UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Memorializing the Genocide of the Tutsi Through Literature, Song, and Performance A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in French and Francophone Studies by Anne Goullaud Mueller 2016 © Copyright by Anne Goullaud Mueller 2016 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Memorializing the Genocide of the Tutsi Through Literature, Song, and Performance by Anne Goullaud Mueller Doctor of Philosophy in French and Francophone Studies University of California, Los Angeles, 2016 Professor Dominic R. Thomas, Chair “Memorializing the Genocide of the Tutsi Through Literature, Song, and Performance” examines how the 1994 Rwandan genocide has been commemorated in literature, music, and theater performances. Over the past twenty years, in the goal of reconciliation, the Rwandan government has developed a single acceptable narrative of the atrocity; this discourse is enacted and perpetuated through cultural practices (such as yearly commemoration events and marches) and through selective silencing (discussions of ethnicity are illegal in Rwanda). Far from smoothing over the troubles of the past, this rewriting of Rwandan history creates a set of complex challenges for the scholar seeking to interpret representations of genocide, particularly insofar as the cultural texts in question produce counter narratives that question both the official story and their own capacity to represent the trauma of ethnic cleansing. Literature has been the main focus of Rwandan cultural studies post-1994 (particularly the work of the Ecrire par devoir de mémoire project). My first chapter participates in and ii simultaneously contests this narrow focus by analyzing how novels about the genocide – Le passé devant soi by Gilbert Gatore and Murambi: Le livre des ossements by Boubacar Boris Diop – suggest the insufficiency of the written word and, by extension, the urgent need to turn to other media. In subsequent chapters, I focus on two alternative cultural vectors – music and theater – forms that can perform commemoration in ways that literature cannot. The second chapter focuses on musical works performed at the 20th-anniversary commemoration ceremonies (known as Kwibuka20). Although they hew closely to government rhetoric, the lyrics, when read attentively, reveal a far more ambiguous narrative, particularly in their treatment of perpetrators and the supposed inevitability of the genocide. Finally, I turn my attention to theater, which, like music, was highlighted in 2014 and is also capable of reaching a wider population. By comparing these recent plays to previous commemorative productions, I demonstrate how the narrative of genocide continues to change in compelling and often unexpected ways. iii The dissertation of Anne Goullaud Mueller is approved. Lia N. Brozgal Gil Hochberg Dominic R. Thomas, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2016 iv Dedicated to the Victims and Survivors of the Genocide of the Tutsi in Rwanda v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………. ii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………vii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………………....viii Vita……………………………………………………………………………………………..xi Introduction Naming, Representing and Revising Genocide……………………………………………...…1 Chapter One “The Perfect Rwandan”: The Limitations of Writing in the Complex Context of Rwanda.......28 Chapter Two Song and Memory: Rwanda’s Melodic Process of Public Commemoration……………..….…63 Chapter Three Rwanda 94 and Shadows of Memory : Theater and the Mise-en-abyme of Spectatorship….….103 Conclusion Concluding and Moving Forward………………………………………………………………143 Works Cited……………………………………………………………………………………149 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Political Cartoon of Hassan Ngeze………………………………………. 4 Figure 2. Political Cartoon of RPF Army……………………………………………5 Figure 3. Photo of Simon Bikindi……………………………………………………6 Figure 4. Cover Image of Kangura…………………………………………………..13 Figure 5. Faye and Child from “Petit Pays” Music Video…………………………...95 Figure 6. Cover Image from NPR Story on Commeoration………………………….104 Figure 7. Photo of Statue at Gisozi Memorial Site………………………………...…146 Figure 8. Photo of Gardens at Gisozi Memorial Site…………………………………148 vii REMERCIEMENTS Thanking everyone who has helped make this project possible means thanking those that played a part in the past six transformative years of my life. But it also means going back further to two teachers who opened my eyes not only to Rwanda but the Francophone world. In this regard I must thank France Murphy for her enthusiasm, support and guidance as I began on the path of French studies. Then I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Alexandre Dauge- Roth who introduced me to Rwanda and served as a role model for those of us that want to merge the worlds of scholarship, teaching and activism. I also thank Bates College for their support of my first research trip to Rwanda in 2008. This project would not have been possible without the support of UCLA and the Mellon Foundation. Their support allowed me to travel to Rwanda in 2014, completely reshaping my project. There are no words to express my gratitude to Mireille Ikirezi, Christelle Kamaliza and their families – vous m’inspirez et votre amitié et votre gentillesse ont changé ma vie pour le meilleur. Thank you for sharing your homes, your culture and your love with me. To Dominic Thomas, thank you for your support and unending encouragement. I would not have had the courage to so drastically change my project without your guidance. I am grateful for the way a meeting with you always made me, and my project, feel important and worthwhile. To Lia Brozgal, your feedback, comments and advice have challenged and motivated me throughout this process and my career at UCLA. But most importantly, having you as a female role model who faces all the obstacles of academia with grace, kindness and humor has inspired me, and my colleagues, beyond words. Finally, thank you to Gil Hochberg and Alain Mabanckou for their support of this project. viii Thank you also to those of you that made my experience at UCLA practically feasible, particularly Kerry Allen, for your ability to answer any question and supply the Girl Scout cookies. Special thank you to Monique Vallaincourt for getting me through some tough medical times as well as dealing with my unending questions and concerns! Finally, I am infinitely grateful to the entire staff of UCLA CAPS but particularly Bonnie Zucker, Alex Kalinich, and Colby Moss. Thank you to my colleagues and conference buddies who have made job hunting and networking not only bearable, but fun – Michelle Bumatay, George MacLeod, Gina Breen, Brian Quinn, Rita Valente and Nicki Hitchcott. A very deep thank you to the women of writers’ group who have guided me thought the many ups and downs of this process (and many other issues) – Kate Schlosser, Lauren Van Arsdall, Adelaide Kuehn, Nanar Khamo and Veronica Dean. To Gina, despite not being in writers’ group, I don’t know how my head would have stayed screwed on correctly without you and our talks. To Rémi Vallier for helping me through the hardest year of my life and for believing in me at the very beginning of this journey. To my long-distance friends – Sasha, Emma and Megan – who have done everything to understand this process and whose support and love have travelled thousands of miles. To Kate Willis for helping make LA a home away from home, for listening, for supporting me through every kind of emotion and for your “always down” (aka peer pressure susceptible) attitude. The models you and Cat provide as strong confident women in a men’s world inspires me! To Catalina Oaida, I am so grateful to be a part of your life and (as I like to see it), a part of your family. Your optimism on all things love, family and friendship have powered me ix through the hardest of moments and your deep, unrelenting love is one of the most beautiful things in my life. To Anneka, my partner in crime, my inspiration, my motivation, my best friend: it is impossible to truly express my gratitude for everything over the past six years. Thank you for letting me cry through the scariest and hardest moments and for giving me stomach cramps from laughing while you pose as an eagle in my car. Thank you for literally running over to my house in times of “crisis”. I would never be where I am today without you as my partner on the journey. Thank you from the bottom of my heart. To Carl, thank you for answering your phone in the middle of the night and, somehow, knowing what to say. Thank you for being at my side at the very beginning (well, after the best two years of my life) and for never wavering. I love you. To my parents, Mommy and Daddy, you are my everything; you have given me all I’ve ever needed and so much more. I am grateful to you all moments of my life and your pride fills me up. I love you both and I am so grateful to you for the life I have (and love) now. x VITA 2009 B.A., French and Economics Bates College Lewiston, ME 2011 Chancellor’s Prize for Summer Research Graduate Division University of California, Los Angeles 2011-2013 International Studies Fellowship International Institute University of California, Los Angeles 2011-2012 Teaching Assistant Department of French and Francophone Studies University of California, Los Angeles 2012-2013 Teaching Associate Department of French and Francophone Studies University of California, Los Angeles 2013-2014 Dean’s Fellowship Graduate Division University of California,