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Theology in Stone: Gothic Architecture, Scholasticism, and the Medieval Incarnational View of Knowledge

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Theology in Stone: Gothic Architecture, Scholasticism, and the Medieval Incarnational View of Knowledge Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences Theology in Stone: Gothic The fourth crusade conquered Constantinople, briefly unifying the whole Architecture, Scholasticism, of Christendom under the papal banner. and the Medieval Scholasticism expanded with the swelling ranks of scholars entering the new Incarnational View of universities. Two new mendicant orders, the Knowledge Dominicans and Franciscans, enriched the ecclesiastical magisterium. The greatest medieval scholar, Thomas Aquinas, By Brenton H. Cook, Ph.D. systematized the teaching of the church in his Summa Theologica. Accompanying Bob Jones University these developments was a burgeoning new movement in church architecture spiraling toward the heavens. Gothic architecture, like Aquinas’s scholastic masterpiece, was massive in scope, intricately detailed, and reflected the quintessential medieval quest for a unified worldview.1 Aquinas’s Summa narrates the world’s story in three major themes: God, Man, and the Redeemer. Gothic architecture embodies the same themes in stone. The elite sons of the church, who could afford a university education, were lectured on Aquinas’s Summa. Paupers and peasants were lectured in the stone and glass adorning their local cathedrals. Aquinas harmonized divine theology with the greatest achievements of human philosophy. Gothic architecture harmonized heaven and earth by anticipating the arrival of the New Jerusalem.2 The development of scholasticism in the high medieval period remarkably parallels the development of church architecture. Edwin Panofsky observes, “There exists between Gothic architecture and Scholasticism a palpable and hardly Image Credit: Pixabay accidental concurrence in the purely factual domain of time and place—a concurrence so inescapable that the historians of medieval philosophy, uninfluenced by ulterior The Glories of the Thirteenth Century considerations, have been led to their The crowning achievements of material in precisely the same way as do the medieval culture converged in the thirteenth art historians theirs.”3 century. The most powerful pope occupied Peter’s chair in the person of Innocent III. 15 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences This work demonstrates that the affair with Heloise, he committed to philosophical currents undergirding observing the monastic lifestyle at the old scholasticism were identical to those abbey church of Saint-Denis in Paris a few undergirding the Gothic cathedral. It years prior to Suger’s becoming abbot of the explores Gothic architecture as a medium same monastery church. From this Parisian for communicating an incarnational and center, scholasticism and Gothic architecture holistic worldview centered on the reunion would both radiate across Europe. Panofsky of God and man through Christ.4 Scholastic is insightful, theology, likewise, offered an incarnational Thus Early Scholasticism was born worldview that embraced all domains of at the same moment and in the same human learning.5 environment in which Early Gothic architecture was born in Suger’s Parallel Beginnings: Gothic Architecture Saint-Denis. For both the new style and Scholasticism of thinking and the new style of Scholars generally date the Gothic building (opus Francigenum)— period in architecture from the end of the though brought about by ‘many Romanesque to the beginning of the masters from different nations,’ as Renaissance periods.6 The distinction is Suger said of his artisans, and soon somewhat arbitrary, but beginning with the developing into truly international rebuilding of the monastery church of Saint- movements—spread from an area Denis near Paris under the direction of comprised with a circle drawn Abbot Suger, several architectural around Paris with a radius of less innovations evolved out of Romanesque than a hundred miles. And they style.7 Since the sixth century, the church at continued to be centered in this area Saint-Denis had been the burial site of the for about one century and a half.9 French monarchy. Suger erected over their sarcophagi a building as magnificent as any Panofsky demonstrates that the in Christendom. “The cathedral,” says Ernst parallels between Gothic architecture and Levy “as the kingdom of God on earth gazed scholasticism are numerous. High down upon the city and its population, scholasticism, begun in the twelfth century, transcending all other concerns of life as it coincides with the High Gothic Cathedrals transcended all its physical dimensions.” of Chartres and Soissons, also erected in the Suger aspired to create “a spectacle in which twelfth century.10 Twelfth-century heaven and earth, the angelic hosts in scholastics were especially influenced by the heaven and the human community in the great ancient philosopher Aristotle, whose sanctuary, seemed to merge.”8 works enjoyed a renaissance following the Suger’s life (1081-1151) intersects early crusades. To Thomas Aquinas, with the life Anselm of Canterbury (1033- Aristotle was “the philosopher” who did not 1109) and nearly parallels that of Peter need to be named. But Aristotle’s influence Abelard (1079-1142), two of the greatest was also breathed into High Gothic statuary. schoolmen. Anselm’s treatises mark the “The infinitely more lifelike. High Gothic beginning of scholasticism proper, and statues of Reims and Amiens, Strasbourg Abelard’s writings represent the earliest and Naumburg and the natural—though not, distinctly French contribution to as yet, naturalistic—fauna and flora of High scholasticism. Gothic ornament proclaim the victory of Suger may have known Abelard Aristotelianism.”11 This Aristotelian personally. After Abelard’s tumultuous love emphasis on the body, though animated by 16 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences the immortal human soul, corresponds with rendering them far heavier and potentially the scholastic attempt to demonstrate God’s cracking the stones at the base. existence through empirical demonstration Consequently, Romanesque churches could rather than by a priori means.12 never achieve the enormous heights of the The glories of scholasticism and Gothic churches. Gothic architecture also begin to fade The Gothic pointed arch, by simultaneously in the late thirteenth century. contrast, rotates much of the horizontal A bifurcation appears in the scholastic pressure in a semi-vertical direction attempt to wed theology and philosophy in a lessening the pressure at the summit of the systematic whole, finally culminating with supporting columns. Transferring the weight the loss of universals as seen in William of downward also focused pressure on points in Ockham’s nominalism. Likewise in the support columns that could be buttressed architecture, the Gothic attempt to wed externally. Consequently, Gothic walls universal forms with particulars in stone, became lighter, and a second distinguishing reverted to far less ambitious architectural characteristic of the Gothic emerged, the styles.13 external flying buttresses—looking very much like the exoskeleton of an exotic Piercing the Heavens: From Romanesque insect. By redistributing much of the to Gothic enormous weight off the ceiling, walls and Gothic architecture evolved out of supporting pillars, architects were thus able the earlier Romanesque style, even as the to raise the height of the building Romanesque represents several innovations considerably. Lighter walls also opened up beyond the simple basilica dating to the time large spaces for windows emitting of Constantine.14 Like the basilica, considerably more light than the older Romanesque is heavy, rectangular, and Romanesque. generally large in scale. Romanesque The Gothic style also applied the distinguished itself from the basilica with architectural principle of the pointed arch to the addition of towers—generally two the intricate structure of the ceiling. An adorning the entrance. The flat wood elaborate series of pointed arches, or ribbed ceilings of the basilica were replaced by vaulting, crisscrossed the central nave and vaulted ceilings. The most distinguishing transepts evenly distributing the weight of characteristic of the Romanesque is the the ceiling to the support pillars, which in rounded arch, often mounted atop thick, turn were supported by the external heavy columns. buttresses. Charles Moore describes the Whereas Romanesque churches felt effect of these innovations. heavy, somber, and foreboding, the Gothic, This framework, made up of piers, by contrast, begins to feel increasingly open, arches, and buttresses, is freed from light, airy, and grand. The distinguishing every unnecessary encumbrance of architectural characteristic of the Gothic is wall, and is rendered as light in all its the pointed arch, replacing the earlier parts as is compatible with Romanesque circular arch and barrel strength—the stability of the fabric vaulting. The Romanesque arch thrust the depending not upon inert enormous weight of the ceiling outward in a massiveness (except in the outermost horizontal direction, cracking the supporting abutments), but upon a logical pillars at the point where they intersected the adjustment of active parts whose arches. To compensate, Romanesque architects increased the size of their pillars, 17 Christus Cultura: The Journal of Christianity in the Social Sciences opposing forces neutralize each other by spires adorning the entries to the and produce a perfect equilibrium.15 transepts and numerous pinnacles mounted above the flying buttresses. The famous
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