High-Speed Railways in Germany

Feature 40 Years of High-speed Railways

High-speed Railways in Germany

Klaus Ebeling

of his planned railway system covering all consisted of several states) because the High Speed? Germany. In The National System of railways would solve the problem. Economic Policy (1841, uncompleted), History proved him right! When the railway appeared as a new his main work on economics, he The railway’s greater speed compared to means of transportation in the first half countered Adam Smith’s (1723–90) classic previous means of transportation played of the 19th century, its top speed of 30 to doctrine of free trade with a ‘theory of a major role in the huge industrial boom 40 km/h was considered dangerous. In productive forces’ orientated toward in Europe and America at the end of the Germany, where Adler transported two economic practice and describing the 19th century and railway’s pre-eminence barrels of beer between Nuremberg and impact of a speed increase in was only jeopardized by the later advent Fürth in 1835 as the first German rail transportation on industrial and economic of the more-flexible automobile and the freight, physicians warned people against issues. Subsequent modern experience faster aeroplane. such perilous adventures and farmers proved his hypothesis of the extraordinary The struggle for supremacy in were worried that their cows grazing economic development set in motion by transportation is not a recent phenomenon alongside the tracks would ‘go mad’ at shortened travel times and expansion of and railway advocates have long the sight of the ‘rushing steel monsters’ people’s range of action. His appraisal pondered how to compete against air and and that the milk would sour. was shared by Goethe (1749–1832) who road. The earliest and obvious solution Although these worries turned out to be did not experience rail travel but realized was found by increasing speed and the unfounded, there were renewed that such an effective means of transport early years of the 20th century were warnings against further speed increases could have political repercussions as well. marked by successive breakings of various when railways were already well Goethe said he was not worried about rail speed records. In 1903, Germany set developed. In Paris in the Twentieth German unity (at that time Germany an early record of 200 km/h with an Century (written in 1863 but not published in English until 1997), Jules Verne (1828–1905), the famous French Planned Trans European Network Transport (TEN-T) author of science fiction literature New route including Around the World in Eighty SundsvSundsvallall Days, Twenty Thousand Leagues under Improved route HG-Netz 2020 Oslo the Sea described a future fantasy world Helsinki St. Petersburg of shiny skyscrapers made of glass and StocStockholmkholm Tallinn steel, high-speed trains, gas-driven GothenbGothenburgurg Riga GlasgowGlasgow EdinburghEdinburgh automobiles, computers, fax machines Moscow and a global communications network. Copenhagen Gdan´´sksk Vilnius HamburgHamburg Verne’s farsighted vision of future Minsk DublinDublin Amsterdam Berlin technologies is set against the background HannoverHannover London Warsaw of the tragic struggle of an idealistic young BrusselsBrussels Cologne FrankfurtFrankfurt Nuremberg Prague Lvïv Kiev man searching for happiness in an LuxembowgLuxembowg Katowice Paris Munich Vienna unmerciful materialistic dystopia. In this Bratislava Rennes Budapest gloomy picture, Verne fears the approach Zürich Kishina Zagreb Geneva Milan of a future in which loss of humanity is Lyon LjubLjubljanaljana the price paid for the unscrupulous Bordeaux Bologna Belgrade Bucharest GenovaGenova Sarajevo application of perfected technology. Marseille Sofia Friedrich List (1789–1846), the founder of SkSkopjeopje PortoPorto Rome Istanbul Barcelona TirTiranaana the German macroeconomic science, had Madrid Naples BarBarii Ankara a different attitude toward the new means ValenciaValencia of transportation. He was a champion of Lisboa Athens Germany economic unity and had a SeSevillavilla MMálagaálaga profound impact on German railways; he 0 500 km established the Leipzig–Dresden Source: UIC Eisenbahngesellschaft in 1834 as the basis

36 Japan Railway & Transport Review 40 • March 2005 Copyright © 2005 EJRCF. All rights reserved. electric locomotive between Marienfeld and Zossen. A new dimension in commercial high speed on rails was inaugurated by the Deutsche Reichsbahngesellschaft in 1933 when the world-famous Fliegender Hamburger (Flying Hamburger) achieved an average speed of 122 km/h and a maximum speed of 160 km/between Berlin and Hamburg. Japan’s railways came to the forefront of attention in 1964 with still higher speeds when the Tokaido Shinkansen opened between Tokyo and Shin Osaka with operations starting at 210 km/h. The French topped this in 1981 with speeds of 270 km/h on the new TGV line between ICE 3 running parallel to the Autobahn A3 between Cologne and Frankfurt (Bildarchiv DB AG) Paris and Lyon. These two mammoth railway achievements were followed by long debate on the relative merits of reach between 300 and 350 km/h, of Transport and railway management distributed traction (used by the depending on local topography, and the centred on the key issue of whether new shinkansen) and centralized traction with high-speed records prove that the wheel– lines should be dedicated solely to a locomotive (used by the TGV), as well rail system still has the technical potential passenger traffic (following the Japanese as on the value of separation of passengers to go beyond present commercial speeds, and French model) or whether mixed and freight or use of mixed transport. although noise and energy consumption passenger and freight traffic would be Germany finally followed the Japanese considerations have prevented this so far. best. The state railways obtained a large and French achievements with the High-speed railways are being planned part of their income from freight traffic development of the InterCity Express (ICE) in other countries too, including Spain, and were therefore inclined to offset the described in more detail below. Italy, Korea and Taiwan. In some high investment in new infrastructure by As commercial speeds rose, various countries, high-speed trains operate on serving freight traffic as well. On the railway operators conducted ever-faster existing conventional lines by keeping to other hand, some top persons advocated trial runs to investigate pushing the the 200 km/h maximum limit. For separation of passengers and freight. commercial speed envelope higher. example, Switzerland’s mountainous Although the Cologne–Frankfurt line was France set a new world record for topography allows no other solution that intended to be the first new high-speed electric traction in 1955 with a test run stays within reasonable cost limits. In line, the planning schedule has been of 331 km/h. This was broken by Sweden, despite very long lines that can delayed by this dispute to such an extent Germany in 1988 with an ICE test run of only operate at a profit by connecting major that it has fallen behind the Hannover– 406.8 km/h. This was beaten in turn a conurbations, the low population density Würzburg and Mannheim–Stuttgart lines. few weeks later by France with 408 km/h makes little sense of going overboard on Although the first decision was to build and then again in 1990 with 482.4 km/h. high-speed transportation. In mountainous the Cologne–Frankfurt line as a mixed France still holds the current world speed countries, a common solution is to use passenger–freight line, experience from record for wheels on rails with 513.3 km/h tilting trains permitting up to 30% higher the other lines showed that freight traffic achieved in 1990 using a production TGV. speeds on conventional lines. could only be accommodated with These test runs have helped prove the severe restrictions. First, it was reliability of rolling stock and Separate or Mixed Passenger impossible to create a reasonable infrastructure at high speeds and railway and Freight Traffic? timetable for daytime freight due to large engineers now describe speeds above speed differences between passenger and 200 km/h as ‘high speed.’ However, The German preparations for adoption of freight traffic. Second, the required time actual commercial speeds have gradually high-speed services saw a very time- slots for night freight traffic could not be been pushed well beyond 200 km/h to consuming debate between the Ministry allocated because high-speed lines

require high levels of maintenance that Even more fundamental questions were the state-of-the-art Class 103 electric can only be done at night. The different being raised about the necessity for high- locomotive came into scheduled service weight of passenger and freight trains is speed trains based on economic, social and is a good indicator of the internal another factor favouring separation of and environmental objections. disputes described above. The ET403 passenger and freight traffic; lighter Undoubtedly, high-speed track, rolling came into full service with the 1974–75 passenger trains can negotiate steeper stock, and safety infrastructure are winter timetable revision and was actually grades (35 per mil or 35‰) than heavier incredibly expensive and state funding a very advanced concept. It had freight trains (10 per mil or 10‰), tends to leave government coffers with underfloor motors driving all axles, permitting more direct alignments with hardly any funds for regional middle- providing advantages of low axial load, fewer tunnels. The Hannover–Würzburg distance traffic. Short-distance commuter reduced rail wear and good acceleration. line was the first to be operated at high traffic tends to be exempt from this Passive tilting technology enabled it to speed but the initially planned freight problem because politicians realize that travel at a maximum speed of 200 km/h traffic was soon discontinued for the public service obligations (PSOs) are a even on tracks with many curves but above reasons, only to be subsequently hot potato they ignore at their peril. technical shortcomings made some resumed. At present, heavy freight trains Critics of high-speed rail argue that there passengers travel-sick, resulting in the run every 6 minutes at night at 120 km/h, is no good justification for ignoring temporary abandonment of tilting while more lightly loaded trains are middle-distance regional traffic, which technology. On the other hand, the air- permitted to run at 160 km/h. carries many more ordinary people than bolster suspension provided a very Another dispute that required resolution the ‘elite’ high-speed traffic used mostly comfortable ride in combination with a was the incompatibility between high- by a relatively small number of business luxurious interior with heated window speed traffic and short-distance traffic, travellers. A second fundamental panes and swivel seats. Although the first- especially in conurbations. The solution criticism of high-speed trains is that they class-only Star train continued the required separation of the two consume too much energy and generate Rheingold luxury coach tradition, and was infrastructures and giving priority to high- too much noise. The energy merits of very popular with the travelling public, speed services. But freight traffic is now high-speed trains versus short-distance air only three sets were built and they demanding the same privileges to protect travel have been questioned by Professor remained in service for just 4.5 years until its business quality, which suffers serious Roger Kemp of Lancaster University in a the 1978–79 winter timetable revision. delays at some times of day by being recent UK study, but opinion remains Their operation life was short because lack ‘pushed aside’ in favour of short-distance divided. Environmental criticisms have of suitable tracks mostly prevented them commuter traffic, which has absolute been rebuffed so far by taking careful running at their maximum speed. priority. To their regret, freight traffic measures to protect wildlife. For However, economic and ecological managers cannot overcome this inherent example, expensive sound barriers have reasons prompted the Ministry of Transport disadvantage of freight through extra been built to protect the breeding sites to implement a policy of replacing internal payments to the infrastructure manager/ of bustards, etc., and deer can continue domestic flights with railway services and owner, because the priority of commuter following 1000-year old paths through the ET403 was revived in March 1982 as traffic is based on social necessity. railway underpasses. the Lufthansa Airport Express service Another key issue that became an almost between Düsseldorf and Frankfurt. The ideological debate was about whether concept was expanded using loco- future high-speed rolling stock should use Rolling Stock hauled trains between Stuttgart and distributed traction like the Japanese Frankfurt but was discontinued when the shinkansen or be hauled by powerful The German ICE operated today by discovery of severe corrosion damage locomotives like the French TGV. Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) was forced the ET403 to be scrapped. This Advocates of distributed traction argued preceded by the short-lived Class ET403 early sensible cooperation between rail that it enables flexible adjustment of railcar developed in 1972 by Deutsche and air services was continued by capacity to demand. Its opponents argue Bundesbahn (DB). The German intercity allowing air travellers to reserve seats on that in a high-speed world, no time would network was inaugurated during the regular trains. Undoubtedly, DB’s ET403 be available for shunting and flexibility 1971–72 period coupled with a massive was ahead of its time and must take the only makes sense if two or three motor timetable revision and the development honour of being the forerunner of German units can be coupled together. of the ET403 railcar at the same time that high-speed services.

38 Japan Railway & Transport Review 40 • March 2005 Copyright © 2005 EJRCF. All rights reserved. the pneumatic disc brakes (two per axle) are only used when additional braking power is needed and to prevent a stopped train rolling. In addition to disc brakes, the passenger cars also have rail brakes but the system is different to the eddy- current based rail brakes of the ICE-V, which had brake problems. The ICE-V suffered from some noise and vibration, especially in the restaurant car, so DB changed from the earlier solid monobloc wheels to resilient wheels. Although this change cut the in-carriage noise and vibration, the disintegration of the tyre of a resilient wheel was a principal factor Driver’s cab of ICE 3 (Bildarchin DB AG) causing the Eschede accident in June 1998 that killed 101 people. As a result, all Despite the problems with the ET403 and was especially noteworthy because it trains have been retrofitted with the the success of the Class 103 locomotive, consisted of an electrical regenerative original solid monobloc wheels. DB proceeded with designing an EMU brake, mechanical disc brakes and a rail Compared to the French TGV, the ICE 1 taking into consideration aerodynamic brake using eddy current. is much more comfortable and more requirements at higher speeds. After While the InterCity Experimental spacious but at DM50 million per train, it extensive studies by the Federal Ministry (sometimes called the ICE-V) was still in is nearly three times more expensive than of Research and Technology (FMRT), development, in the summer of 1988, DB a TGV Atlantique train. The much higher financing was secured to start building ordered 82 units of the first-generation Class cost is mainly due to the more complex the Series 410-001 InterCity Experimental 401 ICE 1. It was designed to reach a electronics in the monitoring and in September 1982. About 60% of the maximum speed of 280 km/h on new tracks diagnostic systems. On the other hand, DM94 million in construction costs was and 200 km/h on existing tracks. The the TGV has the advantage of Jacobs-type covered by the FMRT with the remainder maximum speed through tunnels was bogies with superior aerodynamics and borne by the manufacturers and DB. The limited to 250 km/h due to large pressure- better stability in a derailment. However, Class 410 entered service on 19 March wave effects in trains closing head-on. The the TGV has disadvantages of narrower 1985 soon after leaving the works and ICE 1 train set consists of two identical car passages and a restricted axle load of became the first train in the history of motor cars (one at each end) and 12 cars 17 tonnes. Although the TGV German railways to pass the 300 km/h between them. An optical-fibre control intermediate cars are shorter than those mark on a test track between Bielefeld and cable runs the full 400-m length of the set of the ICE 1, two TGVs can be coupled to Hamm on 26 October 1985 when it set a ensuring that driving and braking provide an adequate number of seats even new record of 317 km/h. This record was commands arrive practically during peak periods. broken again by the ICE when it set a world simultaneously at both motor cars. If the The ICE 1 changed the fundamentals of record of 406.9 km/h on 1 May 1988. optical fibre parts while the train is moving, German railways; speeds of 310 km/h The InterCity Experimental incorporated a fail-safe mechanism activates full service were easily reached during test runs in various design innovations from the fields braking (automatic train stop). The ICE 1 summer 1990. The first 23 trains entered of aeronautics and aerospace engineering has a Scharfenberg coupler that allows an scheduled service at a maximum speed to achieve excellent aerodynamic ICE to be towed in an emergency but does of 250 km/h between Hamburg and performance. The axles used solid not permit double heading of two ICE trains, Munich in June 1991, considerably monobloc wheels as well as air which only became possible with ICE 2 shortening travel times between many suspension. The two power units had trains (Class 402). German cities and cutting 62 minutes off powered bogies with two three-phase The two ICE 1 motor cars have the journey between Hamburg and asynchronous motors each for a total rated independent brake systems. Most service Frankfurt and up to 115 minutes from power of 4.2 MW. The braking system braking uses the regenerative brakes and Hamburg to Stuttgart.

Services were easily extended into solved for the Inter City 225 by using an Following the ICE 2, DB AG faced a major Austria and Switzerland although Swiss artificial ballast. In Germany, wind breaks decision about whether to stay with the services required addition of a narrower and protective walls have been built along present system of centralized traction or pantograph. However, international the track and anemometers are installed to develop new distributed-traction EMUs services to the Netherlands, Belgium and at known windy locations. When the like the Japanese shinkansen. Past French France were blocked by incompatible wind speed exceeds the threshold, a signal and German experience spoke for keeping signalling; France also objected that the is sent directly to the ICE automatic train centralized traction, but economic ICE trains are too wide and too heavy for control system informing the driver to slow considerations favoured a different the French gauge. On the other hand, to a maximum speed of 200 km/h even solution. For example, about 17% of a an ICE 1 train set even made a on sections with a speed limit of 250 or 200-m long French TGV is occupied by transatlantic journey as described in the 280 km/h. This problem does not occur the two motor cars, which do not produce article by Mr Black on pp. 18–21 in this when running with the driving unit in the fare revenues from seats. In the case of a issue of JRTR. Although the ICE 1 set an lead or when double heading with the shinkansen EMU where traction motors American speed record of 260 km/h and driving unit at the front, so the speed are distributed throughout the train length, operated as the Amtrak Metroliner for restriction does not apply in these cases. passengers can be seated along the full several months, a variant of the French The ICE 2 started commercial length except in the driver’s cab. TGV was chosen for budget reasons. operations in June 1997 on the Moreover, the EMU principle has the Following the first 60 ICE 1 train sets, DB Cologne–Hannover–Berlin line at advantage of low static axle loads ordered 44 second-generation ICE 2 train maximum speeds of 250 km/h. This meaning less track wear and tear, etc. sets in August 1993. They are shorter sets limit was later increased to 280 km/h The optimum internal divisions and that can run on busy track sections as a except in tunnels. Initially, ICE 2 trains external design were determined by combination of two coupled trains and only served east–west lines but they are building a full-scale model in 1996 and double heading. Some pantograph now found on most ICE lines except in ICE 3 production started a year later. problems arose because vibration of Austria and Switzerland. A more powerful Although DB AG had to wait a long time closely adjacent pantographs causes the computer was installed to improve control before the ICE became a distributed traction trailing pantograph to lose proper wire for double heading as well as for better system, the ICE-M is now a reality. Seventeen contact. Tests were run in cooperation with wheel-slip and wheel-skid prevention. of the first 50 ICE 3 sets (Class 403) are TGV engineers—who have been double Data are displayed on two monitors, one multiple units (Class 406). Four of the first heading TGVs for more than 18 years—to each in the lead and trailing units. The 17 sets were supplied to Netherlands solve these problems and for testing the bogies are fitted with air suspension to Railways (NS) due to urgent rolling-stock bow flaps for firmness in the opened state. improve the running stability over the needs, and December 2000 saw ICE 3 Following the tragic Eschede accident in ICE 1, making it possible to retrofit the trials in Switzerland. More ICE 3 tests 1998, DB AG fitted the ICE 2 with an early low-maintenance time-tested solid were made in June 2001 between warning system to detect incipient monobloc wheels without problems. The Strasbourg, Nancy, and Mulhouse in damage to bogies and wheels. Sensors ICE 2 exterior is similar to that of the ICE 1 France. A train was tested in Belgium in on each bogie detect the occurrence of but the domed roof of the restaurant car January 2002 and subsequently made test cracks or other signs of wear from the (which was criticized by the public as runs between Calais and Lille. The French bogie vibration profile. Apart from the being out of harmony with the overall trials were made to test the compatibility ICE, only Eurostar services through the design theme) was eliminated for of power systems and brakes with SNCF Channel Tunnel between Europe and the aerodynamic reasons. The passenger seats regulations, as well to investigate the UK have this type of wheel diagnostics. weigh only 25 kg, 50% less than ICE 1 seats. interaction between the pantograph and A special problem occurs when the Every car has power outlets to support AC catenary. The goal is to obtain type approval driving trailer of the ICE 2 is running in operation of laptop computers. However, for operations on the French network. the lead. Since the driving trailer has no despite the overall success of the ICE 2, Eleven ICE 3 train sets were incorporated motors or power converter, it is lighter DB AG does not envisage placing into the timetable for the Hannover EXPO than the driving unit and there is danger another order for more sets because the 2000, meeting with success right from the of the trailer rising and derailing when 40 per mil (40‰) grade on the planned start. ICE 3 services have been operating there are strong cross-winds on open Frankfurt–Cologne high-speed line would between Frankfurt (Main) and Cologne sections. In the UK, this problem was overtax the present ICE series. every 2 hours since 4 November 2000

40 Japan Railway & Transport Review 40 • March 2005 Copyright © 2005 EJRCF. All rights reserved. with alternate intermediate stops at brakes while the traction motors serve as can interfere with signals, so trackside Limburg, Montabaur, and Siegburg; every regenerative brakes supplying power back signalling systems must be shielded. train stops at Frankfurt Airport and service to the catenary during service braking. The ICE 3 train sets have lavish interiors frequencies were increased to 1-hour The pneumatic disc brakes are only used with an attractive lounge at each end intervals on 15 September 2002. Six new at lower speeds. Since some countries where passengers can get a driver’s eye ICE lines are now running on this new do not permit back-supply to the catenary view of the tracks. infrastructure. at regenerative braking, brake resistors Raising the maximum speed to 300 km/h are installed in the ICE-M units to absorb soon showed up a number of deficiencies the regenerated power as heat. Rail The German Railway Network in couplings, air-conditioning, rail brakes, braking using eddy current is very effective disc brakes and motors. The remedies under all rail conditions but the high Heavy aerial bombing during WWII left the required many meetings between DB AG magnetic field induced by eddy current German rail network badly damaged. and the builders, suggesting that the development time was too short and DB AG did not allow sufficient time for German High-speed Network operation tests. ICE 3 services have been running to Amsterdam since June 2000 and three runs New route (NBS) Copenhagen per day were added between Frankfurt 250 – 300 km/h Improved route (ABS) (Main) and Brussels (Bruxelles-Midi) in time 160 – 200 km/h Kiel for the 2002 winter timetable. Improved junction Unfortunately, use on the Belgian high- Hamburg speed line has yet to be approved, so the ICE 3 services run on the old line, taking Bremen ABS 230 km/h 15 minutes longer than would be possible on the high-speed line. When the high- Berlin Warsaw Hannover speed tests have been completed, the Magdeburg journey between Frankfurt and Brussels Amsterdam Münster Braunschweig will drop to 3 hours and 32 minutes. Hamm The future TGV Est Européen line from Göttingen Halle Paris via Strasbourg to Munich will be DulsbDulsburgurg Dortmund served by both French TGVs and German Kassel Leipzig Dresden ICE 3s. Spanish National Railways Cologne Erfurt BrBrusselsussels ICE-TD (RENFE) has decided in favour of the Bonn Fulda ICE 3 for its service on the new Madrid– Aachen Prague FRA Zaragoza–Barcelona line where trains will run at service speeds of 350 km/h—the Mainz Frankfurt highest in the world. Würzburg Mannheim Nuremberg Saarbrücckenken This performance is possible because half Heidelberg of all the ICE 3 bogies are powered, Paris guaranteeing excellent acceleration. KarKarisruneisrune Stuttgart Passau Unlike the TGV, centre bogies were not Strasbourg chosen because priority was given to Vienna Augsburg Munich FreiburgFreiburg Ulm quick bogie replaceability. The new SGP Salzburg 500 bogie used by the ICE 3 is lighter than ICE-TD Vienna the SGP 400 of the ICE 2, and the still InnsbruckInnsbruck Basle older design of the ICE 1. Both the design Garmisch Brenner of the bogie frame and coach body ensure Zürich very quiet running. All bogies have disc

Moreover, the political division of Germany made it impossible to operate radially contribution to the European Paris–eastern into West and East cut the mainly east–west from the centre of the country; the existing France–south Germany–Vienna axis (POS). oriented network, forcing a north–south IC network formed the shape of a figure Although we are still seeing what has been reorientation in what was then West ‘8’ with hub stations where passengers termed the ‘frontier effect’ (in which a full Germany. The West German federal could make easy cross-platform train becomes nearly empty at the last government developed a comprehensive connections to another line. border station and then fills up again at plan for the entire transportation In the course of this new impetus, the first station across the border), the infrastructure including railways. The DB planning of the Cologne–Frankfurt line plans for a European high-speed network component envisaged 2225 km of new was resumed, but now as a pure passenger introduced as early as 1989 by the lines supporting speeds up to 300 km/h and line. However, it was not the next line to International Railway Association (UIC) development of a further 1250 km for be handed over to passenger traffic. Due and the Community of European Railways speeds up to 200 km/h. Work on the first to the sudden fall of the Berlin Wall and (representing railways at the EU in new Hannover–Würzburg line (327 km) subsequent German reunification, the Brussels) are continuing and are reflected started in August 1973 and it was opened ‘provisional’ West German capital of Bonn in the concept of the trans-European in sections between 1988 and 1991. Other was moved back to Berlin, resulting in the network pursued by the EU Commission. new lines were envisaged between relocation of the German government and The Commission made an important Cologne and Frankfurt (177 km), and making new transport planning an urgent contribution by pushing interoperability Mannheim and Stuttgart (100 km). The necessity. In 1992, a new federal in the European high-speed system. It latter line was opened between 1987 and timetable was issued which foresaw a new issued guidelines on interoperability that 1991. However, the First Gulf War and line between Hannover (more precisely came into effect on 17 September 1996. subsequent oil crisis forced the plans to be Wolfsburg) and Berlin. It too was to be The amended guideline became part of scaled back; the Cologne–Frankfurt line solely a passenger line with the old tracks German law in 1999 and stipulates the was dropped and less ambitious operations running parallel to the new alignment to key aims of interoperability, the scope of targets were set for the other new lines with be freight-only. Clearly a new railway application and implementation of mixed passenger and freight traffic running strategy was in the offing—systematic provisions, as well as the process for at maximum speeds of 200 and 80 km/h, separation of passengers and freight— drawing up and adopting the technical respectively. under a plan known as ‘Network 21,’ the specifications for interoperability. The 1981 opening of the first TGV line name indicating the enormity of the task. The guideline sets its sights on the entire between Paris and Lyons and subsequent The so-called East–West line entered system, both infrastructure (track, power successful operations inspired DB to operation in 1998, while the Cologne– supply, train control/signalling, and rolling formulate a High-speed Transportation Plan Frankfurt line was delayed until 2002. stock) and performance (maintenance, for the Nineties in 1984. The three key Due to constraints on the public purse, operation, environment, and passengers). elements were full utilization of the planned new plans today centre on projects to The aim of the Commission’s policy is free, new lines and extensions; development of complete the intra-German system, unimpeded transport of goods and high-speed trains based on the latest R&D including raising speeds on the Hamburg– passengers within the European market. into ‘wheels on steel’; and further Berlin line to 230 km/h and connecting Although there was some previous development of the Inter City system started the southern conurbation of Munich via compatibility in conventional traffic, with in 1979 under the slogan ‘Every hour—Every Thuringen (Erfurt) and Saxony (Leipzig) to passenger carriages and freight wagons class’ and now forming the core of Berlin. However, as the central railway, travelling across borders throughout the passenger traffic on regular lines. DB AG must comply with EU plans for entire continent, the different power and The commercial idea was based on the European-wide rail transport. The signalling systems represented obstacles concept of ‘half as fast as the aeroplane— Mannheim–Basle line is important for that hindered the transition of national twice as fast as the car.’ In contrast to the southbound traffic to Switzerland and railway systems to a liberal Europe-wide French concept, the proviso was that high- Italy, and the Cologne–Aix-la-Chapelle– railway market. The problems of different speed trains should only operate to a Lüttich link will complete the Paris– power supplies were solved by minor degree on conventional lines, Brussels–Amsterdam–Cologne (PBKA) development of multiple-power systems because they could not display their system. Extensions, starting with the because nobody had the massive funds advantages on such lines. On the other Frankfurt–Basle line towards Saarbrücken required to standardize power supply hand, Germany’s polycentric structure and Strasbourg will make a great systems. However, standardization of

42 Japan Railway & Transport Review 40 • March 2005 Copyright © 2005 EJRCF. All rights reserved. signalling on which high-speed technology is very dependent is Main Rail Passenger Flows in Germany considered rational. Therefore, the EU is supporting development of a standardized European signalling technology called European Railways Transport Management System (ERMTS) or, in accordance with the parlance of railways, the European Train Control System (ETCS) using funds from the research budget. Introduction of ETCS is intended to supplant the multitude of national train- safety systems in high-speed railways, enable more intelligent design of train control and safety through integration, save costs for maintenance and operation of fixed installations, and increase line capacity and speeds. In 1999, the ETCS specified by the UIC was successfully tested on the Vienna–Budapest line but DB AG estimates that Europe-wide introduction of ETCS will take 15 to 20 years with costs of about €500 million in Germany alone and about €8 billion Europe-wide. The present system, which is backwards-compatible with existing signalling systems, is not yet fully mature, so DB AG had to delay its planned introduction on the new Cologne–Frankfurt line and reverted to DB AG’s proven continuous train control system (LZB). Unlike conventional systems, with the LZB system the train driver is not guided by trackside signals, which only safely permit speeds up to 160 km/h due to slow human reaction times. Instead, the driver follows information displayed in the cab. The most distinctive feature of the system computers must arrive at the same result is one cable running along the middle of before a command is passed on. This Economics the track and a second cable running technology extends the ‘view’ of the train along the inside rail. The cables cross driver by several kilometers, permitting The high-speed trains of DB AG met with every 100 m at track conductors and data on-time driver reactions even at immediate popular success just like their is passed from these crossing points to the substantially higher speeds. A predecessors in Japan and France. The connected signal box. The dispatchers. development of LZB is the so-called number of train-kilometers increased and stationmaster, etc., can determine the train Computer Integrated Railroading—Increase demand showed corresponding growth location to within 100 m. Three LZB of Efficiency in Core Network (CIR-ELKE) with improving revenues in long-distance computers operating in parallel in the system, which permits more trains to travel passenger traffic. In Germany, with its signal boxes feed data to the track and along a track and increases track capacity large population and polycentric get data from it. At least two of the three one step further. conurbations, the economic efficiency

rail technology. It found that a magnetic- levitation ‘railway’ could be profitable along Germany’s north–south axis. In the same year, a maximum speed of 70 km/h was achieved by an experimental vehicle on a 660-m track, providing proof of the technology concept. Development of a magnetic-levitation train in Japan began 2 years later than in Germany. Its proponents promised lower noise levels with higher speeds than the shinkansen. Japan Airlines (JAL) sensed a good business chance with ‘flying at zero altitude’ and joined the development effort in 1971 using West-German technology. However, the experimental vehicle produced in 1975 was very different from the German prototype. By 1977, the Transrapid maglev running on test track (Author) HSST-01 had reached speeds of 150 km/h soon rising to 500 km/h state-of-the-art could be sound if the federal government authorities. Whether this is a correct magnetic trains but no practical continues helping to fund new policy in view of efforts to use more application was adopted. The idea of infrastructure. However, the low environment-friendly transportation is building a magnetic train between population density in France coupled with hotly debated in Europe. However, high- Hamburg and Berlin was rejected by the smaller and fewer conurbations suggests speed rail passenger traffic in Europe still head of DB AG on the grounds of being there is a limit to the profitability of high- looks very promising, especially after the uneconomical. A minor success was speed railways there. next round of line improvements. achieved in January 2001 when China The new efficient high-speed railways decided in favour of the German have had more impact on air traffic than Alternatives to Steel Transrapid for services between road traffic; short-haul air traffic has Wheels on Rails? Shanghai’s financial centre and declined noticeably wherever high-speed Shanghai International Airport. After train services make an appearance. This The German magnetic-levitation (maglev) some teething troubles, the system has is especially apparent in France where all system recently commercialized in been running since early this year at air services between Paris and Brussels Shanghai might suffer the same fate as speeds up to 430 km/h. Some have been discontinued because the TGV many other German high-tech proponents hoped it would also be runs from Brussels’ South Station to Paris’ developments. The development of adopted for the Shanghai–Beijing high- Charles de Gaulle Airport and from Paris magnetic-levitation systems goes back to speed line, but traditional wheel–rail North to Zaventem International Airport 1922 when Hermann Kemper was the first technology was finally chosen instead. in Brussels. Since the TGV Méditeranée person to consider replacing train wheels France also tested some alternatives to started covering the 700 km between Paris with electromagnets. Although he wheels on steel even before the TGV, and Marseille in 3 hours, many airline patented his idea in 1934, the technology using the guided rapid-transit Aerotrain customers on this sector have changed to at that time was inadequate to realize his running at 418 km/h. To stay on track, the the train. This policy has been pursued vision of ‘flying at zero altitude.’ Research system had a concrete guideway with in Germany by including the airports at on magnetic levitation was only resumed concrete centre rail. A working model was Frankfurt and Cologne in the high-speed in 1966 by a development team at Bölkow built in 1963 to promote the idea of a rapid- network. Budget airlines are a danger due KG. In 1968, Bölkow KG, DB, and Straba transit connection between Paris and Lyon to their unbeatable low prices thanks to Bau AG established a company to at 350 km/h but the project did not reach fuel and VAT tax exemptions and evaluate the feasibility of magnetic- the production stage due to political sometimes preferential treatment by local levitation technology compared to wheel– reasons. However, Jean Bertin became

44 Japan Railway & Transport Review 40 • March 2005 Copyright © 2005 EJRCF. All rights reserved. famous in railway circles with his development of the air-cushion vehicles. Since these new systems are not easily compatible with conventional wheel-on- steel railways, it seems unlikely that they will be successful. There may be some potential for long routes between Western/Central Europe and Moscow, or for Eurasian routes of 10,000 km or more. However, the outlook is poor and manufacturers and potential operators are making only hesitant development attempts when governments come up with guarantees or subsidies. At present, it seems more reasonable to develop conventional Europe-wide Eurotrain with double-decker carriages (Author) railways with complete interoperability. question under current conditions. The that it would not accept such an immensely high requirements concerning arrangement unless there was competition. Outlook technology and financing have given the I few major national railways embarking on Although the plans for new and extended this new technology an enormous head high-speed routes for passenger traffic start that will be very hard to catch up with. look promising, there must be a change What will happen where high-speed away from the old postwar policies passenger trains cross borders? Will there favouring roads over rail. For a region- be cooperation like the present examples wide population, continued heavy of Eurostar and Thalys, or will cross-border reliance on the automobile and highways competition develop as between Thalys might be sustainable in Europe if all and the ICE on the Cologne–Brussels line? freight switched from road to rail. The In freight, the establishment of Railion by railways have shown that there is still DB AG has formed the nucleus of a development potential but the next successful international freight-traffic important stage is straightening out freight railway. Could this also happen in high- and passenger transport as envisaged by speed passenger transport? According to DB AG’s Network 21 plan for 6000 km the press, the heads of SNCF and DB AG of new lines by 2010 supplemented by have discussed whether SNCF should take line extensions. Perhaps high-speed over high-speed passenger transport in freight transport might be possible given Europe in return for DB AG taking over sufficient resources with direct continent-wide freight traffic. In this connections across 1500 to 2000 km, or matter, the EU Commission has signalled in a hub-and-spoke system up to about 750 km around an intercontinental airport. Klaus Ebeling How liberalization of the railway market will impact the EU in the long term is Mr Ebeling is Secretary General of the European Intermodal Association. He has held various high- anybody’s guess. So far, only small parts level railway posts including Head of the European Policy Office of DB AG in Brussels, Executive Board Director of DB AG, Deputy Secretary General of UIC, Head of International Department of DB, of short-distance traffic and even less of and personal advisor to the President and CEO of DB. medium-distance traffic have transferred to newcomers. Inauguration of high speed by a newcomer railway seems out of the