AIR POWER IN THE NUCLEAR AGE, 1945-84 Also by R. A. Mason

AIR POWER IN THE NEXT GENERATION (editor with E. J. Feuchtwanger) READINGS IN AIRPOWER THE ROYAL AIR FORCE TODAY AND TOMORROW BRITISH AIRPOWER IN THE 1980s: The Royal Air Force AIR POWER IN THE NUCLEAR AGE, 1945-84

Theory and Practice

SECOND EDITION

Air Marshal M. J. Armitage, KCB, CBE, RAF Air Commodore R. A. Mason, CBE, MA, RAF Foreword by Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Cameron of Balhousie

M MACMILLAN © Sir Michael Armitage and R. A. Mason 1983, 1985

All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended).

Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First edition 1983 Reprinted 1984 Second edition 1985

Published by THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS and London Companies and representatives throughout the world

ISBN 978-0-333-38660-6 ISBN 978-1-349-17964-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-17964-0 Contents

List of Maps vi Foreword by Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Cameron of Balhousie vii Preface to the Second Edition ix Glossary xi List of Abbreviations xiii

The Dominant Factor

2 Air Power in Korea 20

3 Air Power in Colonial Wars 46

4 The Air War in South-East Asia 83

5 Air Power in the Middle East 114

6 Soviet Air Power 1945-1984 144

7 Air Power in NATO 188

8 Two Expeditions-Suez and the Falklands 214

9 Challenge and Opportunities 244

Notes and References 280 Select Bibliography and Further Reading 303 Index 308

v List of Maps

Air War against North Korea 21

2 North and Central Indo-China 47

3 'White Areas' in Malaya, 1955-9 63

4 The Radfan 76

5 Central Kenya 80

6 South-East Asia 89

7 Route Package System 102

8 The Arab-Israeli Theatre, 1967-73 115

9 Suez 1956 215

10 The Falkland Islands 224

vi Foreword

Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Cameron of Dalhousie

There has never been the same extent of strategic debate about the principles, effectiveness and uses ofland or sea power as there has about air power. This is perhaps because it was the last arrival on the military scene and it used a little-understood third dimension. Its potential was greeted with much suspicion by a large percentage of so-called strategic thinkers. Churchill and Smuts, however, were in no doubt that one day it would dominate the battlefield and sea-lanes. Armies and navies saw the development of air power as a threat to their share of the limited financial cake and so tried hard to stifle its growth. Unfortunately, the early air power advocates, perhaps in the nature of a precocious child, were inclined to overcall their hand on occasions and when put to the test could not entirely deliver the goods. Technology of the day did not move as quickly as doctrine. Seversky's dream that 'air power would be the key to survival' has not even yet been proved conclusively and there are still facets of modern warfare where its effectiveness can be limited. The joint authors of this book are advanced and enlightened thinkers about the doctrine of air power as a vital and perhaps the most important element of modern and future warfare. This has not prevented them producing an objective study of what it can and cannot do, now and in the years ahead. My conclusion is that though air power may have been last on the scene in the military sphere, its potential in what is progressively a global scenario and coupled with the staggering developments in weapon and other technology may one day soon make it the 'key to survival'; if it is not that already.

vii Preface to the Second Edition

The 'Nuclear Age' began in August 1945 when a single aircraft destroyed Hiroshima with one bomb. Since then the spectre of nuclear warfare between the super-power alliance blocs has influenced the evolution of all kinds of military power: on the ground, at sea and in the air. Yet, fortunately, no such war has taken place. Instead, conflicts have been waged intermittently in the past forty years with conventional weapons. Air Power in the Nuclear Age is therefore concerned with the theories of air power, influenced both by the presence of nuclear weapons and by the practice of air power in conventional and in many respects traditional conflicts. The authors have not sought to present a complete historical record of theory and practice between 1945 and 1984, but rather to examine specific campaigns or regions which they believe to have been particu­ larly important. The emphasis is not on tactical operations, although several are examined in detail, but rather on the contribution of air power to a military campaign or to co-ordinated military strategy in pursuit of a political objective. The authors have sought to illustrate both the potential and the limitations of air power. The essential relationship between air power and ground and naval forces has not been underestimated, but because the emphasis in this study is on the role of air power, the often parallel operations on land and at sea have not been dealt with in any detail. Nor has it been possible in such a brief study to pursue such vital considerations as those of manpower, or of the industrial base or the economic resources on which air power must ultimately depend. As to sources, some of them, for example, the French, but more important the Soviet, the Chinese, the Vietnamese and the North Korean, are still limited and restricted, and because of that the view taken by the authors has been not only limited to that of professional airmen but of British airmen, something that helps to explain at least the basis of the selectivity that has had to be applied. ix X Preface to the Second Edition

In examining and analysing the theories and the practice of air power, the authors have been given a great deal of help from civilian and military friends in several countries, but the representation of facts and the conclusions that are drawn from them here are the sole responsibility of the authors, and they imply no endorsement from the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence nor, indeed, from any other agency or individual. The authors are very deeply indebted to the patient co-operation of Mr John Andrews, Chief Librarian, The Ministry of Defence, London; Mr Chris Hobson and his staff at the Royal Air Force Staff College Library; Air Commodore Henry Probert, Head of the Air Historical Branch of the Ministry of Defence; and Mr Michael Root and his staff in the Staff College Drawing Office. Finally, the authors wish to ac­ knowledge the unfailing good humour under stress of our typists Miss Glenys Evans, Mrs Daphne Stent, Miss Jean Bolton, Mr John Hunter, BEM, Mr Geoff Blair and Miss Janet Crouthers.

M.J.A. R.A.M. Glossary

Some expressions which are used in the liturgy of air operations may be unfamiliar to the reader, while others are open to differing interpre­ tations. They are used by the authors with the following meanings.

Air superiority. The ability to exercise sufficient control over a particular airspace at a particular time as to be able to carry out one's own air operations effectively with little or no enemy interference while, at the same time, denying the same opportunity to him. Air supremacy. Usually indicates a broader and longer degree of control of airspace and would tend to be associated with a campaign and theatre of operations rather than a single or limited engagement. Avionics. The generic term used to describe the electronic and electrical instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft, components in the aircraft and its weapons system. Close air support. Used to describe air attack on enemy ground forces which may actually be in contact with friendly ground forces. Combat air patrol. Describes the mounting of standing patrols by armed interceptors across the potential tracks of intruding enemy aircraft, or in the vicinity of a particular target area. Combat radius. The combat radius of an aircraft is the distance which it can fly from its base, complete its operational activity and return to base. An alternative expression may be 'operational radius' and both expressions should be distinguished from 'range' which usually signifies a single journey between two separate points and may or may not include the carriage of weapons. Command of the air. Denotes the absolute control of airspace, as opposed to the more limited concepts of air superiority or air supremacy. Conventional. Used to denote operations, aircraft or weapons which are not nuclear, chemical or biological. Counter-air operations. Designed to achieve air superiority or air supremacy by attacking the infrastructure of enemy air power, xi xii Glossary

notably his airfields, but including command, control, communi­ cation, radars and air defences. Electronic countermeasures. The general term denoting methods of degrading enemy radar or other sources of electronic activities. They would include spoofing, jamming, decoying or, in certain circum­ stances, actual destruction. Electronic counter-countermeasures. As the name implies, electronic counter-countermeasures are the measures devised by the opposition to neutralise electronic countermeasures. Glacis. Defensive area. Interceptor. Whereas traditionally some aircraft were classified as 'fighters', it is increasingly common now to distinguish between an 'interceptor' which will be designed for longer-range employment, probably in combat air patrols, and air superiority 'fighters' which are likely to be much more agile and suitable for close air-to-air combat. Interdiction. The use of air power to sever supply links and to dislocate, disrupt or destroy resources moving along them, between an enemy's rear areas and the battlefield. Thus 'battlefield interdiction' would imply air attack close to the actual combat area, while 'deeper interdiction' would imply longer-range attacks on roads, railways, bridges, etc. Maritime operations. All air activities associated with naval forces are referred to as 'maritime operations'. POL. The usual military abbreviation for 'petrol, oil and lubricants'. Stand-off. Refers to an aircraft's ability to launch air-to-surface weapons some distance from the actual target instead of actually over-flying the target to drop 'free-fall' weapons. Stick. Used to describe a number of paratroops dropped in a group. Strike. The use of the term 'strike', as applied to operations or roles or aircraft, implies that nuclear weapons are involved. Tactical. Has traditionally referred to aircraft or weapons of relatively short range which would normally be employed in one theatre or region. However, the traditional distinction between 'tactical' and 'strategic', which has usually referred to activities transcending theatres or referring to the war as a whole, has latterly become blurred. Variable geometry. The expression used to describe an aircraft whose wing, either whole or part, may be moved during flight to achieve different degrees of sweep and thereby achieve improved effectiveness in different flight conditions. List of Abbreviations

AA anti -aircraft AAFCE Allied Air Forces Central Europe ABCCC Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Centre ACTS Air Corps Tactical School AOC Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief ASW anti-submarine warfare AWACS airborne warning and control system CAT Civil Air Transport COMAAFCE Commander Allied Air Forces Central Europe CP Command Post C-in-C Commander-in-Chief C3 command, control and communication DMZ demilitarised zone EAF Egyptian Air Force ECCM electronic counter-counter-measures ECM electronic countermeasures ESM electronic support measures EW electronic warfare FA Frontal aviation FA Forward Air Controller (Soviet) FEAF Far East Air Force GATAC Nord Northern Tactical Air Group GATACs Tactical Air Groups GRU Soviet General Staff HE high explosive IAF Israeli Air Force ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile IDF Israeli Defence Forces IFF Identification Friend or Foe IISS International Institute for Strategic Studies IR infra-red xiii xiv List of Abbreviations

IRBM intermediate range ballistic missile JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff JOC Joint Operations Centre KT kilotons LRA Long-Range Aviation MAC Military Airlift Command MACV Military Assistance Command Vietnam MRLA Multi Role Large Aircraft MT megatons NADGE NATO Air Defence Ground Environment NAF Naval Air Force NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NKAF North Korean Air Force NKPA North Korean People's Army OASD Office of Aerospace Systems and Development OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries ORBAT order of battle POL petrol, oil and lubricants PVO Soviet Air Defence PVO-Strany Soviet Air Defence Command RAAF Royal Australian Air Force RECS Radio Electronic Combat Support RFC Royal Flying Corps RNZAF Royal New Zealand Air Force SAC Strategic Air Command SACEUR Supreme Allied Commander, Europe SAAF South African Air Force SAF Soviet Air Force SAM surface-to-air missiles SAS Special Air Service STAVKA Supreme High Command (Soviet Union) STOVL short take-off and vertical landing TAC Tactical Air Command TASMO tactical air support of marine operations 2TAF Second Tactical Air Force UNC United Nations Command UNO United Nations (Organisation) USAAC United States Army Air Corps USAAF United States Army Air Force USAF United States Air Force List of Abbreviations XV

USAF A United States Air Force Academy USAFE United States Air Force Europe USMC United States Marine Corps USN United States Navy VHF very high frequency VNAF Vietnam Air Force VTA Military Transport Aviation (Soviet Union) VSTOL vertical, short take-off and landing VTOL vertical take-off and landing