise what we preach. For are in the business of making mon- example, missionaries who come ey. For any Christian work to suc- from developed countries cannot ceed it must keep to the basic princi- preach against wealth and expect ples of management, namely, plan- people to believe them, because they ning, organizing, staffing, supervis- are talking about something that is ing, and controlling. Whether the not practised in their lives. organization has two people or two thousand, each of those functions 4 The Christian and the must be carried out in order for the Business World organization to be successful. For Christian workers to be effective, a) The Church and Business they must be trained in areas of Today’s world is defined by the mar- management. Church ministries THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 149 have sometimes suffered because that the things of the spirit or of training is mediocre. heaven are good and the things of It is also important to bear in mind earth or material are evil. From the that when one becomes a Christian beginning people were commanded or is ordained, that does not mean to use the material of the earth and that one makes more moral deci- rule the earth. sions. Most Christians in leadership Harold L. Johnson tells us that and administrative positions are not Paul’s writings sometimes have been trained in the areas of ethical deci- used to argue that Christianity sets sion making or even business meth- material values over against spiritual ods. The malpractice of Christian values by making a distinction business people has led to the between ‘flesh’ and ‘spirit’.13 He destruction of the church and Chris- points out that on the surface it tian workers. appears that ‘flesh’ referred to the b) A positive view of Business material aspects of life while ‘spirit’ Some Christians have argued that refers to such matters as worship, when Jesus told the rich young man meditation and communion with to sell his possessions and give to the God. However, most Christian schol- poor, he implied that the accumula- ars agree that the concept of the tion of wealth is an hindrance to flesh relates to the totality of human earning salvation. The picture of a behaviour and personality stemming camel struggling to enter the eye of a from a non-Christian philosophy. needle is equated to a rich man who The term ‘flesh’ is connected with finds it difficult to enter the kingdom the short-comings of the spiritual of God because of his riches. Jesus’ nature—for instance, enmity, strife, sermon in Matthew chapter 5 does jealousy, selfishness, dissension, not seem to paint the job description envy, and party spirit. The term of a salesman! Studies have shown ‘spirit’ is connected with love, joy, that students selecting business peace, patience, kindness, good- careers are more money-minded, ness, faithfulness, gentleness, and security-oriented, and less con- self-control. These approaches to life cerned in helping people than those did not necessarily suggest a low students who are select careers in standard of economic well-being.14 teaching, science, medicine, and So the creation perspective does engineering. Business students are not treat the material world as inher- interested in raising their social sta- ently evil and the world of business as tus. This behaviour is certainly diffi- irrelevant for Christian living. It is sad cult to reconcile with Christian faith. to say that some western missionar- However, others believe that it is ies have preached against material- possible for one to be both a Christ- ian and a business person. When we turn to the biblical view of creation, 13 Harold L. Johnson. The Christian as a Busi- nessman (New York: Association Press, 1964), p. we learn that God created both heav- 40 en and earth. The biblical view is not 14 Johnson, Businessman, p. 40 150 ROBERT LANG’AT ism in Africa, but from the African their fellow humans rather than by point of view, the missionary is the profit. Physicians, teachers and min- most materialistic person they have isters provide humanitarian services ever seen because they possess so but through them they earn a living. much. Therefore there is a great Christians in business provide servic- need for African Christians and es needed by people in their com- churches to develop a better under- munities. If the business person pro- standing of the world of business as duces something that people want a ministry. and if the product is good for the peo- c) Service to the Neighbour ple, then they are helping to meet the needs of the people. For instance, a God is interested in providing good farmer who produces corn, finger services to people. Jesus demon- millet, wheat, vegetables, cotton, strated this by washing his disciples’ bricks or timber, will help in meeting feet. Jesus took the cultural services the needs of the people. that were known by the Jewish peo- ple and used them to get his point There are many other services that across. People followed Jesus are humanitarian in nature. Chris- because of what he provided for tians should be encouraged to equip them. Jesus provided services that themselves for these activities. Chris- were holistic in nature. For the tian higher learning institutions church to be influential in our soci- should provide programmes that eties she must follow the pattern that incorporate a variety of skills which Jesus set. Christians can use to serve God. Pro- Serving others with production of viding inferior training for Christians goods is not wrong as long as the will make the church powerless. product is beneficial to the neigh- Medicine is the most influential tool bour, and does not exploit them. The today for evangelism because it pro- doctrine of creation and incarnation vides something that the people points to the value of production and need. the use of it. This means that to pro- Christian ethical awareness and vide services people need is a min- ethical analysis must be incorporated istry. There are different types of into the logic of business decision- services. There are services which making and problem-solving proce- empower people to gain skills that dures. This would mean that after a will help in earning a living, such as problem has been identified and providing good education. There are analysed, the alternative solutions services that are oppressive and that are formulated should be based exploitative such as providing train- on Christian ethical judgement. ing that will serve the interest of the Courses offered in business adminis- provider only tration should be taught using The church is supposed to make approaches of Christian ethics. It is some contribution to human welfare. right for a Christian to make a profit Christians in business should be justly and to use means that are with- motivated by altruistic concern for in the biblical norm of justice. THE CHURCH’S RESPONSIBILITY WITHIN THE EAST AFRICAN CONTEXT 151 d) The way things ought to be cy to the handicapped who are When we go back to the story of the unable to work, provide food for the Garden of Eden we read of the orig- hungry, visit the sick and the prison- inal righteousness by which humani- ers and to defend the defenceless. To ty was expected to live. In Genesis 2: say that the church does not need 15 we are told God took the man he material things and trained person- had created and put him in the gar- nel to do these ministries is unrealis- den to work it and care for it. The tic. It is a mistake for the church or man was not going to stay in the gar- any Christian organization to ask for den idly; he had to work. The woman charitable funds and services to build was created to be a helper in this personal merits or merits for the work. Working to produce materials organization. The aim of charity is for living is the proper thing to do, not to heal social evils or remove because humanity was in harmony poverty but to demonstrate the spir- with nature. After the Fall, nature it of God’s love. There is often a became non-cooperative. We have great lack of this in Christian min- istries today. to be careful so that the world of busi- This approach calls for humble liv- ness will not mislead us. Troeltsch ing and not human pride. Troeltsch once stated: tells us that the spirit of restraint and …the world itself is a mixture of good and simplicity of life should not be given evil, so the whole social order, with its pleasure and its labor has its good points. up but rather this spirit should be On the other hand, it is also full of danger: encouraged in those who are giving its bad side is manifest in its tendency to and those who are receiving.16 This distract the hearts of men from the one 15 humble spirit has to be the work of thing needful. God and not the result of human e) Unrealistic Beliefs in the effort. Church f) Working for a living The belief that material things do not Can Christians work for a living? matter and do not influence the When Jesus called his disciples, they church in decision making is unreal- were fishermen by profession. They istic. The modern church suffers were working for a living. Everybody from this problem, particularly the works for a living. No one would like churches in developing countries. to be a beggar. All material things The church should aim to provide come from God, and they were parental care to the orphan, to be a intended to be used by people whom husband to the widows, to help those God created. God established the who are ready for marriage, to pattern of work as the means to encourage business people to create acquire these goods. work for the unemployed, show mer- Christian workers such as pastors and evangelists also work for a living. 15 Ernst Troeltsch, The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches (Westminster: John Knox, 1992), p. 58 16 Troeltsch, Social Teaching, p. 135 152 ROBERT LANG’AT

They must be paid by the people 5 Conclusion they serve. The church is making a In conclusion, I am saying that Chris- big mistake if they use the services of tian ministry is very broad and has an individual without payment. An many implications. It is not enough evangelist has a right to earn a living to bring people to Jesus Christ, but through the church. Paul the apostle we must continue building them spir- mentioned this, except that he found itually, economically and intellectual- his own means of earning a living ly. We have to prepare Christians to through tent-making so that he would not be a burden on the church. know how to live here on earth and prepare them also for the next king- g) God’s People and Money dom. Money can be defined as a tool In Africa, where the majority are which is used to motivate people to not educated, and resources are work. It is like a receipt for selling undeveloped, a rural development your labour to somebody who want- programme should be part of Chris- ed it and after finishing they give you tian education curriculum. There- a receipt which will prove to another fore, the missionaries who are need- person that you deserve what you ed today in Africa are those who are want to get in exchange for that trained in medicine, rural develop- receipt. The Bible tells us that the ment and modern technology such love of money is the root of evil (1 as computers, business, buildings Tim. 6:10). It is not the money that and agriculture. Even Christians who is evil, but the love of money. The are road engineers have a contribu- evil is within the person not within tion to make. the money. This can be said about wealth also. Wealth in itself is not Evangelism and missionary work evil; the person who possesses it is must go hand in hand with social the problem. Wealth can be used to work. In Africa, we are able to build the kingdom of God. Con- preach the gospel to our people. demning wealth without condemn- Adequate and holistic training is ing the possessor is very misleading. what African people need. The Money should not dictate our Chris- Church in Africa has grown spiritual- tian life or the church activities. ly, but it needs to respond to its own Church activities have sometimes cultural context instead of being suffered because they have been adversely affected by western cultur- allowed to be dictated by funds. al values. 0144-8153 ERT (2002) 26:2, 153–180 Philippine Tongues of Fire? Latin American Pentecostalism and the Future of Filipino Christianity George W. Harper

Keywords: Hispanization, missions, Church growth, Roman Catholics, Protestants, comity agreement, modernism, Pentecostals, indigenous Philippine Pentecostals, Americanization

Introduction1 sojourned westward, went to Christ…came to America. Jour- prison in Spain, while another who neying from Bethlehem and Cal- took His name embarked with the vary, He passed through Africa and Spanish crusaders for the New Spain on His long westward jour- World, a Christ who was not born ney to the pampas and cordilleras. in Bethlehem but in North Africa. And yet was it really He who came, This Christ became naturalized in or another religious figure with His the Iberian colonies of America, name and some of His marks? while Mary’s Son and Lord has Methinks the Christ, as He been little else than a stranger and sojourner in these lands from Columbus’s day to this.2 Dr Harper is an ordained minister in the Pres- These strong words were written byterian Church (USA) serving with Action International Ministries at Asia Graduate School of Theology-Philippines where he is 1 I wish to thank Randall Gleason, of the Inter- Professor of Christian History and Thought national School of Theology-Asia, for his suggestion and Associate Program Director. Dr Harper that I turn my ideas on this topic into an article. I holds degrees from Gordon-Conwell Theolog- appreciate the assistance of Anne Kwantes, of Asian ical Seminary (MDiv) and Boston University Theological Seminary; Wonsuk Ma, of Asia Pacific (PhD) and previously taught at the Alliance Theological Seminary; Pat Mariano, of the Christian Biblical Seminary, Quezon City, Philippines. and Missionary Alliance Churches of the Philippines; He has contributed to the Dictionary of Eric Smith, of Philippine Challenge; Stephen Smith, Asian Christianity, Eerdmans, 2001 and the of Gordon College; and especially my friend Averell Blackwell Dictionary of Evangelical Biog- Aragon, of Alliance Biblical Seminary. raphy: 1730-1860. (Blackwell, 1995). An 2 John A. Mackay, The Other Spanish Christ: earlier version of this article appeared in the A Study in the Spiritual History of Spain and Journal of Asian Mission 2:2 (September South America (New York: Macmillan, 1932), p. 2000), pp. 225-259. 95. 154 GEORGE W. HARPER by the young John Mackay, fresh tant Protestant ‘landmarks’ were from over a decade’s service as a medical missions, educational insti- missionary in Peru, Uruguay, and tutions, and other agencies that gave Mexico. Mackay went on to serve for ‘permanent expression to the spirit many years as president of Princeton of Christ’.5 He dealt with Pente- Theological Seminary, during which costalism very briefly, referring to its time he earned a reputation for rapid growth in Chile and noting unusual openness towards other with approval the high morality of its Protestant denominations and even adherents. Although he commented towards the Roman Catholic as well on their ‘incandescent reli- Church.3 Of course his early reaction gious passion’ and ‘zeal to save oth- had been not to Catholicism as such er lives’, he claimed that over time but to the particular strain of Catholi- ‘[e]xtravagant phenomena [had] cism associated with Spanish spiritu- tend[ed] to disappear from [their] ality, and especially to the hybridiza- gatherings’ and that they had tion of this Hispanic Catholicism ‘become more normal in their emo- with the primal religions of Latin tional experience and more disposed America to yield what is commonly to co-operate with fellow-Christians described as folk-Catholicism.4 of other groups in the interests of the Mackay’s argument was that the common cause’.6 The irony is that it Christ born in Bethlehem, i.e., the is these Pentecostals who have Christ of the Bible, might finally brought the Christ of Bethlehem to escape from his Spanish prison and the masses of Latin America, and come to Latin America through the that they have done so, Mackay to efforts of such ‘contemporary reli- the contrary notwithstanding, while gious thinkers’ as Gabriela Mistral, a remaining as passionate and frac- liberal Catholic, Jose Zorilla de San tious as ever. Martin, a more traditional Catholic, Recent literature discussing the and non-sectarian Christians like rise of Latin American Pentecostal- Ricardo Rojas and Julio Navarro ism includes landmark volumes by Monzo. If he had written his book sociologist David Martin (Tongues of forty years later, doubtless he would Fire: The Explosion of Protes- have cited the work of liberation the- tantism in Latin America [Oxford: ologians such as Gustavo Gutierrez Blackwell, 1990]) and anthropolo- and Leonardo Boff. gist David Stoll (Is Latin America Mackay did devote a chapter to Turning Protestant? The Politics of Latin American Protestantism, but Evangelical Growth [Berkeley, CA: from his perspective the most impor- University of California Press,

3 John A. Mackay, Ecumenics: The Science of the Church Universal (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pren- tice-Hall, 1960), pp. 16-18 and 207 4 Even in Ecumenics, pp. 42 and 124-31, Mackay essentially recapitulated his earlier assess- 5 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, p. 242 ment of Spanish and Latin American Catholicism. 6 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, pp. 247-8 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 155

1990]).7 The question I wish to Protestants made up only 5% of the address in this article is whether the population, and the first (1982) edi- Philippines may also be turning tion of David Barrett’s World Chris- Protestant, or at least whether this tian Encyclopedia estimates that in nation, whose culture, like that of 1970 Protestants made up scarcely Latin America, has up to now been 3% of the population.9 In fact, the defined by the norms of Hispanic ratio of Filipino Protestants to Catholicism, may be approaching Catholics today is broadly similar to the time when its culture will be part- the ratio in Brazil and Chile thirty or ly redefined by the norms of global forty years ago.10 Might it be that the Pentecostalism. Might the day have ratio of Filipino Protestants to finally arrived when being Filipino Catholics in another thirty or forty and being Protestant are no longer years will be similar to the ratio in seen as contradictory or even some- Brazil and Chile today? what incongruous? Lending plausibility to this specula- At first glance this thesis seems tion are the numerous historical and implausible. After all, the fifth (1993) cultural parallels between Latin edition of Patrick Johnstone’s Oper- America and the Philippines. Spain ation World states that Protestants did colonize both regions, after all, make up only 7.5% of the popula- and the colonizer’s culture overlaid, tion of the Philippines, with evangel- permeated, and ultimately trans- icals accounting for about two-thirds formed the pre-existing cultures to yield an amalgam that even today of that figure (5.1% of the popula- preserves traditional values while giv- tion) and Pentecostals accounting for ing them a special ‘spin’.11 For just over half of all evangelicals (2.8% example, both Latin American and of the population).8 But according to Philippine cultures continue to lay the second (1978) edition of Opera- great stress on the family unit, taking tion World, as recently as 1976

9 Patrick Johnstone, Operation World: A 7 For recent discussions of this phenomenon, Handbook for World Intercession, 2nd ed. (Brom- see C. René Padilla, ‘The Future of Christianity in ley, England: STL, 1978), p. 124; David B. Barrett Latin America: Missiological Perspectives and Chal- (ed.), World Christian Encyclopedia: A Compara- lenges’, International Bulletin of Missionary tive Study of Churches and Religions in the Mod- Research 23:3 (July 1999), pp. 105-12; and Lynda ern World, A.D. 1900-2000 (New York: OUP, K. Barrow, ‘Mission in Mexico: An Evangelical 1982), p. 562 Surge’, The Christian Century 118:7 (28 February 10 Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, pp. 2001), pp. 22-3. 186, 226 8 Patrick Johnstone, Operation World: The 11 See the discussion of the Filipino cultural Day-by-Day Guide to Praying for the World, 5th ‘onion’ in Arthur Leonard Tuggy and Ralph Toliver, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1993), p. 448. Seeing the Church in the Philippines (Manila: Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation OMF, 1972), p. 8. For a discussion that grounds con- World: 21st Century Edition (Carlisle, U.K.: Pater- temporary differences between Philippine and Latin noster Lifestyle, 2001), p. 521, describes evangeli- American cultures in differences between these cals as constituting 16.7% of the population of the regions’ preconquest societies, see John Leddy Phe- Philippines, but because this latest edition of Opera- lan, The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish tion World no longer treats evangelicalism as a cat- Aims and Filipino Responses, 1565-1700 (Madi- egory of Protestantism, its data are not directly com- son, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959), pp. parable to those in earlier editions. 26-7. 156 GEORGE W. HARPER the extended family as the basic relatively little concern for Christ, building block of society.12 More God the Father, or the Holy Spirit.16 generally, both Latin American and What attention Christ does receive is Philippine cultures are relation- usually as an infant, the Filipino rather than task-oriented, so that, for ‘Santo Niño’, or a corpse, the Fil- example, continuing a significant ipino ‘Santo Entierro’, both of these conversation takes precedence over figures being obviously weak and adhering to a strict timetable.13 One thus presumably vulnerable to the result of this is that both Latin Amer- devotee’s manipulation.17 Such ican and Philippine cultures tend to manipulation is most often attempt- deprecate the complex of values ed not in the church, at its public commonly referred to as the Protes- altar, but in the home, at its private 14 tant work ethic. shrine. One extreme example of this Related to this is the observation sort of behaviour, the ‘punishment’ that in both Latin America and the of an image of the Santo Niño per- Philippines, religion and ethics are ceived to have failed to deliver on the commonly de-coupled, with liturgy supplicant’s request, is common to and daily life seen as having little 18 15 both cultures. direct connection. In addition, the Yet another shared practice is that rites most characteristic of folk- of penitential self-scourging, espe- Catholicism as practised in both cially during Holy Week, often Latin America and the Philippines understood as a means of atoning for focus on Mary and the saints, with one’s sins. On Good Friday, proces- sions of so-called ‘flagellantes’ can be 12 Francis Fukuyama describes Spain, Latin found at shrines throughout the America, and the Philippines as ‘low-trust’ societies Philippines, across Latin America, that lack ‘spontaneous sociability’ and therefore require the family to carry the sort of cultural weight and even here and there in the that in ‘high-trust’ societies like the US and Japan is carried by voluntary organizations such as the church and the joint-stock corporation. See his discussion in Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Pros- perity (New York: Free Press, 1995), especially pp. 49-67 16 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, pp. 13-14, 13 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, p. 18; Paul 53, 112, and passim; Raul Pertierra, Religion, Pol- G. Hiebert, Anthropological Reflections on Missi- itics, and Rationality in a Philippine Community ological Issues (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1994), (Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila Uni- pp. 141-3 versity Press, 1988), pp. 140-1 14 Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the 17 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, pp. 96-8, Spirit of Capitalism, Talcott Parsons (tr.) (New York: 102, 110-11, and 113; Benigno P. Beltran, The Scribner’s, 1950); R.H. Tawney, Religion and the Christology of the Inarticulate: An Inquiry into Rise of Capitalism: A Historical Study (New York: the Filipino Understanding of Jesus the Christ Harcourt, Brace & World, 1926); Ernst Troeltsch, (Manila: Divine Word, 1987), pp. 116-24. For a dis- The Social Teaching of the Christian Churches, cussion of a Latin American counterpart to the ‘San- Olive Wyon (tr.), 2 vols. (New York: Harper, 1960), to Entierro’, the ‘Cristo Yacente’ venerated by the 2:644-50; S.N. Eisenstadt (ed.), The Protestant inhabitants of a town in southern Peru, see Curt Ethic and Modernization: A Comparative View Cadorette, ‘Christs in the Night: The Missiological (New York: Basic Books, 1968); Mackay, Other Challenge of Andean Catholicism’, Missiology 25:1 Spanish Christ, pp. 7, 29; Fukuyama, Trust, pp. (January 1997), pp. 51-60. 43-8 18 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, p. 54; Bel- 15 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, pp. 37, 102 tran, Christology of the Inarticulate, p. 120 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 157

American Southwest.19 The list of had to flee for their lives, taking with such cultural congruencies could be them such vestiges of institutional extended almost indefinitely. This Catholicism as had already been close similarity strongly suggests that implanted.20 since Latin America has proved a Catholicism finally gained a per- fertile medium for Pentecostalism’s manent foothold in the Philippines propagation, the same may be true with the arrival of Miguel Lopez de of the Philippines. However, Legazpi’s expedition in 1565.21 whether this is in fact the case, and Legazpi brought with him five indeed whether it may already be Augustinian friars, and over the next taking place, can be determined only four decades these were joined by by taking a closer look at the representatives of the Franciscan, specifics of contemporary Philippine Dominican, Jesuit, and Recollect religious life. Such will be the focus of orders. With the passing years, as the next section of this article. Spain slowly consolidated its control of the Philippine lowlands, these five orders pursued the Christianization 1. Philippine Roman of the ethnic-Malay inhabitants.22 Catholicism Although such efforts were at first Any consideration of the Philippine slow to bear significant fruit, by the religious ‘pie’ must begin with an early seventeenth century the friars evaluation of the largest ‘slice’ of that had baptized approximately pie, the Roman Catholic communi- 500,000 converts and their chil- ty. Catholicism arrived early, with fri- dren, effectively laying the founda- ars in the company of the Spanish tions of Filipino Catholicism.23 explorer Magellan celebrating the Yet the form of Catholic piety first Mass on Philippine soil in 1521. practised by most Filipinos, then as Although the friars went on to bap- now, would have seemed strange tize Rajah Humabon of Mactan, a even to a fellow Catholic from north- number of other Cebuano princes, and thousands of their vassals, later 20 T. Valentino Sitoy, Jr., A History of Chris- that year Magellan and many of his tianity in the Philippines, Vol. 1, The Initial men were killed and the survivors Encounter (Quezon City, Philippines: New Day, 1985), pp. 36-63. For primary documents related to Magellan’s voyage, see James Alexander Robertson and Emma Helen Blair (eds.), The Philippine 19 Mackay, Other Spanish Christ, p. 34; Bel- Islands, 1493-1898, 55 vols. (Cleveland, OH: tran, Christology of the Inarticulate, p. 115; Arthur H. Clark, 1903-1909), 1:247-337. Lorayne Ann Horka-Follick, Los Hermanos Peni- 21 For primary documents related to Legazpi’s tentes: A Vestige of Medievalism in Southwestern expedition, see Robertson and Blair, Philippine United States (New York: Tower, 1969); Silvia Novo Islands, 2:75-329. Pena, ‘Religion’, in Reference Library of Hispanic 22 Sitoy, Initial Encounter, pp. 130-38, 228- America, Nicholás Kanellos (ed.), 3 vols. (Detroit: 45; Pablo Fernandez, History of the Church in the Gale, 1997), 2:269-70. For a discussion of the func- Philippines, 1521-1898 (San Juan, Philippines: tion served by such corporal discipline in Hispanic Life Today, 1988), pp. 19-27 Catholicism, see Maureen Flynn, ‘The Spiritual Uses 23 Phelan, Hispanization of the Philippines, p. of Pain in Spanish Mysticism’, Journal of the Amer- 56; Arthur Leonard Tuggy, The Philippine Church: ican Academy of Religion 64:2 (Summer 1996), Growth in a Changing Society (Grand Rapids, MI: pp. 257-78. Eerdmans, 1971), p. 29 158 GEORGE W. HARPER ern Europe. Spanish stress on God’s entranceway, as they do so perhaps absolute transcendence, coupled rubbing a handkerchief or scrap of with the animist concept of a single cloth on its exposed foot in order to supreme deity (Tagalog Bathala) take with them some of its spiritual who had created the world but now power. Before leaving, they may took no interest in it, yielded to the pause for a moment to shop among folk-Catholic concept of God as one the vendors’ carts lining the plaza, who generally took no interest in the hoping to purchase a fetish for pro- world but was nevertheless open to tection from an enemy’s curses or persuasion. Spanish veneration of for inflicting on an enemy curses of Mary and the saints, coupled with their own. They may even buy a the animist concept of a myriad of black candle to be used in conjunc- lesser deities and spirits and the soci- tion with a special novena said at the ological concept of the ‘go-between’ church’s high altar in order to cause (Tagalog tagapamagitan), yielded an enemy’s death. the folk-Catholic practice of reliance But the same plaza at Quiapo that on Mary and the saints as advocates testifies to the great strength of folk- who might indeed persuade God to Catholicism also testifies to the sur- take an interest in the devotee’s case. prising weakness of institutional Spanish fondness for crucifixes, Catholicism. On the very doorstep images, relics, and other such out- of the Quiapo church, along with ward trappings of Catholicism, cou- anting-anting and black candles, pled with the animist use of similar vendors offer abortifacients, palm trappings and the Filipino love of and Tarot card readings, and even pomp and ritual, yielded the folk- the chance to communicate with the Catholic dependence on charms and spirits of dead loved ones. The fact fetishes (Tagalog anting-anting) as that such practices are emphatically means of manipulating Mary and the forbidden by scripture and canon law saints in order to gain their advocacy alike carries no weight with the prac- on the devotee’s behalf.24 titioners or their many customers.25 The great strength of folk-Catholi- Unfortunately, most Filipino cism in the Philippines today is elo- Catholics have no idea what their quently attested by the enormous church teaches about such things masses of people thronging the because they have no exposure to its plaza around the parish church at magisterium that might bring them Quiapo, in the old city of Manila. into contact with the Bible, let alone Many of those in the crowd are wait- the creeds, the catechism, conciliar ing to file past the famous statue of documents, or papal encyclicals. the Santo Entierro, the ‘Black 26Strikingly, only about 5% attend Nazarene’, displayed in the church’s

25 I determined this for myself during a visit to 24 Peter G. Gowing, ‘Christianity in the Philip- the Quiapo church in June of 1998. pines Yesterday and Today’, Silliman Journal 12:2 26 Gowing, ‘Christianity in the Philippines’, p. (1965), pp. 10-11 10 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 159 church regularly, a figure compara- Philippines (UCCP), and Joseph ble to that prevailing in post-Christ- Estrada is a flamboyantly non-obser- ian Europe.27 vant Catholic who supports at least a In 1995, during Pope John Paul dozen children by five ‘wives’. II’s visit to the Philippines, he issued Although Jaime Cardinal Sin, Arch- a challenge to a vast crowd gathered bishop of Manila and Primate of the at the Luneta in old Manila: ‘You Philippines since 1974, promoted must be the light of Asia!’ Yet the his own presidential candidates Philippine Catholic Church cannot against both Ramos and Estrada, provide enough priests to meet even these candidates fared poorly, with its own needs, let alone the vast Estrada even winning by a landslide. requirements of the Asian mission The bottom line is that although field. The ratio of priests to parish- most Filipinos respect Cardinal Sin, ioners in the Philippines is they often pay little attention to what 1:20,000, among the worst in the he has to say. world, and even today one-third of all Such surprising institutional weak- Catholic priests serving in the Philip- ness provides the context for David pines are missionaries from other Barrett’s conclusion that although countries.28 the number of Filipino Catholics con- A final pointer to institutional tinues to increase, their rate of Catholicism’s weakness lies in the increase is considerably lower than political realm. Of the Philippines’ that of the general population. Con- five most recent presidents, only sequently Barrett estimates that the two, Corazon Aquino and Gloria percentage of professing Catholics Macapagal Arroyo, have been obser- in the Philippines will have declined vant Catholics. Of the other three, from 85% in 1970 to only 78% in Ferdinand Marcos was a member of 2000.29 Peter Brierley estimates that the Iglesia Filipina Independiente the average annual growth rate (IFI), Fidel Ramos is a member of the (AAGR) of the Philippine Catholic United Church of Christ in the community will decline from 2.1% (1995-2000) to 1.8% (2000-2005) and 1.6% (2005-2010).30 With the 27 Johnstone, Operation World: Day-by-Day, p. 448; Ralph Tolliver, ‘The Philippines’, in Donald AAGR of the general population Hoke (ed.), The Church in Asia, (Chicago: Moody, somewhat less than 3% and only 1975), p. 534. Pertierra, Religion, Politics, and Rationality, p. 146, states that regular church atten- slowly declining, the problem is dance averages less than 6% among the adult bound to become even more press- Catholics of one rural community in northwestern Luzon. 28 Philippine Star (Manila), 4 May 1996, citing figures released by the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of the Philippines (CBCP). The article quotes Fr. James Reuter, speaking for the CBCP, to the effect that ‘there are many dioceses where there is one 29 Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, p. priest for 25,000 to 30,000 people’ and in some 562 dioceses the figure is closer to one for 40,000. For 30 Computed from figures in Peter Brierley, ed., similar data from an earlier period, see Gowing, World Churches Handbook (London: Christian ‘Christianity in the Philippines’, pp. 9-12. Research Association, 1997), p. 677 160 GEORGE W. HARPER ing.31 This steady shrinkage of the brought an impressive response.32 Catholic slice of the Philippine reli- Some of them even claimed to fore- gious pie has other consequences see a day when Filipinos might that will be examined below. embrace Protestantism as they had previously embraced Catholicism. 2. Philippine Protestantism For example, in 1900 Eric Lund, a As the Catholic slice of the pie has Baptist missionary, exclaimed that the island of Negros stood on the shrunk, the Protestant slice has 33 grown, though its pattern of growth brink of a mighty Reformation. has been neither uniform nor even Four years later Methodist mission- unbroken. For the first decade after ary Homer Stuntz, reporting a total the initial deployment of Protestant membership of 6,842, predicted missionaries in 1898, their work 500,000 members within twenty years.34 He enthused, ‘Such ripeness for evangelism has never been seen in any Roman Catholic field.’35 This unbridled optimism was one of the factors prompting many mis- sionaries to divert the bulk of their energy from evangelism and the planting of new churches to ecu- menism and the building of new insti- tutions, these latter often broadly 31 Print estimates of the annual population growth rate of the Philippines have varied widely. For example, see Johnstone, Operation World: Day-by-Day, p. 448; Edythe Draper (ed.), Almanac of the Christian World (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale, 1990), p. 130; George Thomas Kurian, Atlas of the Third World (New York: Facts on File, 1983), p. 304; George Thomas Kurian, Encyclopedia of the Third World, 3rd ed. (New York: Facts on File, 32 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 29. 1987), pp. 1612-13; and Brian Rajewski et al. (eds.), For discussions of the earliest period of Protestant Countries of the World and Their Leaders: Year- missionary activity in the Philippines, see Kenton J. book 1998 (Detroit: Gale, 1998), p. 983. Web sites Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philip- offer figures that are more up-to-date but just as var- pines, 1898-1916: An Inquiry into the American ied. For example, see the site maintained by the Colonial Mentality (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Philippine government’s National Statistics Office, Press, 1986); Anne C. Kwantes, Presbyterian Mis- , and the US Central Intelligence Change, 1899-1910 (Quezon City, Philippines: Agency’s World Factbook 2000, accessible at New Day, 1989); and Mariano C. Apilado, Revolu- . Aiming to err on the side of Role in the American Colonial Rule of the Philip- caution, this article will assume an average annual pines, 1898-1928 (Quezon City, Philippines: New population growth rate for the Philippines beginning Day, 1999). at somewhat less than 3% in 1990 and decreasing 33 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 44 to somewhat less than 2.5% in 2000. Denomina- 34 Clymer, Protestant Missionaries, p. 194; tions whose growth rates consistently slump below Tuggy, Philippine Church, p. 103 these figures will be taken as failing to keep pace with 35 Homer C. Stuntz, ‘Past and Present in the the growth of the general population, thus constitut- Philippines’, Missionary Review of the World, ns ing a declining percentage of that population. 17:7 (July 1904), p. 492 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 161 ecumenical in scope.36 One unin- speak of several distinct Protestant tended consequence was an abrupt slices, ranging from liberal concil- slowing of growth, on which they iarism through conservative evangel- themselves commented. For exam- icalism to traditional as well as ple, Congregational missionary indigenous Pentecostalism. Each of Frank Laubach observed: ‘While the these slices merits closer examina- curve [of membership growth] seems tion. to rise in a satisfactory manner for the entire period [through about 2.1 Conciliar Protestantism 1920], it should be noted that the last The conciliar Protestant movement half of the period is not nearly so good as the first…. In general that in the Philippines includes the first fine speed which had character- UCCP, the United Methodist ized the earlier years had ceased.’ Church, the Convention of Philip- 37For Methodists, Presbyterians, and pine Baptist Churches, and other most other Protestants, the period denominations that have affiliated from about 1910 to the mid-1930s with the National Council of Church- es in the Philippines (NCCP), found- was a time of slow growth and struc- 39 tural consolidation. Another brief ed in 1963. Since considerations surge of membership in the late of space preclude a close examina- 1930s was abruptly terminated by tion of each of these bodies, the World War II and the Japanese UCCP has been selected as the occupation.38 NCCP’s most appropriate represen- The post-war years brought frag- tative. mentation as well as further consoli- The post-war years brought the dation. This means that today, rather process of denominational consoli- than a single Protestant slice of the dation to a climax in 1948 with the Philippine religious pie, we must coming together of Presbyterians, Congregationalists, United Brethren in Christ, and several other groups to form the UCCP.40 Unfortunately, 36 See Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 29; and Averell U. Aragon, ‘A Study of the History this new denomination failed to and Development of the Philippine Council of Evan- break with the laggardly pattern of gelical Churches and Its Contribution to the Growth growth that had been set by its pre- of Protestantism in the Philippines’ (ThM thesis, Asia Graduate School of Theology-Philippines, 1999), cursor bodies, thus casting a pall over pp. 7-19. 37 Frank Laubach, The People of the Philip- pines (New York: George H. Doran, 1925), p. 368f., quoted in Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the 39 Barrett, World Christian Encyclopedia, p. Church, p. 29. For a very different perspective on 565; T. Valentino Sitoy, Jr., Comity and Unity: this plateauing of Protestant growth, see Apilado’s Ardent Aspirations of Six Decades of Protes- chapter, ‘Identity Crisis: The Protestant Churches, tantism in the Philippines, 1901-1961 (Quezon 1908-1914’, in Revolutionary Spirituality, pp. City, Philippines: NCCP, 1989), p. 128 108-58. 40 The best discussion of the UCCP’s origins is 38 See the membership charts in Tuggy and T. Valentino Sitoy, Jr., Several Springs, One Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 28 (Presbyterian), Stream: The United Church of Christ in the Philip- and in Tuggy, Philippine Church, p. 107 pines, vol. 1, Heritage and Origins, 1899-1948 (Methodist) and p. 114 (Convention Baptist). (Quezon City, Philippines: UCCP, 1992). 162 GEORGE W. HARPER the prospects of Philippine Protes- these statistics can be quite slippery. tantism as a whole.41 For at least its For example, the Philippine govern- first decade of existence, its leaders ment’s 1990 census found 902,446 continued to be preoccupied with people claiming membership in the questions of organization, leaving UCCP, considerably more than are few resources for evangelism and credited to that denomination by any church planting.42 After the initial other source.46 Presumably this period of assimilation, rising ten- reflects the number of Filipinos who sions between the denomination’s think of themselves as members of new ecumenical spirit and its contin- the UCCP, even though most of uing evangelistic vision led first to the them have never formally joined the latter’s subordination to the former church and relatively few even attend and then, in many parishes, to its services regularly. It is broadly com- 43 outright abandonment. The UCCP parable to Brierley’s estimate of the has emphatically rejected biblical or size of the UCCP’s ‘community’ as confessional particularism, embrac- 733,000 in that same year.47 More ing instead a lowest-common- reasonably, Brierley presents the denominator approach to doctrine UCCP’s actual membership as hav- based on nothing more than ‘the ing climbed from 119,347 in 1960 basic belief: “Jesus Christ, the Son of to 211,053 in 1970, 270,000 in the Living God, our Lord and Sav- 1980, 350,000 (rather than iour”’.44 One result has been the 900,000!) in 1990, and 385,000 in slow ebbing away of its vitality.45 1995. He projects membership as This malaise is reflected in the continuing to rise, reaching United Church’s membership fig- 48 ures. As with other such ‘main- 447,000 in 2010. This represents stream’ denominations that maintain an AAGR cresting at 8.2% between a low threshold of commitment, 1965 and 1970, ranging from 2.4% to 3.5% between 1970 and 1985, then declining to 1.8% between 41 Gowing, ‘Christianity in the Philippines’, p. 1985 and 1990, 1.9% between 32 1990 and 1995, 1.1% between 42 Tolliver, ‘Philippines’, p. 528; Donald A. 1995 and 2000, 1.0% between McGavran, Multiplying Churches in the Philip- pines (Manila: UCCP, 1958), p. 60, quoted in Tug- 2000 and 2005, and only 0.9% gy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, pp. 27-9 between 2005 and 2010. (For more 43 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, pp. 30-33; James H. Montgomery and Donald A. details, see table 1 opposite, McGavran, The Discipling of a Nation (Santa Clara, columns 2 and 3.) Such a statistical CA: Global Church Growth Bulletin, 1980), pp. 46, sketch of the UCCP would seem 156 44 Ans J. van der Bent (ed.), Handbook: Mem- quite plausible, especially given the ber Churches (Geneva: WCC, 1982), p. 97 45 Donald A. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth, rev. ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerd- mans, 1980), p. 118; Lorenzo C. Bautista, ‘The 46 Philippine Department of Household Statis- Church in the Philippines’, in Saphir Athyal (ed.), tics, ‘1990 Census of Population and Housing’, p. Church in Asia Today: Challenges and Opportu- 22 nities (Singapore: Asia Lausanne Committee for 47 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 683 World Evangelization), p. 185 48 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 683 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 163

Table 1: UCCP membership and annual growth rates Brierley/WCH Membership Brierley/WCH AAGR Smith/PC membership Smith/PC AGR

1960 119,347 1965 142,405 3.6% 1970 211,053 8.2% 127,196 above discussion of its history. How- 1971 2.6% 128,246 0.8% ever, Brierley himself describes all his 1972 2.6% 130,691 1.9% membership figures after those for 1973 2.6% 132,480 1.4% 1970 as estimates.49 My own belief 1974 2.6% 135,821 2.5% is that he has seriously underestimat- 1975 240,000 2.6% 137,564 1.3% 1976 2.4% 129,390 -5.9% ed of the problem of nominalism in 1977 2.4% 133,969 3.5% this denomination. 1978 2.4% 136,606 2.0% More reliable numbers are avail- 1979 2.4% 138,287 1.2% able from Eric Smith, Field Director 1980 270,000 2.4% 139,027 0.5% 1981 3.5% 141,824 2.0% of Philippine Challenge, a mission 1982 3.5% 144,677 2.0% agency that conducts research into 1983 3.5% 147,589 2.0% this and other such topics bearing on 1984 3.5% 150,888 2.2% church growth. Smith’s figure for 1985 320,000 3.5% 155,592 3.1% 1986 1.8% 158,588 1.9% UCCP membership in 1970 is 1987 1.8% 159,549 0.6% 127,196, in general agreement with 1988 1.8% 160,164 0.4% figures found in several other 1989 1.8% 163,989 2.4% sources.50 He presents UCCP mem- 1990 350,000 1.8% 166,705 1.7% bership as having reached 139,027 1991 1.9% 172,128 3.3% 1992 1.9% 174,620 1.4% in 1980, 166,705 in 1990, 1993 1.9% 178,084 2.0% 184,275 in 1995, and 197,124 in 1994 1.9% 180,820 1.5% 1995 385,000 1.9% 184,275 1.9% 1996 1.1% 189,318 2.7% 49 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 1997 1.1% 193,181 2.0% 683. He describes his method of computing mem- 1998 1.1% 197,124 2.0% bership estimates for such low-commitment denom- 1999 1.1% inations in World Churches Handbook, p. 10, and 2000 406,000 1.1% in Peter Brierley, Future Church: A Global Analy- sis of the Christian Community to the Year 2010 2005 427,000 1.0% (London: Monarch, 1998), pp. 169-90. 2010 447,000 0.9% 50 Eric Smith, e-mail to author, 27 October 1999. For other estimates of UCCP membership, see the charts in Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 25; Tuggy, Philippine Church, p. 149; and Montgomery and McGavran, Discipling of a Nation, p. 44. 164 GEORGE W. HARPER

1998.51 This yields a fluctuating pat- and even precipitous decline.52 The tern of AAGRs without any clear implication is inescapable. Among crests or troughs. (For more details, Filipinos as among Americans, the see table 1 on p. 67, columns 4 and so-called Protestant ‘mainstream’ is 5.) With annual growth rates (AGRs) no longer the Protestant majority. oscillating wildly, between -5.9% and +3.5%, it does seem much more 2.2 Classic Evangelicalism realistic than Brierley’s sanitized esti- Not all Protestant denominations mates. But even if the raw numbers sending missionaries to the Philip- themselves remain somewhat open pines in the early years of the centu- to question, the basic shape of the ry participated in the drive to consol- curve they define can be taken as idation that led to the establishment reasonably accurate. first of the UCCP and then of the That shape, specifically the slope NCCP. For example, the United of the curve, describes a denomina- Methodists and Convention Baptists tion that is growing at a rate either chose not to follow the Presbyterians somewhat or substantially below the and Congregationalists into the rate of growth of the general popu- UCCP, though they did join the lation. Brierley’s membership figures NCCP. Although the Christian and are larger than those of Smith, but Missionary Alliance (CMA) had par- the decline in AAGR he estimates is ticipated in the initial comity agree- steeper than the decline in AGR that ment that assigned responsibility for Smith seems actually to have docu- specific areas of the Philippines to mented. Ironically, the UCCP designated US denominations, it depicted by Smith’s data appears to joined neither the UCCP nor the be in somewhat better shape, though NCCP. The Seventh Day Adventists, smaller, than the UCCP depicted by who had not been signatories to the Brierley’s data. comity agreement, kept clear of both Whichever is more nearly correct, umbrella organizations as well. though, the UCCP is obviously quite Especially after World War II, ill. If it cannot regain its precursors’ many conservative evangelical and early vigour, if it cannot return to the Pentecostal denominations and high growth rates of the early twen- independent mission agencies from tieth century, it is doomed to play an the US and other Western nations ever-decreasing role in Philippine began new ministries in the Philip- religious life and even in the life of pines. These organizations, too, had the Philippine Protestant communi- little interest in co-operating with ty. Much the same is true of another Philippine denominations and founding member of the NCCP, the IFI, which has been hobbled by decades of slow growth, no growth, 52 Clymer, Protestant Missionaries, p. 194; Handbook: Member Churches, p. 95; Philippine Department of Household Statistics, ‘1990 Census of Population and Housing’, p. 22; Eric Smith, tele- 51 Smith, e-mail, 27 October 1999 phone interview by author, 11 November 1999 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 165 church councils related to US Christianity’s historic essentials. Its denominations and councils with statement of faith, adopted in 1965, which they would never have co- affirms basic doctrines such as the operated. Their scruples on this inerrancy of Scripture, the Trinity, point were understandable. the deity of Christ, the depravity of Although Filipino Christians had fallen humanity, and salvation by experienced nothing quite like the grace through faith apart from Fundamentalist-Modernist contro- works.55 Among its member denom- versy that so devastated American inations are traditional evangelical churches during the 1920s and bodies like the Christian and Mis- 1930s, by the 1960s, as we have sionary Alliance Churches of the seen, the Modernist spirit had found Philippines (CAMACOP) and the a home in the churches of the Alliance of Bible Christian Commu- NCCP.53 nities of the Philippines as well as Those who saw Modernism as a Pentecostal bodies like the Assem- threat to the gospel nevertheless blies of God (AoG) and the Interna- conceded the importance of co- tional Church of the Foursquare operation among churches such as Gospel. Again, considerations of the NCCP was intended to foster. space preclude a close examination This implied that an alternate organ- of all of the PCEC’s members, hence ization was needed, one for which CAMACOP has been selected to the upholding of orthodoxy would represent its non-Pentecostal not be subordinated to the gaining of denominations. (Pentecostal denom- unity. Such an organization was the inations will be considered separate- Philippine Council of Fundamental ly below.) Churches, established in 1964, The first missionary representing which four years later became the the US CMA arrived in the Philip- Philippine Council of Fundamental pines in 1900.56 In accordance with Evangelical Churches and in 1969 the terms of the Comity Agreement changed its name yet again to the of 1901, the CMA initially restricted Philippine Council of Evangelical its evangelistic efforts to southern Churches (PCEC).54 From the outset Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago, the PCEC has deliberately defined both territories largely inhabited by itself as a theological alternative to the Islamic Moros. Although Muslim the NCCP, upholding what it sees as converts were few, the CMA eventu- ally won a following among Filipinos who had immigrated to Mindanao 53 For example, see above on the UCCP’s theo- from other parts of the country.57 logical basis. For a discussion of earlier theological clashes in the Philippines between conservative After a slow start, with only 800 bap- (‘Fundamentalist’) and liberal (‘Modernist’) mission- aries belonging to denominational agencies whose daughter churches would later be subsumed in the UCCP, see Apilado, Revolutionary Spirituality, pp. 55 Aragon, ‘Philippine Council of Evangelical 195-7 and 208-13. Churches’, pp. 23-4 54 Aragon, ‘Philippine Council of Evangelical 56 Clymer, Protestant Missionaries, p. 6 Churches’, pp. 20-7 57 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 73 166 GEORGE W. HARPER tized members to show for 25 years’ CAMACOP’s excellent overall effort, the CMA experienced moder- health is reflected in its membership ate growth in the period leading up figures. Brierley presents CAMA- to World War II.58 During the Japan- COP as having had 15,638 mem- ese occupation its ranks were deci- bers in 1960, 21,898 in 1970, mated and its faithful members 64,822 in 1980, and 90,000 in forced to endure great suffering.59 In 1990, and he projects that in 2010 1947 the US parent granted inde- it will have 102,000 members.63 pendence to its Philippine offspring This represents an AAGR starting and CAMACOP was born. During low, only about 0.5% in the early the 1950s this fledgling denomina- 1960s, rising to 6.5% in the late tion experienced a substantial influx 1960s and 7.2% in the early 1970s, of new members, but during the cresting at 15.9% in the late 1970s, 1960s, like many other Philippine declining to 6.0% in the early 1980s, Protestant bodies, it endured a pro- and plummeting to 0.8% in the late longed period of slow growth and 1980s, 0.7% in the early 1990s, and thus steady decline as a percentage 0.6% in the years after 1995. (For of the general population.60 The sit- more details, see table 2 opposite, uation began to change only in the columns 2 and 3.) That such strap- late 1960s and early 1970s as ping figures for the period from CAMACOP put greater stress on 1965 to 1985 are followed by such church planting and broadened the calamitous figures for the period focus of its efforts to encompass not from 1985 to the present and just its traditional areas but the entire beyond is hard to understand, espe- nation.61 The denomination devel- cially for those who have had any oped a nation-wide network of Bible direct exposure to CAMACOP. But colleges as well, and eventually a closer examination of Brierley’s graduate-level seminary. Today material shows that, as with the CAMACOP is one of the Philip- UCCP, his later data points (here all pines’ most robust evangelical those after 1980) are only estimates. denominations, having provided key Again, as with the UCCP, more leadership to the PCEC from its reliable membership statistics for inception and even to the World CAMACOP are available from other Evangelical Fellowship.62 sources. Eric Smith gives figures for 1970, 1975, 1980, and 1985 that are quite comparable and in one case 58 Montgomery and McGavran, Discipling of a identical to Brierley’s figures for those Nation, pp. 46-7 59 Tuggy and Toliver note in Seeing the Church, years. After 1985, though, Smith p. 73, that the CMA’s pre-1941 records, kept at its diverges from Brierley, at first only headquarters in Zamboanga City, Mindanao, were destroyed by fire during World War II. 60 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 74; Montgomery and McGavran, Discipling of a Nation, p. 47 62 Aragon, ‘Philippine Council of Evangelical 61 McGavran, Understanding Church Growth, Churches’, pp. 28-9, 44, 53 pp. 118, 409-10 63 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 681 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 167

Table 2: CAMACOP membership and annual growth rates Brierley/WCH Brierley/ Smith/PC Mariano membership WCH AAGR m’ship/AGR m’ship/AAGR

1960 15,638 1965 16,000 0.5% 1970 21,898 6.5% 21,947 1971 7.2% 22,527/2.6% 1972 7.2% 24,478/8.7% 1973 7.2% 25,654/4.8% 1974 7.2% 26,830/4.6% 1975 31,049 7.2% 29,470/9.8% 1976 15.9% 34,022/15.5% 1977 15.9% 39,298/15.5% 1978 15.9% 51,629/31.4% 1979 15.9% 58,734/13.8% 1980 64,822 15.9% 64,822/10.4% 1981 6.0% 64,822/0% 1982 6.0% 74,126/14.4% 1983 6.0% 74,126/0% 1984 6.0% 80,230/8.2% 1985 86,600 6.0% 86,057/7.3% 1986 0.8% 94,026/9.3% 1987 0.8% 102,559/9.1% 102,259 1988 0.8% 86,635/-15.5% -13.3% 1989 0.8% 99,365/14.7% 76,880/-13.3% 1990 90,000 0.8% 112,094/12.8% 2.5% 1991 0.7% 170,947/52.5% 80,847/2.5% 1992 0.7% 9.2% 8.1% 1993 0.7% 9.2% 8.1% 1994 0.7% 9.2% 8.1% 1995 93,000 0.7% 243,200/9.2% 110,538/8.1% 1996 0.6% 249,500/2.6% 113,430/2.6% 1997 0.6% 5.0% 1998 0.6% 125,168/5.0% 1999 0.6% 2000 96,000 0.6% 2005 99,000 0.6% 2010 102,000 0.6%

slightly but eventually by a factor of more than 100%. He describes CAMACOP as having had 112,094 members in 1990, 243,200 mem- bers in 1995, and 249,500 members 168 GEORGE W. HARPER in 1996, the last year for which he 76,880, rising to 80,847 in 1991, has data.64 (For more details, see 110,538 in 1995, and 125,168 in table 2 on p. 71, column 4.) 1998.69 (For more details, see table 2 Some of this growth reflects merg- on p. 71, column 5.) er; for example, in 1995 the High- Smith’s statistics yield AGRs rang- land Evangelical Christian Associa- ing as low as -15.5% in 1988, at the tion joined CAMACOP, bringing time of the Gacal schism, and as high with it 28 member congregations.65 as +52.5% in 1991, reflecting Some of the growth probably reflects CAMACOP’s change in reporting the renewed focus on church plant- guidelines and possibly another ing that characterized Valmike denominational merger. For most Apuzen’s tenure as president of the years, though, his AGRs are con- denomination (1989-1997).66 As it fined to a narrower range of values, happens, Apuzen’s election to that only rarely exceeding 15% and just position came in the midst of turmoil as rarely dipping below 5%. (For and even schism, with a group of dis- more details, see table 2 on p. 71, gruntled pastors and their congrega- column 4.) These yield an AAGR of tions having broken away to establish 8.5% from 1970 to 1990, at the Philippine Christian Alliance Min- point of the artificial bulge noted above, and an AAGR of 7.9% from istries, led by Josue Gacal.67 Presum- 1991 to 1996. This shows remark- ably this accounts for the short but able consistency. CAMACOP’s own steep dip in Smith’s membership fig- statistics yield AAGRs of 2.5% from ures from 1987 to 1988. Much of 1989 to 1991, 8.1% from 1991 to the growth, though, and specifically 1995, 2.6% from 1995 to 1996, the dramatic surge in his figures for and 5.0% from 1996 to 1998, with the late 1980s and early 1990s, an overall AAGR of 5.6% from apparently reflects CAMACOP’s 1989 to 1998. (For more details, see shift at that time to a more ‘inclusive’ table 2 on p. 71, column 5.) The bot- 68 measure of reported membership. tom line is that neither Smith nor Although CAMACOP’s own count of CAMACOP itself corroborates the baptized members for 1987 is dramatically lower AAGRs Brierley 102,259, almost identical to that of projects as having prevailed from the Smith, and although its ‘inclusive’ fig- mid-1980s to the present and on ures for subsequent years continue to into the future.70 We should certain- track with Smith’s figures, its count of ly expect a further slowing of the baptized members for 1989 is just

69 Pat Mariano, e-mail to author, 3 November 1999 64 Smith, e-mail, 27 October 1999 70 Stephen Smith has pointed out to me that 65 Pat Mariano, e-mail to author, 9 November Brierley’s estimates of CAMACOP membership 1999 after 1985 involve nothing more than adding a near- 66 Averell Aragon, e-mail to author, 15 Novem- ly-constant amount (3,400 from 1985 to 1990, ber 1999 3,000 thereafter) every five years. This cautious 67 Averell Aragon, e-mail to author, 4 November approach, which uses an arithmetical progression, 1999; Mariano, e-mail, 9 November 1999 presumes rather than proves a constantly declining 68 Mariano, e-mail, 9 November 1999 growth rate. PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 169 denomination’s growth rate as it line of argument strongly suggests continues to expand, but even if the that over the coming decades the AAGR declines to no more than evangelical community will become 4.5% over the next decade, this increasingly prominent in Philippine means that by 2010 CAMACOP’s society, just as it has already become baptized membership will still be well quite prominent in the societies of over 200,000, more than double Latin America. Brierley’s projection for that year. With its growth rate considerably 2.3 Classic Pentecostalism above the declining growth rate of the general population, its slice of Since the Latin American evangeli- the Philippine religious pie will sure- cal community’s rise to prominence ly continue to grow as well.71 has been driven by the growth of By extension, the same outcome Pentecostal denominations, it is can be expected for the Philippine important to take a closer look at evangelical community as a whole. Pentecostal denominations in the Not all members of the PCEC have Philippines. These will be considered shown such consistent growth as under two headings. First are classic CAMACOP. For example, between bodies like the Assemblies of God 1970 and 1998 the Philippine Bap- and the International Church of the tist Mission, affiliated with the US Foursquare Gospel; second are Southern Baptist Convention, could indigenous bodies like Eddie Vil- muster an AAGR of just 3.2%, bare- lanueva’s Jesus Is Lord (JIL) Church. ly keeping pace with that of the gen- The Foursquare Church’s first mis- eral population. Quite a few smaller sionary to the Philippines only denominations have grown even arrived in 1949, but by that time Fil- more rapidly than CAMACOP, ipinos moved by the ministry of though. For example, between 1970 Foursquare founder Aimee Semple and 1998 the Free Methodists kept McPherson had already planted con- up an AAGR of 6.7%, the Church of gregations in Cavite, Iloilo City, and the Nazarene sustained an AAGR of elsewhere.73 Just as McPherson’s 10.1%, and the Wesleyan Church ministry had centred on Angelus achieved an AAGR of 13.0%.72 This Temple in Los Angeles, early Foursquare ministry in the Philip- pines centred on Calvary Foursquare 71 On the other hand, that slice will surely not grow as rapidly as was suggested by CAMACOP’s Church in Manila. By the time of the ‘Two, Two, Two’ plan, apparently adopted in the denomination’s first national con- late 1980s, which set a goal of two million members vention in the early 1960s, workers in 20,000 congregations by 2000. See Jim Mont- gomery, DAWN 2000: Seven Million Churches to had established 80 churches nation- Go (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1989), wide. Philippine Foursquare minis- pp. 146, 219. 72 Computed from membership data in Smith, e-mail, 27 October 1999. More recent membership figures and annual growth rates for the Church of the 73 Joseph R. Suico, ‘Pentecostalism: Towards a Nazarene are given in ‘The Nazarene Church Movement of Social Transformation in the Philip- Church [sic] Growth Experience, 1995 to 2000’, pines’, Journal of Asian Mission 1:1 (March 1999), Philippine Challenge 21:3 (October 2000), p. 7. p. 12 170 GEORGE W. HARPER ters participated in another impor- interval from 1960 to 1985, fol- tant event of that era, the founding lowed by a plunge to negative aver- of the PCEC, and in 1973 they age annual growth from 1985 to gained their independence from the 1990, followed by a return to posi- American denomination. tive though much smaller AAGRs The 1960s and 1970s were a time from 1990 to the present and of rapid growth, both numerical and beyond, beginning at 2.9% and slow- institutional, with Foursquare leaders ly settling towards 2.0%. (For more establishing a number of Christian details, see table 3 opposite, schools and Bible colleges.74 columns 2 and 3.) Again, though, Although the denomination appar- almost all of Brierley’s figures after ently went through a time of turmoil 1980 are estimates. As with the in the 1980s, it continues with an denominations examined previously, aggressive programme of evangel- hard numbers are available from ism and church planting known as Smith, though with the Foursquare Harvest Plan 2002. Reflecting this Church the discrepancy between longstanding commitment, the num- estimate and observation is relatively ber of Foursquare congregations has small. In Smith’s reckoning, there grown from 80 in the early 1960s to were 12,350 members in 1970, 32,372 in 1980, 42,212 in 1990, more than 200 in 1972, 568 in 77 1982, and 1343 at present.75 The and 57,752 in 1998. AGRs have been quite erratic, soaring as high as Foursquare Church is certainly one 40% and plunging as low as 43%, of the most prominent classic Pente- with some of the former probably costal denominations in the Philip- the consequence of mergers and pines today. much of the latter doubtless the con- The Foursquare Church’s great sequence of schisms. Nevertheless, vitality is reflected in its membership for the entire 28-year interval the statistics. Brierley presents the AAGR has been 5.7%, very similar denomination as having had 6,000 to the AAGR of 4.9% over the 30- members in 1960, 13,500 in 1970, year interval from 1970 to 2000 29,900 in 1980, and 43,300 in yielded by Brierley’s membership 1990, and he projects that it will estimates. (For more details, see 76 have 70,100 members in 2010. table 3 opposite, columns 4 and 5.) This reflects a high initial AAGR, The one point on which Brierley between 6.2% and 10.8% over the and Smith diverge significantly is Brierley’s assumption that average growth rates peaked in the late 74 For a discussion of the Foursquare Church’s 1970s and early 1980s, then aggressive programme of expansion during the 1960s and early 1970s, see Jim Montgomery, New Testament Fire in the Philippines (Manila: Church Growth Research in the Philippines, 1972). 77 Smith, e-mail, 27 October 1999. For 1998 75 Montgomery and McGavran, Discipling of a both Brierley’s and Smith’s figures are in broad Nation, pp. 119-121; Wonsuk Ma, e-mail to author, agreement with Wonsuk Ma’s estimate that in 1999 6 November 1999 the Foursquare Church had 60,700 members; Won- 76 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 679 suk Ma, e-mail to author, 6 November 1999. PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 171

Table 3: Foursquare membership and annual growth rates Brierley/WCH Membership Brierley/WCH AAGR Smith/PC membership Smith/PC AGR

1960 6,000 entered a long decline. Instead, 1965 10,000 10.8% 1970 13,500 6.2% 12,350 Smith finds very high average 1971 6.4% 13,963 13.1% growth rates in the late 1970s, late 1972 6.4% 15,232 9.1% 1980s, and late 1990s somewhat 1973 6.4% 17,878 17.4% counterbalanced by negative aver- 1974 6.4% 18,409 3.0% 1975 18,409 6.4% 18,409 0% age growth rates in the early 1980s 1976 10.2% 22,283 21.0% and early 1990s. Brierley’s predic- 1977 10.2% 24,590 10.3% tion of slower growth in the recent 1978 10.2% 25,097 2.1% past and the immediate future seems 1979 10.2% 30,273 20.6% 1980 29,900 10.2% 32,372 6.9% to have no basis in reality. In fact, if 1981 7.7% 41,100 27.0% the denomination only maintains the 1982 7.7% 23,129 -43.7% average annual rate of growth it sus- 1983 7.7% 28,329 22.5% tained from 1970 to 1998, by 2010 1984 7.7% 34,731 22.6% membership will have passed 1985 43,401 7.7% 22,844 -34.2% 1986 -0.05% 32,197 40.9% 112,000, 60% more than the mem- 1987 -0.05% 28,362 -11.9% bership Brierley predicts for that 1988 -0.05% 37,834 33.4% year. The Foursquare Church’s per- 1989 -0.05% 40,899 8.1% severance in a healthy overall pat- 1990 43,300 -0.05% 42,212 3.2% 1991 2.9% 40,091 -5.0% tern of growth in spite of the fissi- 1992 2.9% 45,311 13.0% parous tendencies of some of its 1993 2.9% 41,563 -8.3% members strongly suggests that, like 1994 2.9% 40,690 -2.1% CAMACOP, it is destined to play a 1995 50,000 2.9% 35,095 -13.7% 1996 2.5% 46,545 32.6% leading role in the Philippine Christ- 1997 2.5% 44,590 -4.2% ian community. 1998 2.5% 57,752 29.5% A classic Pentecostal denomina- 1999 2.5% tion that has been even more promi- 2000 56,700 2.5% 2005 63,400 2.3% nent in the Philippines than the 2010 70,100 2.0% Foursquare Church is the Assemblies of God. The first AoG missionaries arrived in 1926, though health prob- lems forced their early departure. 172 GEORGE W. HARPER

More missionaries soon followed, erwise might have gone into out- though again the lead in planting reach.82 Even so, by 1979 there churches was taken not by expatri- were 383 AoG congregations, by ates but by Filipinos who had accept- 1989 there were 1,329, and at pres- ed the Pentecostal message while in ent there are 2,357.83 As these num- the US. In 1940 the Philippine Dis- bers attest, the Assemblies of God trict Council of the Assemblies of are to Philippine Pentecostalism God was established under the aegis what CAMACOP is to non-Pente- of the US AoG, and in 1953 the Dis- costal evangelicalism. trict Council was chartered as the The AoG’s vigour is demonstrated Philippine General Council of the by an examination of its membership Assemblies of God, thus gaining its statistics. Brierley presents the autonomy.78 denomination as having had 12,022 Like the Foursquare Church, this members in 1960, 30,500 in 1970, denomination has been concerned 50,000 in 1980, and 70,000 in to co-operate with other evangelical 1990, and he projects that it will bodies wherever possible, its minis- have 117,000 members in 2010.84 ters also having taken part in the This reflects high initial AAGRs, establishment of the PCEC.79 It too reaching even 10.0% between 1960 has devoted considerable resources and 1965, but a general downward to theological education, supporting trend that would yield AAGRs of a seminary and a network of Bible 1.9% between 1980 and 1985, colleges. But most importantly, it has 4.9% between 1985 and 1990, always had a passion for evangelism 3.5% between 1990 and 1995, and church planting, making fre- 2.6% between 1995 and 2000, quent use of revival meetings and 2.3% between 2000 and 2005, and outdoor crusades. A period of slow only 2.0% between 2005 and 2010. growth in the years immediately after (For more details, see table 4 oppo- World War II was followed by an site, columns 2 and 3.) These figures explosive expansion between 1953 imply that the A/G will be doing well and 1955 that has been called the just to maintain the place it currently ‘Philippine Pentecost’.80 By 1969 holds in Philippine society. If Brierley the number of AoG congregations is correct, more likely it will represent had reached 320.81 An ugly schism a slowly declining percentage of the in 1973 and the lengthy ensuing population and even of the evangel- court case absorbed energy that oth- ical community. Yet again, though, most of his figures after 1970 and all of them after 1985 are estimates.

78 Suico, ‘Pentecostalism’, pp. 11-13 79 Aragon, ‘Philippine Council of Evangelical 82 Montgomery and McGavran, Discipling of a Churches’, p. 22 Nation p. 115. 80 Tuggy and Toliver, Seeing the Church, p. 79 83 Smith, interview, 12 November 1999; Ma, e- 81 Eric Smith, telephone interview by author, 12 mail, 6 November 1999 November 1999 84 Brierley, World Churches Handbook, p. 679 PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 173

Table 4: AoG membership and annual growth rates Brierley/WCH Membership Brierley/WCH AAGR Smith/PC membership Smith/PC AGR

1960 12,022 1965 19,382 10.0% 1970 30,500 9.5% 30,500 1971 1.8% 5.3% Unfortunately, Smith’s member- 1972 1.8% 5.3% ship figures for the AoG are incom- 1973 1.8% 5.3% plete, missing entries for several 1974 1.8% 37,500 5.3% years and breaking off entirely after 1975 33,300 1.8% 40,000 6.7% 1976 8.5% 0% 1987. His figures from 1970 to 1977 8.5% 0% 1987 are broadly comparable to 1978 8.5% 40,000 0% those of Brierley, yielding 30,500 1979 8.5% 4.1% members in 1970, 45,078 in 1981, 1980 50,000 8.5% 4.1% and 52,272 in 1985.85 But where 1981 1.9% 45,078 4.1% 1982 1.9% 45,738 1.5% Brierley describes AAGRs as trend- 1983 1.9% 46,662 2.0% ing downward after 1980, Smith 1984 1.9% 50,266 7.7% finds growth rates beginning to rise 1985 55,000 1.9% 52,272 4.0% again in the mid- to late 1980s, the 1986 4.9% 59,136 13.1% 1987 4.9% 67,056 13.4% point at which Brierley’s hard data 1988 4.9% (70,878 (5.7% end. Smith finds growth rates reach- see text) see text) ing as high as 13.3% between 1985 1989 4.9% (74,918) (5.7%) and 1987, the point at which his 1990 70,000 4.9% (79,189) (5.7%) 1991 3.5% (83,702) (5.7%) own data end. 1992 3.5% (88,473) (5.7%) Unfortunately, the AoG’s Philip- 1993 3.5% (93,516) (5.7%) pine General Council has no current 1994 3.5% (98,847) (5.7%) or recent membership data that 1995 83,100 3.5% (104,481) (5.7%) 1996 2.6% (110,436) (5.7%) could be used to extend Smith’s fig- 1997 2.6% (116,731) (5.7%) ures and assess Brierley’s projec- 1998 2.6% (123,385) (5.7%) tions.86 As noted above, though, 1999 2.6% (130,418) (5.7%) several sources give fairly reliable 2000 94,400 2.6% (137,852) (5.7%) counts of the number of AoG con- 2005 106,000 2.3% (181,881) (5.7%) 2010 117,000 2.0% (239,973) (5.7%)

85 Smith, e-mail, 27 October 1999 86 Felipe Acena, telephone interview by author, 11 November 1999 174 GEORGE W. HARPER gregations. These yield a congrega- years the AoG will play an ever- tional AAGR starting at 3.7% increasing role in Philippine society. between 1969 and 1979, surging to 28.3% between 1979 and 1989, 2.4 Indigenous Pentecostalism and holding at 12.1% between 1989 One last evangelical slice of the and 1999. The first figure is more or Philippine religious pie remains to be less in line with Brierley’s member- examined, that of indigenous Pente- ship AAGR of 5.1% between 1970 costal denominations and near- and 1980, but the latter two figures denominations like the March of are very difficult to reconcile with his estimated membership AAGRs of Faith, the Bread of Life Fellowship, 3.4% between 1980 and 1990 and and the JIL Church. A stroll through just 3.0% between 1990 and 2000. any working-class neighbourhood or As with CAMACOP and the even a simple perusal of the tele- Foursquare Church, it is my belief phone directory will attest that this is by far the liveliest sector of the Chris- that Brierley has seriously underesti- 88 mated the AoG’s growth over the tian community. Storefront past decade or more and its likely chapels dot the streets, the names on growth over the coming decade and their signboards indicating their pas- beyond. tors’ theological proclivities: the Starting where Smith’s figures Jesus Loves You Full Gospel Church, stop, if we credit the AoG with an the Victory in Jesus Christ Congre- AAGR of just 5.7%, the same aver- gation, and even the Church of age rate of growth the Foursquare World Messianity (sic!). Newspapers Church apparently maintained over often feature articles about and the entire span from 1970 to 1998, interviews with celebrities belonging it would have had 79,189 members to one or another of these groups. in 1990, 104,481 in 1995, and Banners promoting their rallies and 137,852 in 2000. By 2010 its crusades festoon the streets, and membership would be approaching their leading evangelists make exten- 240,000. (For more details, see sive use of radio and television as table 4 on p. 77, columns 4 and 5.) well. Without a doubt the best known The fact that the computed mem- of these evangelists is Eddie Vil- bership figure for 2000 is in close lanueva, and the most visible of the agreement with the AoG’s current Philippines’ many indigenous Pente- membership as estimated by Won- costal bodies is his JIL Church. Thus suk Ma lends support to my con- JIL will be taken as representative of tention that here as elsewhere Brier- other such groups that cannot be ley has seriously misconstrued Philippine denominational trends.87 88 It is significant that Oscar Baldemor’s ThM Again, it seems likely that in coming thesis, ‘The Spread of Fire: A Study of Ten Growing Churches in Metro Manila’ (Fuller Theological Sem- inary, 1990), considers three classic evangelical con- gregations and seven Pentecostal or Charismatic 87 Ma, e-mail, 6 November 1999 congregations. Most of the latter are indigenous. PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 175 treated here individually for reasons in the Philippines.91 Today JIL is the of space. dominant voice in the Philippines for Villanueva himself has led a fasci- Jesus Movement, a Pentecostal nating life. After spending some umbrella organization.92 With its years as a university professor, polit- explosive growth, with its evolution ical activist, and committed Marxist, in just twenty years from a single fel- he experienced conversion in 1973. lowship into a fellowship of fellow- Five years later he began a Bible ships and finally into a fledgling study for his students that quickly denomination, JIL’s sheer size is like- blossomed into the Jesus Is Lord Fel- ly to lead to steadily increasing visi- lowship. As numbers grew, he held bility. meetings in a series of borrowed What exactly is that size? Unfortu- facilities, each larger than the last, nately, it is impossible to give a pre- culminating with an open-air cise answer. JIL’s current claim to amphitheatre capable of accommo- upwards of two million members dating tens of thousands. This led to world-wide may be taken to indicate JIL’s nickname, ‘the church without two million sympathizers or perhaps a roof’. At the same time, he and his two million regular viewers of Vil- associates planted satellite congrega- lanueva’s television programmes, tions first throughout metro Manila, but it cannot refer to active members then across Luzon, next around the of JIL congregations, since this Philippines, and finally spanning the would mean that those congrega- globe, focusing especially on cities tions must average around 4,000 like Hong Kong and Singapore that each in attendance. If such were the have large expatriate Filipino com- case, JIL would be a fellowship of munities.89 Today there are 478 of mega-churches!93 Brierley is no help these congregations, including 72 in resolving the question, since JIL is overseas.90 An electrifying public not one of the denominations for speaker, Villanueva has long had a which he presents statistics. This is television ministry that is now broad- not surprising, given that he seems cast by his own TV station. He him- to have gathered no hard data at all self was one of the most prominent on the Philippines beyond the early participants in the ceremony held in to mid-1980s, when JIL would still 1998 at the Quirino Bandstand in have been quite small. Nor has Smith Rizal Park, Manila, to mark the hun- been able to go beyond the group’s dredth anniversary of Protestantism own claim of 600,000 members in 1988, one million in 1991, and two

90 Ma, e-mail, 6 November 1999 89 Michael Wourms, The J.I.L. Love Story: The 91 Program, ‘The Centennial of Biblical Chris- Church without a Roof (El Cajon, CA: Christian tianity in the Philippines, Grand Celebration, August Services Publishing, 1991); Eddie C. Villanueva, 15, 1998’ ‘Jesus Is Lord Church’, in C. Peter Wagner (ed.), The 92 Averell Aragon, e-mail to author, 29 October New Apostolic Churches (Ventura, CA: Regal, 1999 1998), pp. 257-70 93 Villanueva, ‘Jesus Is Lord Church’, p. 262 176 GEORGE W. HARPER

Table 5: JIL membership and annual growth rates Baldemor AGR Author’s estimate Assumed AAGR

1979 30 1980 2,000 6567% 1981 3,300 65.0% 1982 4,800 45.4% 1983 7,500 56.2% 1984 11,000 46.7% ing to 11,000 in 1984 and 29,000 1985 13,000 18.2% in 1989. (For more details, see table 1986 14,000 7.7% 5, columns 2 and 3.) This yields 1987 18,000 28.6% 1988 23,000 27.8% AGRs averaging 365.7% from 1979 1989 29,000 26.1% to 1984 and 21.4% from 1984 to 1990 34,800 20% 1989. All other things being equal, it 1991 41,760 20% seems likely that JIL’s AAGR will 1992 50,112 20% 1993 60,134 20% have continued to decline as its num- 1994 72,161 20% bers have grown. If we assume that 1995 82,985 15% the AAGR was 20% from 1989 to 1996 95,433 15% 1994 and 15% from 1994 to 1999, 1997 109,748 15% this yields a membership for the lat- 1998 126,210 15% 1999 145,142 15% ter year of 145,142, which is in fair- 2000 159,656 10% ly close agreement with Ma’s esti- 2005 257,128 10% mate of 150,000.95 (For more 2010 414,107 10% details, see table 5, columns 4 and 5.) The implication is that although JIL is not nearly so numerically dom- inant in the Philippine Pentecostal million, as already noted, in 1998.94 and evangelical communities as it The only plausible source of such claims, it certainly deserves a place information that I have been able to alongside such long-established identify is Oscar Baldemor’s thesis denominations as CAMACOP and cited above. Drawing on JIL’s own the Assemblies of God. If it can main- in-house statistics, Baldemor gives tain an AAGR of even 10% over the the group’s membership as just 30 in coming decade, by 2010 it will have 1979, the year after its founding, ris- a membership of over 400,000, which is truly remarkable for such a

94 Eric Smith, telephone interview by author, 11 November 1999. 95 Ma, e-mail, 6 November 1999. PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 177 young denomination. of Protestantism to which it seems to New indigenous Pentecostal be turning predominantly Pente- groups are constantly springing up in costal? In short, can we expect to see the Philippines, and as with JIL, their a reprise of Latin America’s recent growth rates are generally highest religious transformation in this early in their life cycles. For example, nation on the far side of the Pacific Love of Christ Ministries sustained Ocean? The answer, I believe, is a an AAGR of 53.9% over the first qualified yes. eight years after its founding in It must be conceded that collecting 1981, attaining a membership of accurate membership statistics for 4400 in 1989.96 Bread of Life Fel- most indigenous Pentecostal and lowship expanded even more rapid- Charismatic bodies is simply impos- ly, having been founded in 1982 and sible, and that collecting such statis- sustaining an AAGR of 65.0% over tics even for established denomina- the next seven years to reach a mem- tions like CAMACOP and the bership of 4,000 in 1989.97 This Assemblies of God is very difficult. enumeration might be extended This means that even the most con- almost indefinitely. The point is that scientious scholar cannot offer a such fellowships represent the comprehensive demographic ‘snap- youngest and hence the most shot’ capturing every detail of the dynamic, rapidly growing sector of Philippine religious scene as it is the Philippine evangelical communi- now, let alone as it may be twenty or ty. JIL may not have millions of thirty years in the future. members — yet! — but Villanueva Still, the data assembled here and those like him lead churches strongly suggest that Filipino Protes- with an aggregate membership tantism may finally be on the verge already in the hundreds of thou- of the mass movement some mis- sands. No one who has spent much sionaries expected almost a century time in the Philippines would doubt ago. The vigorous growth exhibited that they now have a large slice of by denominations like CAMACOP, that nation’s religious pie, nor that the Foursquare Church, the Assem- over the coming decades their slice blies of God, and JIL is entirely con- will likely continue to grow. sistent with the picture of evangelical expansion in the Philippines already Conclusion noted. Let us take as a baseline Operation World’s estimate that in The time has come to draw some 1990 5.1% of all Filipinos were conclusions. Borrowing a phrase evangelicals, and let us assume that from David Stoll, is the Philippines the population of the Philippines will ‘turning Protestant’? And is the form continue to increase at an average rate of 2.5% per year (probably high) 96 Calculated on the basis of figures taken from while the Philippine evangelical Baldemor, ‘Spread of Fire’, p. 120. 97 Calculated on the basis of figures taken from community will continue to increase Baldemor, ‘Spread of Fire’, p. 73. at an average rate of 5% per year 178 GEORGE W. HARPER

(possibly low). The implication is that as classic and indigenous Pente- by 2000, evangelicals will have con- costalism. Pentecostals and Charis- stituted 6.5% of the population, matics probably already constitute a reaching 8.2% in 2010, 10.5% in majority of the Philippine evangelical 2020, 13.4% in 2030, and 17.0% community, and their lead over non- in 2040. Such an outcome would be Pentecostal evangelicals will likely comparable to the situation in Chile grow in the coming decades. Yet today, where evangelicals make up denominations like CAMACOP between 15 and 20% of the popula- seem positioned to continue indefi- tion.98 nitely as major players, unlike similar This is not to say that Philippine Latin American bodies. For all its sim- religious developments will precisely ilarities to Latin America, the Philip- duplicate those in Latin America. pines is a unique cultural and religious The two regions have many things in environment.100 common, but there are many things What does this augur for the that set them apart as well. For future? What new challenges will Fil- example, Filipinos showed more ipino evangelicals face in coming resilience in the process of His- years? What new opportunities may panization than did the Aztecs, present themselves? Incas, and other aboriginal American First, it seems very likely that inter- peoples.99 Furthermore, although religious tensions will rise as the the US has long practised ‘Coca- Catholic community continues to suf- Cola colonialism’ in the lands south fer relative numerical decline and the of the Rio Grande River, it never evangelical community is made to exercised direct political control over bear the blame for this. Already the those territories in the way that it Philippine Catholic hierarchy has exercised control over the Philip- issued a series of statements warning pines after the signing of the Treaty the faithful against the blandishments of Paris in 1899. Americanization is of so-called ‘Fundamentalists’.101 certainly a factor today in Latin America, where young people wear- 100 ing jeans and sneakers eat fast-food In this respect the Philippines stands apart from the rest of East Asia as well. David B. Barrett, in hamburgers while listening to the lat- ‘Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission: 1989’, est hip-hop musicians. However, International Bulletin of Missionary Research 13:1 (January 1989), p. 20, estimates that 80% of East American culture has been much Asian Christians are Pentecostal or Charismatic. more of a magnet for Filipinos who 101 For example, see ‘Pastoral Statement on spent half a century under American Fundamentalist Groups’, in Abdon Ma. C. Josol (ed.), Responses to the Signs of the Times: Select- sovereignty. ed Documents [of the] Catholic Bishops’ Confer- Perhaps this helps to explain why ence of the Philippines (Quezon City, Philippines: non-Pentecostal evangelicalism has Claretian, 1991), pp. 348-53. This document, orig- inally issued in 1989, clearly differentiates between done almost as well in the Philippines so-called ‘Fundamentalists’ and members of ‘main- line Churches like the Lutherans, Episcopalians, Methodists, and the United Church of Christ in the 98 Martin, Tongues of Fire, p. 51. Philippines’ (pp. 348-9). A number of mass-market 99 Phelan, Hispanization of the Philippines, p. tracts issued by Philippine Catholic publishing hous- 26. es have amplified on its warning. PHILIPPINE TONGUES OF FIRE? 179

During John Paul II’s visit to the be taken for granted in the US.103 Philippines in 1995 he sounded a That scepticism seems unlikely to similar note of alarm, much as he has wane in the near future. done during his visits to Latin Ameri- Second, as evangelicalism’s slice ca, rather than striking the more ecu- of the Philippine religious pie con- menical posture he generally takes tinues to grow, it will be challenged during his travels across western to move beyond the ‘Christ against Europe and the United States. Of culture’ paradigm that was natural course this is a two-way street. Philip- when its numbers were much small- pine evangelicals have been slow to er. With greater size will come see anything good in developments greater influence, and from this will like the rise of the Catholic Charis- flow greater responsibility to address matic Renewal and other forms of social problems that could previous- what might be called ‘evangelical’ ly be ignored or blamed on the fail- Catholicism. Perhaps they fear the ings of the folk-Catholic cultural competition of Catholic organiza- backdrop—problems that institu- tions like El Shaddai, founded in tional Catholicism has failed to 1984 by layman Mariano (‘Mike’) address adequately. Velarde, and Couples for Christ, For example, the Catholic magis- established in 1981 and more close- terium has always taught that abor- ly aligned with the Catholic hierar- tion is wrong, yet it remains an chy. Although these groups today extremely common practice in the claim more than a million members Philippines, with at least 150,000 each, it seems that their rise has not and possibly as many as 750,000 greatly affected the concurrent rise of abortions being performed every Protestant evangelical and Pente- year.104 In the countryside one costal denominations.102 Still, most woman in six admits to having had at Filipino evangelicals remain sceptical least one abortion, and half of these about co-operative ventures with women believe it to be permitted by Catholics that are coming almost to church law.105 What do evangelicals

103 The best example of this is the Philippine evangelical response to the document, ‘Evangelicals and Catholics Together: The Christian Mission in the Third Millennium’. For example, see Agustin ‘Jun’ B. Vencer, Jr., ‘Comments on Evangelicals and Catholics Together’, Evangelicals Today and Asia Ministry Digest (April 1995), p. 7; and Agustin ‘Jun’ 102 Ma, e-mail, 6 November 1999; Melinda Joy B. Vencer, Jr., ‘An International Perspective on Magdayao, ‘The DWXI-PPFI El Shaddai: Is This the Evangelical-Catholic Cooperation’, Evangelical Work of God?’ (Paper submitted for course, ‘Theol- Missions Quarterly 31:3 (July 1995), pp. 278-9. ogy and History of Church Renewal’, Alliance Bibli- 104 Florentino Timbreza, Bioethics and Moral cal Seminary, Manila, Philippines, 3 August 1995). Decisions (Manila: De La Salle University Press, Neither group keeps attendance records, so their 1993), p. 70. claimed membership figures are likely at least as 105 ‘Pastoral Letter on the Life of the Unborn inflated as those of Villanueva; see Smith, e-mail, 27 Child’, in Responses to the Signs of the Times, p. October 1999. 219. 180 GEORGE W. HARPER have to say about this?106 tomed poverty.108 What do evangel- Again, Catholic teaching emphati- icals have to say about this?109 cally rejects divorce, hence in the Clearly most Filipinos have yet to Philippines there is no legal provi- meet the Christ who speaks of the sion for it, yet spousal abandonment sanctity of work, of marriage, and is endemic, and the result is that, as indeed of life itself. This is ‘the other in the US and other countries where Spanish Christ’ of whom Mackay divorce is permitted, millions of chil- wrote, the Christ eventually brought dren are being raised in broken to Brazil, Chile, and the other homes. What do evangelicals have to nations of Latin America by Protes- say about this?107 tant Pentecostals and Charismatics. Then again, in recent years This may also prove to be ‘the other Catholic teaching on economics has Philippine Christ’ brought to Luzon, undergone a fundamental shift, rec- the Visayas, and Mindanao by Pen- tecostal and non-Pentecostal evan- ognizing the market economy’s gelicals. great potential for good. However, many aspects of Philippine culture remain hostile to the capitalist entre- 108 See Pope John Paul II’s encyclical, Centes- imus Annus, issued in 1991, and recent works by preneurship needed to generate Michael Novak, including especially The Spirit of jobs, boost income, and raise the Democratic Capitalism (New York: Simon & Schus- ter, 1982). For a grudging concession that Philippine nation’s masses out of their accus- folk-Catholicism’s values do indeed pose a major obstacle to economic development, see Romeo J. Intengan, ‘Are We Poor Because We Are 106 I have heard only one Filipino evangelical Catholics?’, in Go and Teach: A Festschrift in Hon- address abortion in a sermon, and his attack was on or of Joseph L. Roche, SJ (Quezon City, Philip- the situation in the US rather than that in his own pines: Ateneo de Manila University Office of country. Research and Publications, 1997), pp. 149, 156. 107 Suico, ‘Pentecostalism’, pp. 15-16. 109 Suico, ‘Pentecostalism’, p. 17.

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Reviewed by Amos Yong Reviewed by Ross Farley Stanley J. Grenz and John R. G. Wade Rowatt Jr. Franke Adolescents in Crisis. A Beyond Foundationalism: Guidebook for Parents, Teachers, Shaping Theology in a Ministers, and Counselors Postmodern Context Reviewed by Dr. Benedict Hung-biu Reviewed by Garry Harris Kwok Martyn D.Atkins Alston, Wallace M. Jr. ed.. Preaching in a Cultural Context Theology in the Service of the Church. Essays in Honor of Reviewed by Margarethe Sparing Thomas W. Gillespie Alan Dundes Holy Writ as Oral Lit: The Bible as Folklore

Book Reviews

ERT (2002) 26-2, 181-184 0144-8153 (among others) to this book. On the one side are those who may leave Beyond Foundationalism: with the feeling of dissatisfaction. Shaping Theology in a These would include convinced liber- Postmodern Context als who do not believe that the Stanley J. Grenz and John R. authors have gone far enough in Franke their critique and reformation of tra- Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster ditional theological method, and John Knox Press, 2001 (ironically) staunchly conservative ISBN 0-664-25769-0 evangelicals who are suspicious that Pb., xi + 298 pages they have instead capitulated entire- ly to the contemporary postmodern Reviewed by Amos Yong, Assis- zeitgeist. tant Professor of Theology, Bethel On the other side, however, there College, St. Paul, Minnesota are those who will come away sens- Three types of readers (among oth- ing that Grenz and Franke have in ers) will give two types of responses this volume modelled the valiant 182 BOOKS REVIEWS struggle that seeks to chart a middle even while being faithfully commit- way through the various tensions ted to their Christian identity and wit- besetting theology ‘beyond founda- ness on the other. tionalism’. It is for those either At its centre, this volume is not, already in this second camp or who however, purely commentary on are searching for such a middle epistemology and culture in a post- road—what the authors, following modern world, although it certainly Hans Frei, call a ‘generous ortho- confronts both sets of questions head doxy’, or, what could also be referred on. Rather, Beyond Foundational- to as a centrist position between lib- ism seeks to articulate a theological eralism on the left and conservatism method that is at the same time a on the right—that Beyond Founda- methodological theology. Thus two tionalism is especially written. triads structure the book’s argument. Theological method for a generous The first (Part Two, chapters three orthodoxy has to acknowledge its through five) concerns the method- betwixt and between position in the ological question and explicates the contemporary world. Grenz, a well- sources of theology: Scripture (as published theologian at Carey Theo- norming norm), tradition (the inter- logical College and Regent College pretive trajectory), and culture (the (Vancouver, British Columbia), and embedded context). The second Franke, professor of theology at Bib- (Part Three, chapters six through lical Theological Seminary (Hatford, eight) concerns the focal motifs cen- Pennsylvania), are up front about tral to Christian theology: Trinity (the this throughout the book. Theology structural motif), community (the should be viewed as a complex, mul- integrative motif), and eschatology ti-party conversation, a continual (the orienting motif). Throughout, dialogical and dialectical interaction the authors display a breadth of eru- of terms, categories and realities dition, a depth of discernment, and a which are neither identical nor ever subtlety of rhetorical argument in completely detached. Thus the negotiating the pitfalls of founda- gospel defines culture, and vice-ver- tionalism on the one side and rela- sa; Scripture defines tradition, and tivism on the other. vice-versa; ecclesiology defines com- This is an important book about munity, and vice-versa; theology which any summary would do injus- defines epistemology and methodol- tice. I want to pay tribute to the ogy, and vice-versa; eschatological authors by entering the conversation hope directed toward the impending they insist theology partakes in, and kingdom of God defines hope as a do so by posing three sets of ques- universal feature of human exis- tions. First, in light of the global read- tence, and vice-versa. Grenz and ership of this journal, I wonder about Franke proceed through these vari- how non-western Christians see the ous issues with remarkable sensitivi- issues that divide mainline from ty to the various conversations in the evangelical churches in the West. Do present situation on the one hand, the concerns that motivate this vol- BOOK REVIEWS 183 ume mean much to non-western right to say that its reading of the Christians? I am optimistic about the Scriptures is inspired of the Spirit answer precisely because much of over and against that of other Chris- the worldwide church is not polar- tian communities with whom they ized between liberalism and conser- disagree? vatism but is rather living out the cen- Finally, a question that evangeli- trist position of generous orthodoxy. cals are concerned about: the notion Further, the communitarian and of Scripture as a source of theology, eschatological motifs are certain to even if it is the norming one. On the strike chords with non-westerners one side, the previous question who do not understand western indi- obtains regarding how to legitimize vidualism and are focused missiolog- one reading of Scripture against ically on the work of the kingdom. another, an issue of real concern Second, what exactly is the role of among evangelical communities with the Holy Spirit in theological disagreements, sometimes funda- method? The Spirit appears at key mentally so, on matters doctrinal and places throughout the discussion of theological. On the other side, how- theology’s sources, whether that be ever, perhaps the even more com- as the formative power of the world plex question pertinent to a non- through the Scriptures, as the foundationalist theology and theo- authority behind both Scripture and logical method needs to be posed. If, tradition, or as the power through as Grenz and Franke argue persua- whom culturally embedded Chris- sively, tradition, culture, and com- tians live faithfully in but not of the munity are all social constructions world. But if in fact, as Grenz and constituted by a multitude of particu- Franke maintain, the Bible is never larities, how can Scripture itself serve read in a vacuum, and both comes as a norming norm when it is itself a already culturally embedded and is socially/ecclesially constructed engaged by readers and communi- abstraction that refers to sixty-six ties who are similarly culturally locat- books? How can this be justified not ed; if in fact gospel and culture are only in the postmodern anti-founda- always already interacting rather tionalist context, but also in the wake than two terms which need to be cor- of extensive argument about the ear- related a la Niebuhr or Tillich; and if ly Christian construction, following in fact the Spirit speaks through the Jewish paradigm, of a ‘house of Scripture, tradition, and culture; authority’ (Edward Farley, who then how do we hear the word of Grenz and Franke do not engage) God in its purity? How do we read displaced from the person of Jesus the scriptures truthfully and yet criti- Christ toward the scriptural canon? cally and how do we discern the ide- To return to the concerns of the ological forces which are at work in hypothetically dissatisfied readers in all cultural constructions and arti- the opening paragraph of this facts? At the practical level, what review, are Grenz and Franke finally gives one Christian community the moderate evangelicals who uphold 184 BOOKS REVIEWS the normative priority of Scripture ERT (2002) 26-2, 184-186 0144-8153 over tradition and culture, or are they generously orthodox in their desire Preaching in a Cultural to uphold Scripture and community Context together? If the former, how so, Martyn D.Atkins since, in the postmodern context, Foundery Press, Peterborough, other communities would also need 2001. ISBN1-88852-185-8. Pb to be given the right to similar claims 92pp regarding their sources of authority, and this would lead to a relativism of Reviewed by Garry Harris, Santo, scriptural traditions? If the latter, Vanuatu what separates this centrist position For those grappling with the impli- from that of Anglicanism, Catholi- cations of postmodernism for cism and Eastern Orthodoxy? preaching, this volume is a welcome Alternatively, might Grenz and gift. Articulating the characteristics Franke be truly open to a radically of the postmodern world-view, it nonfoundationalist pneumatologi- exposes the limitations of a system cal—what they might call ‘interac- that elevates subjective experience to tionist’—method whereby Scripture, the role of final arbiter. tradition and culture are equally vehi- The postmodern proclivity for cles of the Spirit, at one point any ‘…fragmentation, micronarratives, one of the sources being normative, mini-stories, especially our own sto- at another a second source providing ries about personal choices…’ (p.29) a corrective, and at a third, the other suggests that it is a product of the late two sources being set in a new situa- twentieth century’s indulgence in tion and frame of reference, and so self-absorption. At times the on (reflecting their insistence on the- unabashed ego-centrism of this ology as eschatologically oriented)? framework is disquieting: ‘Does it If these questions are at all valid, work for me?’ Atkins asserts, is the they point to the richness and sug- key criterion for accepting or reject- gestiveness of this book. If they are ing knowledge and information. ‘If it not, they perhaps reveal my mis- works, it’s good. If it makes sense of reading of Grenz and Franke. But our experiences, it must be true’ the only way you can determine (p.34). which is which is if you take the time, The author demonstrates how which will be well rewarded, to care- apostolic preaching was character- fully read and reflect on Beyond ized by cultural sensitivity. Alluding Foundationalism. to the speeches of Peter and Paul, he suggests that their rhetoric was intentionally crafted to accommo- date the diverse frames of reference of Jewish, Greek, and Roman audi- ences. These examples serve to illus- trate the author’s thesis that gospel BOOK REVIEWS 185 proclamation must be coupled with salaries and conditions, words mean an adroit sensitivity to the broad cul- exactly what they say’ (p. 74). This tural context in which the preaching wry comment suggests that linguistic event occurs. relativism may be an interesting This volume notes that the preach- diversion for academy, but is inca- er’s perception of the culture invari- pable of commanding substantive ably finds expression in the sermon. commitment from even its Allusion is made to Andrew Walls’ staunchest advocates. contention that Christian history The author alerts readers to the reflects the tension between two irreconcilable conflict between lin- competing gospel principles. The guistic relativism and historical criti- ‘Indigenous Principle’, typified by cal methodology, the foundation of the church’s immersing itself in a cul- much biblical scholarship and expos- ture is contrasted to the ‘Pilgrim itory preaching. He also counters Principle’, which emphasizes the allegations that Christianity is transient nature of earthly existence. authoritarian and elitist by insisting In the latter, Christians are depicted that ‘…attempting to produce a bet- as ‘God’s refugee people’ whose cit- ter public level of knowledge about izenship is in heaven. Historically Christianity … is better than collud- there has been periodic oscillation ing with ignorance and superstition between these two diverse expres- which is real tyrannical authoritari- sions of Christianity. anism’ (p.78). The church’s accommodation of Atkins crystallizes the quantum this most recent worldview seems paradigm-shift that has occurred in untenable, since the linguistic rela- contemporary thinking and details its tivism of postmodernity reduces lan- impact for preachers. He observes: guage to an insubstantial tool of From a postmodern perspective Christian communication. The impact of this preaching is at best impossible and at mindset upon preaching is apparent. worst immoral….It presents the Christian Words are now deemed as incapable faith as a metanarrative, a good news story applicable to all people of every time and of referring to any objective reality place. It presents this ‘big story’ in terms of outside themselves. Atkins exposes truth and ultimate reality, refusing the the poverty of this philosophy: ‘Put preferred way of provisionality and starkly, language has no ultimate relativism (p.45). meaning and is, therefore, able to Demanding serious reflection on mean whatever the reader…wants it the meaning and function of lan- to mean’ (p.31). guage, this volume assumes an The folly of this position is further apologetic dimension. Noting post- demonstrated by Alister McGrath’s modern parallels to Gnosticism and perceptive observation: ‘…linguistic mystery religions, which were relativists apply the principle of rela- resoundingly rejected by the early tivity to all words except those mak- church, it urges a similar repudiation ing up their own contract of employ- by contemporary Christendom. ment. Suddenly, when dealing with Despite its shortcomings, the 186 BOOKS REVIEWS author affirms the positive contribu- ERT (2002) 26-2, 186-188 0144-8153 tions of this new worldview. ‘Post- modernity puts spirituality…firmly Holy Writ as Oral Lit: The back on the agenda of life. It recon- Bible as Folklore nects thinking and feeling, seeing Alan Dundes them as profoundly interwoven….’ Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and (p.53). Littlefield Publishers, 1999 This work happily observes that ISBN 0-8476-9197-7 ‘authenticity, relationality and per- Pp. XII + 129 sonality’ have been refocused as sig- nificant issues for the sermon. This Reviewed by Margarethe Sparing has allowed a more holistic view of Chavez, SIL, Peru preaching to re-emerge where vocal Can one consider the Bible as folk- and kinesic issues are again acknowl- lore and still revere it as the ‘holy’ edged as significant in the preaching writ? This is the question Dr. Alan event. Dundes, Professor of Folklore at UC Martyn Atkins has well served the Berkeley and one of the world’s lead- church with this undertaking. Acute- ing folklorists, attempts to answer in ly aware of the perils of sinking into his well researched and interesting the amorphous netherworld of rela- book. One could also rephrase the tivism, he cautions: ‘Expository question as follows: Is one justified to preaching… must continue to be a call Scripture ‘folklore’ without cur- part of any Church wishing to tailing its truth value? remain securely biblical….The alter- In his Acknowledgements Dundes native…is an anchorless, shapeless, claims: ‘This book combines a life- insubstantial Christianity’ (p.78). long love of the Bible with a career in The gravity of the situation is reaf- the study of folklore.’ And in his firmed by allusion to David Adam’s Conclusion he reiterates his main sobering words: ‘Without the Bible thesis: the remembered Christ becomes the 1. Folklore is characterized by mul- imagined Christ’ (p.78). tiple existence and variation. All who appreciate the study of 2. The Bible is permeated by mul- language and any involved in the tiple existence and variation. proclamation of the Christian faith 3. The Bible is folklore.’ will appreciate this timely contribu- Furthermore he underlines his tion. conviction that the Bible indeed is folklore by assuring the reader of his belief that, ‘Jesus would have under- stood my arguments’. As a former student of Professor Dundes, I as reviewer of this book, appreciate his honesty and straight- forwardness, especially from my experience as a translator over many BOOK REVIEWS 187 years in the Amazon jungle of Peru, lines’. All three of these types of working with the Amahuacas. variations are, of course, found in the Among other Amahuaca folk wis- Bible and people are often puzzled dom, we learned their language, by them. Dundes compares a large assisted in developing an alphabet, number of examples of the Old as analyzing the grammar, collecting well as New Testament. their folklore, helping the people For example he compares the establish a bilingual (Amahuaca and account of Jesus’ healing the blind Spanish) school system, and in trans- man/men in Matthew 20: 29-34 lating portions of Scripture into their with Luke 18: 35-43 and Mark mother tongue. 10:46-5. Matthew refers to two blind Despite all this, the question men and Luke and Mark to one. Also remains, can anyone who is taking there is a discrepancy between the the Bible to be the infallible Word of verbs of entering and leaving the city God, go along with calling the ‘Book of Jericho. What does one make of of books’ folklore? The answer of it? The answer is simple: It is folk- course, lies primarily in the definition lore. The stories have been handed of folklore, oral literature, and writ- down from generation to generation ten folklore. Isn’t the term ‘Oral Lit- and some details got changed. When erature’ an oxymoron? What hap- they were written down, they were pens when folklore is written down? considered sacred and the writers did Does it retain its flexibility to be not dare to adjust them. moulded by its environment? Does Speaking about the ‘infallibility’ of labelling the Bible folklore say any- the Bible as seen by Christian critics thing about its truth value? Wasn’t Dundes summarizes the discussion the Bible written down years ago? with ‘The governing paradigmatic Didn’t God himself write the Ten syllogism’ by Geisler and Howe, Commandments with his own hand? (1992:11) These are the questions Dundes is God cannot Err. trying to grapple with in his study. The Bible is the Word of God. In his discussion ‘What is Folk- Therefore, the Bible cannot err. lore?’ he puts to death the phrase: He then proceeds with an enlight- ‘That’s just folklore’, by contending ening discussion on ‘harmonizing’ that folklore for the professional folk- the Gospels, duplicate texts in the lorist ‘is not synonym with error or Old Testament, and the ‘authentic fallacy’. It is in this context that he words of Jesus’ in the New Testa- develops his thesis about the nature ment. The researchers of the of folklore and the biblical accounts, ‘authentic words of Jesus’ formed contending that all genres of folk- the so-called Jesus Seminar in 1985 lore, oral or written, ‘are characteris- and tried to distinguish between what tic of multiple existence and variation Jesus said from what they term which may be reflected in such ‘common lore’ in their book entitled: details as different names, different The Five Gospels: The Search for numbers, or different sequences of the Authentic Words of Jesus. In 188 BOOKS REVIEWS their volume Acts of Jesus they try to scholars, however, in that he makes separate the acts Jesus really per- a clear case for the Holy Writ being formed from fictitious ones. Accord- folklore because of its tradition of ing to Dundes these researchers con- being oral literature. This he sub- tinue in the footsteps ‘of the “folklore stantiates with many examples that in the Bible” tradition.’ He distances show different numbers, names, himself from that tradition. Rather sequences of events, repetitious than separate the ‘goats from the events, and a few other elements in sheep,’ i.e. separate the folkloristic the accounts of the Bible that point elements from the non-folkloristic to irregularities. At no point does he ones in Scripture, he ‘takes the bull question the truth value of Scripture. by the horns’ and claims that ‘the The one disappointment that I dis- Bible is folklore,’ it is ‘codified oral covered in the book is the following: tradition’. The subtitle of Chapter I is: ‘All In the process of his investigation Scripture is given by the inspiration the author gives ample examples of of God’ (2. Tim. 3:16), yet nowhere different genres of folklore, so that does the author discuss or qualify this the reader does not only have the point. Granted his book is not a the- benefit of being enriched through the ological discussion; instead its examples, but in addition is getting a strength lies in the folkloristic end of crash course in the nature and gen- it. Yet given such a subtitle, the read- res of folklore. All that is included in er — at least this reader — expects the price of the book. Most of his some reference to it. Otherwise one examples are not only amusing, but wonders why the subtitle is men- also give the reader an inkling on tioned at all. how sayings are slanted to make In summary, The Holy Writ as them politically correct for socialist, Oral Lit is a very worthwhile book. It communist, fascist, and many other is enlightening, convincing, enter- forms of government. taining, and familiarizes the reader The chapter entitled ‘Previous with the most important research Studies of Folklore and the Bible’ is a done on Scripture and folklore. In helpful review of the most important addition, it gives the reader a bird’s research done so far on this topic eye view on the nature and genres of and shows that scholars have always folklore. The actual ‘stumbling block’ tried to keep the two apart. They for the Christian reader might be the attempted to prove that Scripture is subtitle: ‘The Bible as Folklore’ due not folklore. Dundes certainly sym- to the fact that everyone has his or pathizes with scholars of the Bible her own preconceived notion of the who dared to ‘recognize or acknowl- meaning of ‘folklore’. edge its folkloristic nature’ by citing a It would certainly be profitable for great number of them who lost their this book to be translated into a num- credibility and jobs for being too ber of languages, particularly those avant garde in their writings. that already have research done on Dundes boldly contradicts these the subject under discussion. BOOK REVIEWS 189

ERT (2002) 26-2, 189-190 0144-8153 thought to the specific ways parents, teachers, ministers and counsellors Adolescents in Crisis. A can help. This will make the book Guidebook for Parents, helpful most of all to ministers, Teachers, Ministers, and teachers and parents (but not light- Counselors weight readers). G. Wade Rowatt Jr. The author is Director of The St Louisville: Westminster John Knox Matthews Pastoral Counseling Cen- Press, 2001 ter and former Professor of Pastoral ISBN 0-664-22334-6 Care and Psychology of Religion, Pb, 188 pp, bibliog., index Southern Baptist Theological Semi- nary, Louisville, Kentucky and he Reviewed by Ross Farley, Scrip- has been a counsellor of young peo- ture Union and TEAR Australia ple for more than thirty years. A Many books on youth ministry tend counsellor wrote this book and his to repeat what earlier books have main readership is ministers, teach- said but Rowatt does not just rework ers and parents who are not trained previous material. This book makes counsellors. It is useful for people like its own valuable original contribution this, whose training is in Christian to ministry with adolescents. ministry or education but who find The first four chapters, dealing themselves helping troubled adoles- with foundational issues and general cents principles, are quite easy to read: Trained counsellors may find that Adolescence in Crisis, Understand- the book covers some old ground but ing Developmental Issues and they will also find plenty of valuable Crises, Principles of Caring and information. In particular, counsel- Guidelines for Intervention. The last lors will find useful the author’s six chapters address the specific insights on the strategies they can issues of Family Problems, Sexual employ in working with ministers, Problems, Peer and Academic Pres- teachers and parents sures, Youth Violence, Depression The chapter on developmental and Suicide and Substance Abuse, issues and crises is refreshing and require a lot more concentration because, while it appeals to the without being too technical for the established theories of adolescent average reader. development, it is not another exer- A useful feature of the book is the cise of summarizing those theories. way sections in most chapters are Rowatt explains the subtle differ- specifically directed towards par- ences between early, middle and late ents, teachers, ministers and coun- adolescents in a way that exudes sellors. This recognizes that not years of experience. A wealth of wis- everyone is in the same position with dom and some very useful strategies respect to adolescents, or has the are to be found in the chapters on same skills and opportunities. Principles of Caring and Guidelines Rowatt has given considerable for Intervention. 190 BOOKS REVIEWS

The chapter on family provides a ERT (2002) 26-2, 190-192 0144-8153 helpful analysis of the ways the rela- tionship between parents influences Theology in the Service of the the behaviour of adolescents. The Church. Essays in Honor of major internal stresses on the ado- Thomas W. Gillespie lescent’s family are identified as Alston, Wallace M. Jr. ed.. dependence versus independence, Grand Rapids: Wm B. Eerdmans, distance versus closeness and dys- 2000 functional parents while the major 0802838812 external stresses are illness, death, 281 pages, Hb. divorce, and roles and expectations. The chapter on Peer and Academ- Reviewed by Dr. Benedict Hung- ic Problems is particularly enjoyable. biu Kwok, Assistant Professor of Rowatt highlights the importance of Theology, Alliance Bible Semi- academic performance and explores nary, Hong Kong the causes and responses to failure. This book consists of 25 articles He points out that academic per- without sub-division, covering the formance is closely related to the nature, structure and content of the- adolescents’ relationships with their ology, ethics, contextual theology peers. Making and keeping friends is and ecumenics. The arrangement of a high priority for adolescents. Many the essays is according to the alpha- have genuine difficulties in this area betical order of the authors. The while others imagine that everyone intention of the editor is to keep the else has plenty of friends and they plurality and diversity of the articles. are the only ones left out, when in I agree that it is hard to reach logical reality they are as popular as every- consensus among 25 different arti- one else. cles. However, I don’t think that it is The influences driving sexual activ- impossible to find reasonable the- ity are explored in the chapter on matic grouping. In this book review, sex. The experimental behaviour of I would like to divide the articles into younger adolescents is distinguished four groups: the nature of theology, from the more serious shift in values the construction of theology, the that often accompanies sexual activ- content of theology and particular ity in older adolescents. There is also contextual issues. plenty of useful material on such Regarding the nature of theology, issues as promiscuity, pregnancy and Wallace M. Alston Jr. reminds us that abuse. Other sections of the book, theology has ecclesial and public including those dealing with vio- dimensions, while Peter J. Gomes lence, depression, suicide and sub- point out that theology is the servant stance abuse (which includes food of the church, and the preacher is abuse as well as drugs), all go togeth- the church’s servant theologian. er to make this volume one that is Both of them highlight the minister highly recommended. as pastor theologian. Leanne Van Dyk follows George Lindbeck and BOOK REVIEWS 191

Alister McGraths’ understanding and gy is part of an interdisciplinary the- focuses on the communal nature of ological programme. The historical- biblical narratives and Christian critical exegesis could protect sys- experience. tematic theology from over-interpre- Gerhard Sauter elaborates the tation of the biblical text. John H. dialectical structure of theology. The- Leith reminds the theologians and ology is totally dependent on God’s the pastors that the history of doc- coming and his presence, and then trine connects us with the ecumeni- comes the human response. There- cal church. E. David Willis links bibli- fore, the dialectical movement is cal studies together with historical asymmetrical. He avoids defining and systematic theology in the inter- theology either by subjective projec- ests of proclamation. Historical the- tion or by objectifying God as part of ology concerns about God’s revela- the world. Ellen T. Charry points out tion in the historical process and sys- that theological knowledge is trans- tematic theology brings the dialogue formative. The knowledge of God between Christ and Culture in the persuades our personal desire for past to the process of proclamation God’s truthfulness, goodness and in the present. beauty. Due to the crisis of authority For the content of theology, and knowledge, theology after Robert W. Jenson approaches the Calvin was no longer sapiential but issue of the historical Jesus from bib- logical and systematical. lical and doctrinal perspectives. Bruce L. McCormack reflects the Eduard Schweizer defends the view genuine Reformed understanding of that the metaphor of expiatory sacri- dogma as both theoretical and prac- fice symbolizes the love of God tical. He regards theology as trans- towards suffering mankind. Jong formative knowledge from God in Sung Rhee thinks that logos, ecclesial context. Robert Wuthnow pathos, ethos and mythos are four discusses the function of social sci- spheres of human existence. He ence for public theology and implic- regards Augustine and Jesus Christ itly mentions the need to deal with as examples and argues for the con- theological issues not only within a struction of a balanced anthropolo- particular tradition, but also ecu- gy. David F. Wright reminds us of the menically. Thomas F. Torrance importance of infant baptism. reminds us that in evangelization Robert M. Adams suggests that both should be included the transforma- stewardship and generosity models tion of the mind of the church and are valid theologically, but generosi- society. Edward Idris Cardinal Cas- ty has deeper theological meaning sidy shares the view that theology which is an aspect of hesed, gener- serves the church by serving ecu- ous forgiving from God. menism. There are also articles dealing with In the material dealing with the particular contextual issues. Don construction of theology, Michael Browning deals with gender issues, Welker proposes that biblical theolo- and H. Russel Botman focuses on 192 BOOKS REVIEWS

South African Public Theologies. some issues worth further discus- Yasuo Carl Furuya lets us know sion. The idea of pastor-theologian is about the Presbyterian Church in meaningful for the Chinese Chris- Japan. Gustavo Gutiérrez reminds us tians because we always tend to sep- of the need to discern the issue of arate piety from theological reflec- poverty not only socially, economi- tion. The idea of theology as eccle- cally, but also globally. He argues for sial and public is also stimulating. It is a commitment to the preferential a basic question for the aims of the- option for the poor as the mission of ological education and also a ques- the church. David B. Watermulder tion of the self-understanding of the- points out that the church should ologian and pastor. Moreover, the always ask critically how to live in the idea of the integration of biblical Holy Spirit together with the estab- studies, historical and systematic the- lished ecclesial order. Károly Tóth ology for preaching is a very chal- represents the Hungarian voice. lenging task for theological educa- From my point of view, there are tion.

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