People Make the Pixels: Remote Sensing Analysis for Human Rights-Based Litigation DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Susan Rae Wolfinbarger Graduate Program in Geography The Ohio State University 2012 Dissertation Committee: Kendra McSweeney, Advisor Desheng Liu Ningchuan Xiao Copyrighted by Susan Rae Wolfinbarger 2012 Abstract Human rights organizations seek methods with which to document abuses around the world. However, these abuses often occur in remote areas, dangerous locations, or may have occurred years in the past, making documentation a problematic endeavor. To combat these issues, human rights documentation efforts have increasingly included the use of remote sensing analysis. As awareness of the technical capabilities of remote sensing has spread, interest has grown in the application of the technology to advance human rights litigation as an additional component which may augment efforts to achieve redress for the victims of abuse. Remote sensing has the potential to provide additional evidence to bolster human rights abuse accounts, which tend to be qualitative in nature (e.g. witness testimony) and lend an additional layer of scientific objectivity. While remote sensing evidence for human rights litigation has, thus far, been limited to the use of high-resolution imagery analysis, I argue for the application of existing low- and moderate-resolution image analysis techniques as a way to further expand documentation capabilities. In order to do this, I use a framework which links feminist and critical views of geographic technology with digital evidentiary standards to establish a type of remote sensing methodology which maintains focus on the local people who are victims of abuse, although they are not 'visible' in the satellite imagery. I apply this framework to a particular human rights court case and use it to guide satellite imagery analysis in a way which does not lose the local context in favor of the abstraction found in lower-resolution ii imagery. This work presents an application of geographic skills which will become increasingly needed in the pursuance of human rights litigation. In addition, it advances geographic literature in the areas of mixed methods, counter-mapping, and feminist views of technology. The work has implications for the use of human rights litigation as the use of geographic technologies, such as remote sensing, are developed as a form of digital evidence. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation is dedicated to my parents, Eric and Rosemary Wolfinbarger, who have always believed in me without question or reserve and to my brother, Jeremy, who told me to go and do great things. I would like to thank the Geography Department of the Ohio State University for its support, particularly my advisor Kendra McSweeney and committee members Desheng Liu and Ningchuan Xiao. I would also like to acknowledge the help and support of Mei-Po Kwan, who served as my advisor for the majority of my time at Ohio State. A host of people have helped me reach the finish line and many thank-yous are in order. David Zurick made me fall in love with the discipline in my undergraduate studies. Lars Bromley started me down the road to my career as a human rights researcher. Daniel Phillips, Delphine Ancien, Elizabeth Mirarchi Capuano, Emily Rupp, Tim Senk, and Kelly James provided editing, meals, therapy, and everything else I needed to see me through to the end. I thank all of you from the bottom of my heart. iv Vita 2004................................................................B.A. Geography, B.A. Spanish, Eastern Kentucky University 2006................................................................M.A. Geography, George Washington University 2006-2008 .....................................................Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Geography, The Ohio State University 2008-present ...................................................Senior Program Associate, The American Association for the Advancement of Science Publications Wolfinbarger, S. and Drake, J. 2012. Time Series Satellite Imagery Analysis for Flare Detection in the Niger Delta. Ed. C. Lavers Satellite and High Resolution Imaging for Man-Made Humanitarian, Ecology and Wildlife Applications. Forthcoming. Wolfinbarger, S. and Wyndham, J. 2011. Remote visual evidence of displacement. Forced Migration Review Issue 38: 20-21. Xiao, N. Shi, T., Calder, C., Munroe, D.K., Berrett, C., Wolfinbarger, S., and Li, D. 2009. Spatial Characteristics of the Difference between MISR and MODIS Aerosol Optical Depth Retrievals over Mainland Southeast Asia. Remote Sensing of the Environment 113: 1-9. Munroe, D.K., Wolfinbarger, S., Calder, C.A., Shi, T., Xiao, N., Lam, C.Q, Li, D. 2008. The relationships between biomass burning, land-cover/use change, and the distribution of carbonaceous aerosols in mainland Southeast Asia: A review and synthesis. Journal of Land Use Science 3(2-3): 161-183. v Fields of Study Major Field: Geography vi Table of Contents People Make the Pixels: Remote Sensing Analysis for Human Rights-Based Litigation .. 1 DISSERTATION ................................................................................................................ 1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. iv Vita ...................................................................................................................................... v Publications ......................................................................................................................... v Fields of Study ................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vii List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Research Question ........................................................................................................... 4 Key Objectives ................................................................................................................ 5 Main Arguments .............................................................................................................. 6 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................... 8 Position of the Researcher ............................................................................................. 10 vii Wider Implications ........................................................................................................ 12 Overview of the Data and Methods............................................................................... 14 Structure of the Dissertation .......................................................................................... 15 Chapter 2: The Use of Geographic Methods and Technologies to Improve Human Rights Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 17 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 17 Background on Human Rights ...................................................................................... 17 Human Rights Documentation ...................................................................................... 21 Geospatial Information Technology and Human Rights ............................................... 22 Geographic Literature ................................................................................................... 26 Counter-Mapping .......................................................................................................... 28 Feminist Visualization................................................................................................... 35 Geospatial Technologies and Empowerment ................................................................ 38 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Remote Sensing for Human Rights Litigation ................................................ 43 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 43 International Remote Sensing Legislation .................................................................... 45 The United States and Remote Sensing ........................................................................ 46 Admission of Remote Sensing Evidence in U.S. Federal Courts ................................. 50 viii Frye Rule ....................................................................................................................... 51 Federal Rules of Evidence............................................................................................