MEIKE What motivated artists, art historians, and art dealers to HOFFMANN try to link with ? What mechanisms DIETER SCHOLZ defined the canonization of expressionism in art history (EDS.) after the Second World War and the return of ideological- ly charged concepts and patterns of argumentation in the present? This collection of essays explores these questions. The contributions were presented at an international con- ference that was held in May 2019, a collaboration between the Neue Nationalgalerie and the Freie Universität organized by Meike Hoffmann and Dieter Scholz. Several essays in this volume also discuss new, innovative exhibi- tion formats, responsibilities, and perspectives: How can the richly diverse and contradictory image of the world between 1933 and 1945 be represented in the institutional context of an art museum today?

Contributors: Eugen Blume, Bernhard Fulda, Meike Hoff- IN NAZI PRACTICE TRADE, CURATORIAL ART ART, mann, Andreas Hüneke, Joachim Jäger, Gregor Langfeld, Michael Nungesser, Gerhard Paul, Olaf Peters, Sebastian UNMASTERED Peters, Sebastian Preuss, Wolfram Pyta, Julius Redzinski, Christian Ring, Thomas Röske, Christina Rothenhäusler, Lisa Marei Schmidt, Dorothea Schöne, Dieter Scholz, Aya PAST? Soika, Janosch Steuwer, Michael Tymkiw, Volker Weiß, and Christoph Zuschlag MODERNISM IN ART, ART TRADE, CURATORIAL PRACTICE UNMASTERED PAST?

ISBN 978-3-95732-453-5 EDITED BY MEIKE HOFFMANN 9 783957 324535 DIETER SCHOLZ UNMASTERED PAST? MODERNISM IN NAZI GERMANY ART, ART TRADE, CURATORIAL PRACTICE

EDITED BY MEIKE HOFFMANN DIETER SCHOLZ

UNDER ORGANIZATIONAL ASSISTANCE OF NATASCHA HELLWAG TABLE OF CONTENTS

MEIKE HOFFMANN, DIETER SCHOLZ 10 PREFACE

CHRISTOPH ZUSCHLAG 14 naZI-ERA ART AND ART POLICY an OVERVIEW OF TWO DECADES OF RESEARCH

I. CATEGORIZATIONS AND CONCEPTIONS OF ART AND NATIONAL SOCIALISM

OLAF PETERS 38 naZI ART: THE DENIAL OF THE EXTRAORDINARY

ANDREAS HÜNEKE 52 WHAT IS “DEGENERATE” ART AND HOW DO WE RECOGNIZE IT?

JANOSCH STEUWER 62 “NATIONAL SOCIALISTS” AND OTHER PEOPLE OF THE tWENTIETH CENTURY locatING NAZISM IN GERMAN SOCIETY

II. : ACTIONS AND STORIES

THOMAS RÖSKE 78 betWEEN VAN GOGH AND HITLER HANS PRINZHORN AND FRANZ KARL BÜHLER, HIS FAVORITE ARTIST

MICHAEL NUNGESSER 94 a NORDIC EXPRESSIONIST? otto ANDREAS SCHREIBER (1907−1978)

JULIUS REDZINSKI of contents table 112 “ERINNERUNG AN STALINGRAD” fRANZ EICHHORST AS A WAR ARTIST IN THE NAZI ERA

7 III. THE ART TRADE IN NAZI GERMANY: BERNHARD FULDA BUSINESS AS USUAL? 256 tHE SILENCE OF THE SOURCES GAPS IN THE CASE OF SEBASTIAN PETERS 134 netWORKING AND MAINTAINING ROOM TO MANEUVER DOROTHEA SCHÖNE anna CASPARI, AN ART DEALER PERSECUTED BY THE NAZIS 268 constRUCTED (ART) HISTORY INTENT AND REALITY IN WEST GERMAN ART EXHIBITIONS ABROAD AFTER 1945 EUGEN BLUME 148 “THEN COMMERCE, WAR, AND PIRACY, ARE THREE IN ONE 282 CHRISTINA ROTHENHÄUSLER anD CAN’T BE PARTED” tHE STRUGGLE OVER MODERNISM soME THOUGHTS ON ERHARD GÖPEL ebeRHARD HANFSTAENGL BEFORE AND AFTER 1945

MEIKE HOFFMANN 158 fROM THE ART TRADE TO PROPAGANDA VI. NATIONAL SOCIALISM, ART, ART MUSEUMS: AND THE DEUTSCHES INSTITUT IN CURATORIAL PRACTICE AND INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES

AYA SOIKA IV. ART, NATIONAL SOCIALISM, 300 tHE ROLE OF THE NAZI PERIOD IN EXHIBITIONS ON AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM REFLECTIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTWORKS AND HISTORICAL CONTEXTS WOLFRAM PYTA 180 tHE PEN INSTEAD OF THE BRUSH BERNHARD FULDA on STRATEGIES OF CLAIMING GENIUS USED BY ARTISTS IN GERMANY 312 eMIL NOLDE: A GERMAN LEGEND—THE ARTIST DURING tHE NAZI REGIME GERHARD PAUL ABSENCES AND PRESENCES IN THE EXHIBITION SPACE 196 VISUAL WORLDS IN THE NAZI PERIOD notes ON “VISUAL HISTORY” MEIKE HOFFMANN 322 escaPE INTO ART? THE BRÜCKE PAINTERS IN THE NAZI PERIOD MICHAEL TYMKIW on THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY AND EXHIBITION PRACTICE 212 tHE MASS PRODUCTION OF FACTORY EXHIBITIONS IN natIONAL SOCIALIST GERMANY 332 aestHETIC MODERNISM AND NATIONAL SOCIALISM FROM A MUSEUM PERSPECTIVE VOLKER WEISS 230 “THE STYLE NECESSARY TO START A FIRE…” HOW HEROIC MODERNISM RESONATES WITH TODAY’S NEW RIGHT 356 lIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

360 INDEX OF PERSONS V. NARRATIVES OF PERSECUTION AND HEROIC STORIES OF MODERNISM IN POSTWAR GERMANY 366 ILLUSTRATION CREDITS table of contents table GREGOR LANGFELD 368 IMPRINT 242 tHE “OUTSIDE” VIEW constRUCTIONS OF “GERMAN” MODERNISM AFTER 1945

8 9 in general.) And not least, how have working conditions changed for the researchers themselves? Interdisciplinary discourse, institutional depen- dency, and political wishful thinking are just some of the cross-currents CHRISTOPH ZUSCHLAG swirling around scholars as they do their work today. With these key broad questions in mind, I have organized my con- siderations into eight sections: 1) “,” 2) “Nazi Art,” 3) Not NAZI-ERA ART AND Only/but Also (or: The neither/nor), 4) Art Critics and Art Historians, ART POLICY 5) Institutions (Museums and Art Academies), 6) The Art Market, Art Dealers, and Collectors, 7) Provenance Research, and 8) Future Prospects. AN OVERVIEW OF TWO DECADES OF RESEARCH 1. “DEGENERATE ART”

The year 2003 saw the establishment of the Berlin-based Forschungstelle This overview of recent, mostly German, research into art and art policy “Entartete Kunst” in the department of art history at the Freie Universität. during the Nazi era is a decidedly subjective one, shaped by my own biog- (Full disclosure: I was a researcher there during its first three years.) The raphy as a researcher in the field and by an admittedly selective approach. center’s first director was Uwe Fleckner, who transferred in 2004 to the Under the circumstances, it would therefore be presumptuous to prom- Universität Hamburg to establish a second research center with a differ- ise completeness or full objectivity. ent area of focus. Long-term funding for the Forschungstelle came from the One particular publication serves as a reference point and as a Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung until mid-2015, with additional support provided kind of blueprint for my own review—Überbrückt: Ästhetische Moderne by the Gerda Henkel Stiftung. Then, after six months of stopgap funding und Nationalsozialismus, the seminal 1999 overview of German art histo- by the FU, Germany’s commissioner for culture and the media sponsored rians and artists from 1925 to 1937 edited by Eugen Blume and Dieter the project from 2016–18. After this, the city-state of Berlin supported the Scholz. The volume began as a colloquium in Berlin co-organized by the center with co-financing from the FU and the Kulturstiftung der Länder. Ferdinand-Moeller-Stiftung and the Nationalgalerie.1 In eight sections, its The latter has committed to financing through mid-2021 one student as- twenty-four chapters explored the relationship between modern art and sistant in addition to work contracts to maintain the center’s “Degenerate the Nazi state, the roles of art professionals (particularly art historians, Art” database. In the meantime, the research center has earned national as art writers and journalists, artists, and art dealers), and the history of well as international recognition thanks to its continuous and ground-break-

exhibitions and museums during the period. Both the conference and ing scholarly contributions. The team, primarily led by Meike Hoffmann and y the subsequent volume established the parameters of a hitherto little Andreas Hüneke, is under the administrative leadership of Klaus Krüger. explored field of study. At the same time, Überbrückt highlighted the need Having established itself as the leading center for expertise in matters of for a more nuanced examination of a wealth of subjects, including Nazi “degenerate art,” it is all the more crucial that long-term public funding for t Pol i c art ideology, the roles of various institutions, the behavior of individual the project be secured. One particularly high-profile example of the cen- protagonists, and the aesthetics of modernism itself. In retrospect, the ter’s work involved identifying the trove of art discovered in 2010 during project was as farsighted as it was provocative. excavations for a new subway line near Berlin’s city hall. The center was t an d Ar What have the intervening two decades brought us in terms of able to trace the sculpture and sculptural fragments found near the Rote Er a Ar

research? What have we accomplished? And what remains unmastered? Rathaus—sixteen pieces in all—to the Nazi campaign to confiscate “degen- - How have institutions developed to address these issues; how has exhibi- erate art.”2 Then, in 2012, when the large trove of artworks was discovered zi tion praxis and research infrastructure changed? (There have been signif- in the apartment of Cornelius Gurlitt, the center again played a lead- N a icant developments, for example, in provenance research and digitization ing role from the very start, mainly through Meike Hoffmann’s engagement.3

14 15 The Forschungstelle continues to fulfill its core task: processing the Nazi a significantly expanded edition of his 1990 study of the Kunstmuseum inventory of material seized during its notorious “Entartete Kunst” cam- Basel’s purchase in 1939–40 of twenty-one works of “degenerate art” paign and publishing its findings online. It bases its work on the list that confiscated from Berlin museums in addition to the notorious 1939 auc- the Nazis themselves compiled at the time of the confiscations. For many tion of additional works (at Galerie Fischer) in Lucerne.8 Comparing these years this work had been hindered by the fact that only the first volume of recent exhibitions with the two most comprehensive exhibitions on the the list was available—covering museums from to Greifswald— subject of “degenerate” art held prior to 1999—one of them curated by but a breakthrough came in 1997, a year after the widow of art dealer Peter-Klaus Schuster in Munich in 1987 to mark the fiftieth anniversary Harry Fischer donated her husband’s papers to the Victoria and Albert of the Nazi Ent­artete Kunst exhibition, the other organized by Stephanie Museum in London. Andreas Hüneke ascertained that these archives con- Barron in Los Angeles and Berlin in 1992—makes clear how far research tained a copy of the complete Nazi inventory. By the summer of 2018, the into Nazi art policy has come in the intervening years. In particular, we Forschungstelle’s database was therefore able to offer a full online listing see a whole new range of questions being asked as well as the fruit of of the more than twenty-one thousand seized artworks—including the greatly expanded research methods. These shows have given provenance close to five hundred works from the estate of Cornelius Gurlitt that are issues much more attention, along with networks of artists, art dealers, currently housed in the Kunstmuseum Bern.4 Today, provenance infor- and museum professionals, and have been able to draw on deeper pools mation in particular is updated continually. I must again stress the critical of knowledge about Nazi art theft more generally. importance of securing permanent public funding for the Forschungstelle Another area falling under the general heading of “degenerate art” so that this crucial database can be maintained at a high academic level considers how other countries reacted at the time to the Nazi demoniza- and the center’s professional scholarly work can be continued. Indeed, tion campaigns. For example, there were “counter exhibitions” organized permanent funding is long overdue. in London, Paris, and the United States. Lucy Wasensteiner’s groundbreak­ The Forschungstelle also regularly organizes courses and confer- ing work on the 1938 London exhibition Twentieth Century German Art ences and supervises doctoral and master’s level theses. Major studies was the topic of her dissertation and appeared as a book in 2019. She have been published under its aegis within the framework of two differ- was able to partially reconstruct that historic exhibition for a show held in ent series. The series published by De Gruyter Verlag (initially launched 2018–19 at the Liebermann Villa on the Wannsee in Berlin. Michael Tymkiw’s by Akademie Verlag) has issued twelve books to date, including several 2018 study Nazi Exhibition Design and Modernism also deserves attention.9 studies on the art market and individual art dealers in the Nazi years.5 Meanwhile, two books have thus far appeared in the series published by 2. “NAZI ART” the Munich-based Wilhelm Fink Verlag: one on Hermann Göring and his

agent Josef Angerer and one on “degenerate” architecture. Two more are What about so-called Nazi art—the art officially supported by the regime y in preparation: the proceedings of a conference covering “degenerate” and that conformed with it? The Überbrückt colloquium of 1999 gave this art in the cities of Breslau, Stettin, and Königsberg, and a monograph by subject only marginal attention, but of course it cannot be excluded from Andreas Hüneke entitled Kunst am Pranger.6 any review of recent research on Nazi-era art and art policy. t Pol i c The Forschungstelle at the FU in Berlin has actively taken part in This is the moment for a flashback to 1988. Nazi-Kunst ins Museum? many of the past decade’s exhibitions and accompanying catalogs devoted was the title of an anthology edited by Klaus Staeck to document one of to “degenerate art.” These include exhibitions at the Städtische Galerie the controversial discussions taking place against the broader background t an d Ar Bremen (2009), at the Kunstmuseum Mülheim (2012), at the Neue Gale­ of the so-called Historikerstreit. It was mainly sparked by two causes. The Er a Ar

rie in New York City (2014), at the Kunstmuseum Bern (2016), in the first was the restitution by the US government to of some - Museum Kunstpalast Düsseldorf (2017–18), and at the Kunsthalle Mann- nine thousand works of Nazi-era visual art that had been seized by the US zi heim (2019).7 Also noteworthy was the 2017 publication of Georg Kreis’s military immediately after World War II. The German War Art Collection N a Einstehen für “Ent­artete Kunst” – Die Basler Ankäufe von 1939/40, itself was returned to the Federal Republic of Germany in the spring of 1986

16 17 (and has been housed since 2000 at the Deutsches Historisches Muse- tive Sculpture marked the first “attempt” since 1945 to “use art historical um in Berlin). Another cause was an art commission awarded to Arno criteria to study, classify, and present German sculpture that was created Breker—“Hitler’s favorite sculptor”—by the Aachen-based businessman during the Nazi era,” according the Kolbe Museum’s press release. “The and art patron Peter Ludwig and his wife Irene that same year: a pair of main theme is not to show how sculpture was presented in the Nazi era. bronze portrait busts. Peter Ludwig had complained in several interviews Rather, it is much more about showing how the idealized nude sculpture that German museums were not showing any works from the Nazi era. changed direction in the 1930s and 1940s.”12 The tenor of the voices collected in Staeck’s volume was predominately We should linger a moment on the regime’s best-known sculptor, a negative: “Nazi art” was not art; it lacked quality and relevance; indeed, man who profited handsomely from Nazi patronage: Arno Breker himself. it was Unkunst (literally “un-art”); to put it on display in a museum was The only one-man exhibition of his work to be held in a public institution tantamount to ennobling it and insulting the victims of Nazi persecution. since 1945 took place in summer 2006 at the Schleswig Holstein Haus As the products of a deeply inhuman system, these works, so the writers in Schwerin. The show was criticized for failing to present Breker in a argued, did not belong in a museum on ethical grounds.10 way that opened up his career and work “to discussion”—despite the More than three decades after the publication of Staeck’s anthology, promise of the exhibition’s own title. Instead it took an uncritical view of the debate has shifted in several significant ways, particularly in histori- Breker that made him look not only harmless but went so far as to style cal-political, social, and professional terms. With the fall of the Berlin Wall him a victim, which (appropriately enough) unleashed fierce controversy. and German reunification, Germans can now look back on not one but two Eckhart Gillen gives a thorough account of the entire affair in Arno Bre- dictatorships in their history. Whoever asks about how today’s scholars ker: Decorator of Power and Scapegoat of the Germans which appeared in and institutions should address Nazi art can hardly ignore the related topic a bilingual edition in 2015 as part of a series published by the Kunsthaus of how to deal with art created in East Germany. Nevertheless, conditions Dahlem, which is housed in Breker’s former studio.13 for researching art in the Nazi era are different, and the material basis is The explosive element that has accompanied the topic of Nazi art broader. One major digital tool that has become available in recent years in recent years is documented in a number of special exhibitions (most- is devoted to documenting the series of Große Deutsche Kunstausstellungen ly with companion volumes), including, for example, at the Museum im (GDK)—the so-called Great German Art Exhibitions that were held under Kulturspeicher Würzburg (2013); at the Pinakothek der Moderne in Mu- Nazi auspices in Munich between 1937 and 1944. The research platform nich and in Bergen, Norway (both in 2015–16); in the Art Collections of GDK Research went online in 2011 and emerged from a collaboration be- Ruhr-Universität Bochum (2016), a show that traveled in 2017 to the tween the Munich-based Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte in cooperation Kunsthalle Rostock and the Kunstforum Ostdeutsche Galerie in Regens- with Berlin’s Deutsches Historisches Museum and Munich’s Haus der Kunst. burg; in the Städtische Galerie Rosenheim (2017); and in the Tiroler

As the website describes the project: “GDK Research publishes unknown Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum in Innsbruck, Austria (2018–19). In the y photographic documents—evidence of art that was subsidized by the state Netherlands, a show devoted to Nazi design was held at the Den Bosch during the Nazi era—in order to make source material available for critical Design Museum in the city of ’s-Hertogenbosch (2019–20).14 In 2015 a discussion and analysis of the Nazi regime’s art and cultural policies.”11 noteworthy anthology appeared that examined different genres in order t Pol i c Already in 2001, the exhibition Taking Positions: Figurative Sculpture to ask whether there was in fact a specific kind of “National Socialist” art. and the Third Reich at the Henry Moore Institute in Leeds began opening Among other topics, the volume’s essays address the Reichskammer der up exactly this sort of critical, nuanced perspective. The show traveled to bildenden Künste as well as Arno Breker and Adolf Ziegler.15 t an d Ar Germany in 2001–02, first to the Museum in Berlin and then One requirement of any serious account of art from the Nazi era Er a Ar

to the Gerhard Marcks Haus in Bremen with a slightly different name: Un- is that it be accessible to the public, both in special exhibitions of the - tergang einer Tradition: Figürliche Bildhauerei und das Dritte Reich. Showing sort mentioned above as well as in permanent installations. Here, how- zi fifteen figural works in bronze by such artists as KarlA lbiker, Arno Breker, ever, things look rather bleak. Nazi art (however one chooses to define N a Fritz Klimsch, Georg Kolbe, and Gerhard Marcks, among others, Figura- it) is currently on view in only very few museums, and these are almost

18 19 exclusively institutions with a historical or cultural-historical focus, such troduced right after 1945 and subsequently handed down for decades. as the Deutsches Historisches Museum in Berlin and the Germanisches This model juxtaposes modern, politically progressive artists who were Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg. A notable and in my opinion laudable pilloried at the time as “degenerate” (i.e., the good ones) against artis- exception is Munich’s Pinakothek der Moderne, where Room Thirteen is tically backward artists who willingly served and represented the Nazi devoted to artists under the Nazi regime. The paintings and sculpture on state (i.e., the bad ones). This model in fact follows the very same—albeit view here are, to quote the wall text, intended to give “an overview that reversed—distinction propagated by the Nazi state itself, a distinction illustrates the opposing styles and attitudes of artists toward the Nazi that came to a didactic head in the regime’s two parallel exhibitions of regime.” Hanging near Adolf Ziegler’s triptych The Four Elements—one of “German” and “degenerate” art in 1937. In retrospect, my own 1995 the regime’s best-known works of propaganda—are Surrealist paintings dissertation for Universität on the subject of the Nazi “de- by Richard Oelze and Max Ernst, works “that were created in Paris and famatory” exhibitions, subsequently published as a book, is too starkly foreshadow disaster and the threat of fascism.”16 marked by this binary mode of thinking; the Nazi term entartet has long In 1999, the same year that Überbrückt conference proceedings ap- been understood to stand for modern—and morally good—in contrast peared, the historian Lucian Hölscher wrote: “Our appraisal of the Third to Nazi art, which was always backward and morally reprehensible. Reich must in any case become more complex….For example, political In 1999, Lucian Hölscher’s call for evaluating Nazi art in more nu- judgments will no longer go hand in hand with aesthetics as a matter of anced terms corresponded to one of the key stimuli sparking the Über- course, as is already indicated by the heightened public controversy today brückt colloquium that same year: the need to move away from this sim- over the aesthetic quality of Nazi art and architecture. It is very likely plifying and all-too-convenient schema and instead develop a more subtle, that the blanket exclusion from the history of modern art of artworks critical view of art and artists under Nazism as well as in the postwar peri- commissioned and celebrated by the Third Reich—a practice that is still od. This required a readiness to debunk cherished myths and long-standing widespread today—will soon come to an end.” 17 narratives of art history and to tolerate—and investigate—contradictions, Twenty years on, we must acknowledge that Hölscher’s prognosis has inconsistencies, breaks, and fluid boundaries. I feel that many recent studies not come about. With the exception of a few misguided attempts (some and projects have been pointing in this direction, including the 2019 exhibi- of which I have named), the blanket exclusion he described still dominates. tions held in Berlin on Nolde at the Hamburger Bahnhof, and on the artists It is a pity that we are not showing more courage. Rather than demoniz- of the Brücke movement at the Brücke-Museum and at Kunsthaus Dahlem ing all “Nazi art,” we must find a place for it within the museum, and this that year. To continue with the example of Nolde: he was not only affected includes museums of fine art. Yet making a place for Nazi art undoubtedly by Nazi persecution as a “degenerate” artist but also was a fervent an- demands careful historical and critical context. Such art must be continually ti-Semite and Hitler admirer. At the same time, there were thousands of vi-

reappraised, annotated, contextualized, and communicated through a highly sual artists during the Nazi period who were neither affected by the official y sensitive and discerning didactic approach. The ethical, moral, aesthetic, and campaign against Modernism nor at the regime’s side with an official Nazi museological challenges involved are vast. For this subject raises a host of stamp of approval. Such artists may never have sought admission to the extremely complex issues: about how the institution of the museum sees Reichskammer der bildenden Künste or to have their works shown at the t Pol i c its role in today’s society, about the relationship of art to politics, about the annually occurring Große Deutsche Kunstausstellungen—or if they did apply, way art functions within a democracy. But we must face up to these chal- they were not accepted. More studies of such artists’ biographies would lenges and grasp the opportunity to contribute to public discourse. substantially improve our understanding of the room they had to maneuver t an d Ar within the Nazi state. At the same time, such studies would provide rich Er a Ar 3. NOT ONLY/BUT ALSO (OR: NEITHER/NOR) material for ongoing discussions surrounding the topic of “internal exile.” - The exhibition The Black Years: Histories of a Collection 1933–1945, zi By devoting the first two sections to “degenerate art” and “Nazi art” held in 2015–16 at the Hamburger Bahnhof in Berlin, offered a multifac- N a respectively, I have been following the oversimplified distinction first in- eted look at art, politics, and the history of museums under the Nazis. Its

20 21 focus was on two types of works in the collection of Berlin’s National- makes him a key figure even today for research into looted art.21 Posse galerie: works that were created and entered the collection to particular kept a series of five travel diaries, which were discovered in his estate in acclaim, and works that were seized as part of the degenerate art cam- Nuremberg. The Magdeburg-based Deutsche Zentrum Kulturgutverluste paign. Certainly, the biographies of the artists included in the show were has funded an annotated online edition of Posse’s travel diaries, a proj- as diverse as the works themselves and their provenance histories.18 ect that began in 2017 and will continue through 2020.22 Posse was also I conclude this section with a quick glance at Düsseldorf, where in charged with a large-scale program for distributing art stolen by the Nazis 2019 the Kunstpalast organized an exhibition on Das Junge Rheinland to to museums in the so-called Ostmark as well as to other museums in the mark the one hundredth anniversary of the avant-garde group’s establish- Third Reich. Birgit Schwarz, who has been working on the online edition ment. The show was subtitled “too beautiful to be real.” In nearby Bonn, of the diaries, made a thorough study of this in her 2018 book on Hitler’s Lukas Bächer is currently working on a doctoral dissertation on “adapta- “special mission,” the Ostmark.23 tion and opposition” among the members of the same group both during No less explosive is the question of how the academic discipline of the Nazi years and after 1945. Bächer is exploring the biographies of such art history—and its main practitioners—fared under Nazism. Here, the artists as Carl Lauterbach, Otto Pankok, Theo Champion, and Richard conference proceedings prepared by Ruth Heftrig, Olaf Peters, and Barbara Gessner. By examining the contradictions inherent in these careers, he is Schellewald on the “theories, methods, and practices” of art history in the working beyond the black-and-white, polarized model.19 Third Reich is of key importance. Its twenty-two papers cover biographical, theoretical, methodological/terminological, and cultural-historical issues in 24 4. ART CRITICS AND ART HISTORIANS addition to a review of how the discipline was taught at the time. Mono- graph-length studies and chapters have recently appeared on such figures The Überbrückt publication devoted two sections to art historians and art as Alois J. Schardt, Richard Hamann, and Alfred Stange.25 There is still a writers, including a section on Will Grohmann, an influential German art great deal to be done in this area, however, and much more to be desired. critic and champion of the avant-garde. A renaissance of research into his life and work is currently underway. The Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung has 5. INSTITUTIONS (MUSEUMS AND ART ACADEMIES) been financing a large-scale project on Grohmann led by Konstanze Rud- ert at the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen (SKD). Three publica- Substantial progress has also been made researching Germany’s muse- tions have already appeared.20 A further monograph is currently in prepa- ums and art academies under Nazism. In 2013 the Richard Schöne Ge- ration. In 1958, Grohmann became president of the German chapter of sellschaft—a Berlin-based society for museum history—co-organized a the International Association of Art Critics, following in the footsteps symposium with the Deutsches Historisches Museum on “Museums un-

of the art historian and artist Franz Roh, whose book “Entartete” Kunst: der National Socialism.” According to its call for papers, areas of focus y Kunstbarbarei im Dritten Reich had appeared in 1962. Now, as before, were to include “the political and administrative conditions for museum more research into Roh’s life and work would be desirable. In terms of work, museum actors, collection practices, conceptions of museum dis- methodology, it is interesting to see how the analysis of social networks play, forms of propaganda, museums in an international context, and how t Pol i c is increasingly being applied to art-related fields. museums dealt with their National Socialist history in the period direct- Another conference hosted by the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen ly after the war.”26 The project met with enormous resonance, eliciting Dresden (in December 2013) focused on the controversial art historian nearly one hundred submissions from twelve countries, twenty of which t an d Ar , who in 1910 became director of the Dresden Gemälde- were presented at the symposium and included in the 2016 publication. Er a Ar

galerie and who worked from 1939 until his death in 1942 as Hitler’s Reviewing this volume, Christian Hirte emphasized that the publication - own “special representative” for the so-called Führermuseum in . In poses “a challenge to dig deeper in a number of places.”27 zi this capacity, Posse served as Hitler’s general buyer on the international A number of individual studies are also now available on this sub- N a art market, and his unprecedented access to confiscated Jewish property ject. Two notable examples are the study of the Städel Museum in Frank-

22 23 furt prepared by Uwe Fleckner and Max Hollein, issued in 2012 as the description on the DZK’s website: “The basis of the database are the busi- sixth volume of the FU’s Forschungstelle “Entartete Kunst” series, and the ness records and the card indexes of the Galerie Heinemann (1872–1938), 2013 study of Berlin’s state museums under the Nazis, which was edited which are in the Deutsches Kunstarchiv in the Germanisches Nationalmu- by Jörn Grabowski and Petra Winter. The Kunstmuseum Stuttgart is pres- seum, Nuremberg, as well as the catalogs and photographs, stored in the ently preparing an exhibition with accompanying publication on this phase Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte, Munich. These have been digitized, of its own history. There is further material in Timo Saalmann’s study of provided with metadata, and put online. The database Galerie Heinemann Berlin museum policy from 1919 to 1959.28 online facilitates searches of the Munich-based art dealer, one of the more The history of the leading art schools during this period is also significant galleries of its day, with a focus on the period from 1890 to coming into sharper focus. Two examples worth highlighting are the 2012 1939. It makes information accessible on approximately 43,500 important Nuremberg exhibition catalog Geartete Kunst which looks at the Nürn- paintings from all centuries as well as on about 13,000 people and institu- berger Akademie in the Nazi years, as well as the 2015 collection of es- tions associated with the acquisition or sale of these paintings.”32 says edited by Wolfgang Ruppert on the era’s artists, with a wide-ranging Gesa Jeuthe’s 2011 book Kunstwerte im Wandel examines sales pric- focus on “German” art, art policy, and the art academy in Berlin.29 At the es on the national and international art markets from 1925 to 1955 for same time, numerous art academies have yet to turn their attention to a paintings by impressionists and expressionists as well as by artists full study of their own disconcerting histories in the Nazi era. and artists working in the Neue Sachlichkeit mode.33 The book, which was based on her doctoral dissertation and published as volume 7 of the 6. THE ART MARKET, ART DEALERS, AND COLLECTORS Forschungstelle “Entartete Kunst” series, presents a wealth of new insights and knowledge. Of special interest is Jeuthe’s finding that art prices for A section of the Überbrückt volume contains three papers on the ambiv- the above-named art styles did not decline substantially in 1933 (that is, alent role of art dealers under National Socialism. Significantly, this field immediately after the Nazi rise to power) or in 1937 (after the opening of research—alongside the study of private collectors—has gained major of the defamatory Entartete Kunst exhibition). Her research also calls into momentum in recent years, which is connected not least with the grow- question the generalizations that there had been no international market ing importance of provenance research. for German Modernism prior to 1939 and that it was only the Nazi cam- Here, too, research is being served by newly available online data- paign defaming modern art that helped it gain an international reputation bases. One project very much worth naming is the large-scale and continu­ after 1945. It is true, however, that the Ministry of Propaganda’s sales prices ously expanding international digitization project German Sales 1901–1945, for “degenerate” art were extremely low and that the profit margins that a cooperation between institutions in Heidelberg and Berlin with funding art dealers reaped upon resale were very high indeed. The four dealers

from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. According to the online de- appointed by the Nazi Ministry of Propaganda to the commission for the y scription, “about 9,110 historical auction catalogs from 1901 to 1945, “exploitation” of “degenerate” art—Bernhard A. Böhmer, Karl Buchholz, mainly published in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, are currently being Ferdinand Möller, and Hildebrand Gurlitt—were officially only authorized made available online and in open access. The project included around 390 to sell abroad in exchange for hard currency, but none of them actually t Pol i c auction houses. The auction catalogs are the basis for research on the art complied with this directive. Although prices between 1948 and 1955 were market of the first half of the twentieth century, on questions of collect- higher compared to works sold between 1925 and 1944, the increase was ing and taste formation as well as on individual artists and art genres. In not particularly drastic. Equally astounding is Jeuthe’s finding that there t an d Ar addition, they are an indispensable source for provenance research.”30 were actually marketing and sales opportunities for “degenerate” art within Er a Ar

Another project is the research platform Galerie Heinemann Online, Nazi Germany itself, although these were admittedly somewhat limited. - which went live in 2010. Initial sponsoring came from the Arbeitsstelle In other words, it was possible to do “good” business. The ex- zi für Provenienzforschung before that organization was subsumed into the hibition Gute Geschäfte, organized by Christine Fischer-Defoy with the N a Deutsche Zentrum Kulturgutverluste in January 2015.31 According to the support of the nonprofit association Aktives Museum – Faschismus und

24 25 Widerstand Berlin, looked at art dealers in Berlin from 1933 to 1945 and Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach Foundation Professor at the Universität was shown in 2011–13 at various Berlin venues, including the Centrum Bonn, with a focus on provenance research and the history of collecting.) Judaicum and the Landesarchiv Berlin.34 The accompanying catalog is a Provenance study has long been part of the methodological toolkit of rich source of material on no less than fourteen of Berlin’s art profession- art studies, for example in connection with research into private and als—including the Propaganda Ministry’s designated art dealers Böhmer public collections, the art market, copyright, artwork authentication, and and Buchholz, the gallery owners Alfred Flechtheim and Karl Haberstock, the compiling of catalogues raisonnés. For a long time, however, it was and the auctioneers Hans W. Lange and Leo Spik—making it a veritable considered a kind of secondary field of scholarship, somewhat overshad- treasure trove on Nazi-era dealers in the German capital. owed within the academy. A change has been underway in recent years, Some of the artists featured in the catalog have by now been the although the current upward trend in provenance research is rooted less subject of monographs. These include Paul Graupe, on whom a study was in art history than in contemporary politics—namely its key role in the published in 2016 that connects the Weimar and Nazi eras by looking intensified search for art stolen by the Nazis.37 at Berlin’s art business—much as, already in 2006, Angelika Enderlein’s Studies of Nazi theft (by Hector Feliciano, Günther Haase, Jakob published dissertation examined the city’s art trade through the example Kurz, Lynn H. Nicholas, and Jonathan Petropoulos, among others) were of the art dealer Robert Graetz (1875–1945). Another figure who ran his already appearing with greater frequency in the 1980s and 1990s, but the business from Berlin was Wolfgang Gurlitt—cousin of Hildebrand Gurlitt Washington Principles on Nazi-ConfiscatedA rt of December 3, 1999, and, like him, a member of that family of art dealers, artists, and scholars. brought new momentum to the subject. At the international Washing- During the Nazi years, he did brisk business selling “degenerate” art and ton Conference on Holocaust Era Assets, forty-two countries endorsed was also involved in the sale of looted Jewish property. His biography and a set of general principles for the restitution of assets (such as looted personal art collection are, moreover, closely connected to the history art) unlawfully seized during the Nazi period. In response, in December of the museum in Linz known since 2003 as the LENTOS Kunstmuseum, 1999, the Federal Republic of Germany, its states, and municipal umbrella which devoted a comprehensive exhibition and catalog to him in 2019–20. organizations signed a joint declaration: public institutions (that is, not Among the recent PhD dissertations on art dealers, two particularly rel- only museums but also libraries and archives) were henceforth to make evant examples are Meike Hopp’s 2012 study of Adolph Weinmüller and an ongoing priority of the retrieval and restitution of “cultural property Katrin Engelhardt’s study of Ferdinand Möller.35 confiscated as a result of Nazi persecution, particularly Jewish losses.” For nearly four decades, between 1917 and 1956, Ferdinand Möller This was a voluntary moral commitment, however—a matter of “soft” was a leading gallery figure for German Modernism, and from 1938 on he rather than “hard” law. (Unlike Austria for example, Germany has no participated in the aforementioned “exploitation” of the “degenerate art” formal law stipulating restitution.) If cultural assets are found to have been

seized from German museums. Today his business archive is housed in the stolen, the Washington Principles call for finding “a just and fair solution” y Berlinische Galerie, which holds many other useful resources, including with the lawful owners or their heirs. This may involve restitution but the estates and papers of many artists, galleries, and art world figures (in- does not have to. The return in August 2006 of ’s cluding the extremely rich archive of Werner J. Schweiger, a Vienna-based 1913 Berlin Street Scene from the Brücke-Museum to a granddaughter of t Pol i c scholar of the art market and collecting practices). These holdings have the German-Jewish art dealer Alfred Hess was one of the first cases in made it a significant center for art market and provenance research.36 Germany to attract a high degree of international attention. A debate is still underway over whether the painting was in fact taken “as a result of t an d Ar 38 7. PROVENANCE RESEARCH Nazi persecution” and whether restitution was therefore appropriate. Er a Ar

After the Washington Conference, it would take ten more long - There is no doubt that provenance research—tracing the origin and (own- years for the German government to systematically advance the search zi ership) history of cultural assets and objects of all kinds—is currently ex- for looted art. It was only in 2008 that the Arbeitsstelle für Provenienz- N a periencing a boom. (Full disclosure: I am part of this boom as the Alfried forschung (AfP) was established at the Institut für Museumsforschung

26 27 within the Berlin State Museums, Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, nonprofit association Arbeitskreis Provenienzforschung surveyed its 280 and granted the authority to allocate public funds. From 2008 to 2011, members to gather the first precise data on its members’ employment one million euros were made available annually to museums, libraries, and situations. The survey touched on all employment, however, and was not archives wishing to comb through their collections for cultural assets sto- limited to work in provenance research. The results: of the 160 mem- len by the Nazis; the subsidies were subsequently increased incrementally bers who answered the survey in full, some fifty-five (34 percent) held and today amount to over four million euros per year. permanent jobs, of which those working outside of Germany accounted In November 2013, the large cache discovered in Cornelius Gurlitt’s for almost 20 percent. The survey showed that a clear majority of those apartment set off worldwide reverberations and put considerable pressure working in the field continue to do so in precarious, short-term jobs.42 on the German government. If proof were ever needed that the media not We must strongly encourage the creation of additional permanent posts. only reflect debates taking place within society but also drive change, the But how are qualified personnel being trained? For years, education “Gurlitt case” is an apt example. January 1, 2015, saw the establishment of in provenance research was mostly a matter of ad hoc “learning by doing” the DZK in Magdeburg. Today this foundation has taken over the work of and exchange among colleagues (within the Arbeitskreis Provenienzfor- the AfP and the Koordinierungsstelle Magdeburg, including operating the schung, for example), but recent years have seen the establishment of Lost Art Database online. And its scope has been greatly expanded. The educational programs within institutions of higher learning. Since 2011, record thus far: in numerous cases of proven looting, it has been possible to the Freie Universität has offered a module on provenance research within reach a “just and fair solution” in the spirit of the eighth Washington Prin- its art history department. Structured professional qualification offerings ciple. Since 1999, the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation alone has res- have been available since 2016 in the areas of training and continuing tituted over 350 works of art and more than one thousand books to their education. The universities of Hamburg, Bonn, Munich, Berlin, and Lüne- prewar owners or their heirs.39 As of December 2019, the total number burg have each set up specialized professorships, although most of these of projects supported by the AfP and DZK together amounted to 340.40 are W1-ranked junior positions of limited duration; only the Bonn and In addition to covering the Nazi period, two additional historical Lüneburg professorships are tenured positions (on the W2 and W3 sal- contexts involving unjust circumstances have also come within the DZK’s ary scale, respectively). The universities of Bonn and Würzburg currently purview. The first instance involves expropriations made in the Soviet offer special master’s programs in the field.43 Here, too, more permanent zone of occupation immediately after World War II and subsequently teaching posts are required to meet the growing needs in the field. in the German Democratic Republic. The second involves a new field, Intensified provenance research in museums is also shaping exhibi- currently known as “cultural material and collections from colonial con- tion practice. In Germany, Austria, the United States, and France, there texts.” The debate surrounding cultural assets from the colonial period have been about a hundred exhibitions touching on the theme of art sto- 44

was essentially fueled by three events: first, the controversy surrounding len by the Nazis, many of them accompanied by scholarly catalogs. Such y the future Humboldt Forum in Berlin; second, the speech given by French exhibitions have drawn on provenance research undertaken within their President Emmanuel Macron on November 28, 2017, in Burkina Faso; and respective institutions. Other significant projects were and continue to be third the November 2018 report prepared by Felwine Sarr and Bénédicte partially or entirely financed by the DZK—among other institutions at the t Pol i c Savoy advising the return of African cultural heritage, now available in Munich-based Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte and the Freie Universi- three languages.41 tät Berlin. In Munich, for example, scholars reconstructed the plundering What has all of this achieved, not only in terms of scholarly infra- in late April 1945 of artworks stored in the so-called Führerbau in Mu- t an d Ar structure but also in terms of content? nich. An example in Berlin is the Mosse Art Research Initiative (MARI),

45 Er a Ar There has been a slow but steady increase in employment in the which documents the art collection of Rudolf Mosse. - field since 2002. That year Uwe M. Schneede, then director of the Ham- To sum up, intensified provenance research in recent years has giv- zi burger Kunsthalle, set up the first position for a provenance researcher en significant momentum to scholarship on Nazi art policy—particularly N a on the museum’s staff. In March 2019, the board of the Berlin-based with regard to stolen art. Above all, this has enhanced knowledge of

28 29 individual private collections, of the art market and art trade, and of the and developments in the digital world—including the important data- history of individual museums. bases mentioned above—which have opened up powerful and entirely Let us keep in mind, however, that provenance work has many di- new research possibilities. At the same time, there is still so much to mensions—much like the multivalent objects that it aims to study. As a be examined in greater detail—especially in terms of the sometimes methodology, it is not limited to questions of lawful or unlawful owner- ambivalent and contradictory behavior of modern artists and their role ship; nor to giving clear-cut answers to the question of whether or not in the Nazi state but also in the mechanisms and aftereffects of postwar a work should be restituted; nor to the mere accumulation of facts and art-historical canon building. We must keep in mind that the Unbewältigt data on individual objects (although this research naturally forms the ba- colloquium of 2019 not only marked the twenty years since the publi- sis for all further interpretation). The study of provenance—understood cation of the Überbrückt volume. It also marked the sixtieth anniversary as broad-gauged contextual research—allows for fresh insight into the of Theodor W. Adorno’s call for a public discussion of the Nazi era in history and acquisition strategies of the institutions in question. It sheds his famous 1959 speech “The Meaning of Working through the Past.”47 new light on the individual work by finding the place where an art object’s I myself would like to see more courage in approaching this topic, more biography intersects with that of a particular collection. Moreover, knowl- self-criticism (for example, in examining the role of art historians and edge of an object’s provenance has a direct impact on how it is perceived. the role of art history in the Nazi state), and more courage to provoke To counter an occasional criticism, provenance research does not lead us and initiate public debates, and to take a stance in them. away from the object but rather opens up new approaches to how that A discussion of the state of art history in Germany has been play- object is understood. The fruit of provenance research should therefore ing out since 2015 in the pages of the Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte. be incorporated into permanent exhibits to an even greater extent than In 2016 Ulrich Pfisterer contributed a piece that tellingly likened art is presently the case; it must be (more) visible and (more) transparent to historians working today to the happy-go-lucky protagonist of Grimms’ the public. Knowledge of provenance allows museums to offer the public fairy tale, Hans in Luck. “And who would have thought,” he asks, “that alternative, new narratives that go beyond discussions of chronology, the subjects like ‘looted art,’ restitution, and the protection of cultural prop- history of style, and schools of artistic practice. erty would not only arouse public interest and political action but would I believe that our newfound knowledge of the importance of prov- even inspire profitable films with titles like Monuments Men and Woman enance will change how we handle cultural assets in an enduring and in Gold?” A bit further on, the Munich-based art historian warns his col- profound way—and that provenance even has the potential to become leagues against seeking to “lighten” their “baggage,” criticizing their “scant a new paradigm in cultural studies and the humanities. For the field can interference in public issues, lack of courage for developing real theoret- be tied in to numerous other subjects, disciplines, and discourses with- ical models and large-scale designs, defensive posturing when it comes

in the humanities and cultural fields. Provenance research can thus be to restructuring the university and academic landscape, and retreat into y connected to the culture of memory, to a society’s collective memory. one’s own professional comfort zone.” Pfisterer concludes by calling on I proposed calling this process the “provenancial turn.”46 his colleagues, “after all their luck,” to accept “the challenge and the hope that they will in the future dare to pick up and carry a little more t Pol i c weight—in public debate, in their ambitions for the discipline, and in the 8. FUTURE PROSPECTS scope of their vision.”48 My own perspective on how research into art and cultural policy under Is it even possible to imagine a subject better suited to this challenge, t an d Ar the Nazis has developed over the past two decades is ambivalent. There or a topic more urgent, than art and cultural policy under the Nazis? Er a Ar

has been undeniable and significant progress in many areas. Attesting to - this is the wealth of individual studies; the greater focus brought to the zi subject, not only among professionals but within the broader public as N a well; the new groundwork laid for a more subtle and nuanced approach;

30 31 NOTES “Looted Art, Booty Art, ‘Degenerate Art’: Henry Moore Foundation’s press material, 15 See Wolfgang Benz, Peter Eckel, and Aspects of Art Collecting in the Third accessed April 19, 2020, https://www. Andreas Nachama, eds., Kunst im NS-Staat: 1 Eugen Blume and Dieter Scholz, eds., Reich,” in Collecting and Empires: An Historical henry-moore.org/whats-on/2001/05/26/ Ideologie – Ästhetik – Protagonisten (Berlin, Überbrückt: Ästhetische Moderne und Natio- and Global Perspective, ed. Maia Wellington taking-positions-figurative-sculpture-and- 2015). nalsozialismus; Kunsthistoriker und Künstler Gahtan and Eva-Maria Troelenberg, vol. 4, the-third-reich. 16 Wall texts to Room Thirteen, Pinako- 1925−1937 (, 1999). Unless other- Collectors and Dealers (London and Turn- 13 See Rudolf Conrades, ed., Zur Diskussion thek der Moderne, Munich. See also wise noted, all passages are translated from hout, 2019), 322−337. gestellt: der Bildhauer Arno Breker, exhibition Christoph Zuschlag, “Erkundungen in der the German by Miranda Robbins. 7 A list of these exhibitions follows: “Ent- catalog, Schleswig-Holstein Haus, Schwerin Grauzone: Über den Umgang mit NS-Kunst 2 See Matthias Wemhoff, ed., with Meike artet” – Beschlagnahmt: Bremer Künstler (Schwerin, 2006). As a participant in the im Kunstmuseum heute,” Kunstzeitung 254 Hoffmann and Dieter Scholz, Der Berliner im Nationalsozialismus, Städtische Galerie ensuing debate, I contributed, among other (October 2017): 3. Skulpturenfund: “Entartete Kunst” im Bomben- Bremen (2009); Jagd auf die Moderne. Verbo- things, a short editorial calling for the show 17 Lucian Hölscher, “Erinnern und Ver- schutt, Entdeckung – Deutung – Perspektive; tene Künste im Dritten Reich, Kunstmuseum to be closed. See Christoph Zuschlag, “Wa- gessen: Vom richtigen Umgang mit der Begleitband zur Ausstellung mit den Beiträgen Mülheim an der Ruhr (2012); Degenerate rum ich der Meinung bin, dass die Schweri- nationalsozialistischen Vergangenheit,” in des Berliner Symposiums 15.−16. März 2012, Art: The Attack on Modern Art in Nazi ner Breker-Ausstellung geschlossen werden Orte der Erinnerung: Denkmal, Gedenkstätte, exhibition catalog, Museum für Vor- und Germany, 1937, Neue Galerie, New York soll,” kultur politik no. 3, (September 2006): Museum, ed. Ulrich Borsdorf and Heinrich Frühgeschichte, Berlin State Museums (Re- (2014); Moderne Meister: “Entartete” Kunst 6; Walter Vitt and Christoph Zuschlag, eds., Theodor Grütter (Frankfurt am Main and gensburg, 2012). im Kunstmuseum Bern, Kunstmuseum Bern Der Fall Arno Breker: Ein Kritiker-Disput zur New York, 1999), 111–127, 113. 3 See Andrea Baresel-Brand, Meike Hopp, (2016); 1937: Die Aktion “Entartete Kunst” in Schweriner Ausstellung 2006, Schriften zur 18 See Dieter Scholz and Maria Obenaus, and Agnieszka Lulińska, eds., Gurlitt: Status Düsseldorf, Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf Kunstkritik, vol. 17 (Nördlingen, 2007); Ru- eds., Die schwarzen Jahre: Geschichten einer Report, exhibition catalog, Kunstmuseum (2017–18); Beschlagnahmt! Rückkehr der dolf Conrades, ed., Das Schweriner Arno-Bre- Sammlung 1933−1945, exhibition catalog, Bern, Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bun- Meisterblätter, Kunsthalle Mannheim (2019). ker-Projekt: Dokumentation (Schwerin, 2007); Hamburger Bahnhof, Berlin State Museums, desrepublik Deutschland, Bonn, and Gropius 8 See Georg Kreis, Einstehen für “entartete Eckhart Gillen, Arno Breker: Dekorateur der Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation Bau, Berlin (Munich, 2017). For additional Kunst”: Die Basler Ankäufe von 1939/40 Macht und Sündenbock der Deutschen; An- (Berlin, 2015). material on Gurlitt, see Johannes Heil and (Zurich, 2017). The Lucerne auction of June merkungen zu einer Rezeption in der Bundes- 19 See Kay Heymer and Daniel Cremer, Annette Weber, eds., Ersessene Kunst: Der 30, 1939, formed the basis of “La vente de republik Deutschland nach 1945/ Decorator eds., Das Junge Rheinland: “Zu schön, um Fall Gurlitt (Berlin, 2015); Catherine Hickley, Lucerne, 1939”—a section of the exhibition, of Power and Scapegoat of the Germans; wahr zu sein,” exhibtion catalog, Museum Gurlitts Schatz: Hitlers Kunsthändler und sein L’art dégénéré selon Hitler held at La Cité Notes on his Reception in the Federal Republic Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf (Cologne, 2019). geheimes Erbe (Vienna, 2016); Meike Hoff- Miroir in Liège, 2014–15. of Germany after 1945, published by the Lukas Bächer, “Anpassung und Widerspruch. mann and Nicola Kuhn, Hitlers Kunsthändler: 9 See Lucy Wasensteiner, The Twentieth Kunsthaus Dahlem, series editor Dorothea Künstler des Jungen Rheinlands im National- Hildebrand Gurlitt 1895−1956. Die Biographie Century German Art Exhibition: Answering Schöne (Berlin, 2015). For insight into the sozialismus und nach 1945” (working title), (Munich, 2016); Andreas Hüneke, Fund Degenerate Art in 1930s London (New York current attitudes of German institutions (PhD diss, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms- Gurlitt – Fall Kunstkritik: Der Nazi-Schatz – and London, 2019); Lucy Wasensteiner and on this matter, see the edited conference Universität Bonn, in preparation). Analyse einer Berichterstattung, Schriften zur Martin Faass, eds., London 1938: Defending discussion in the present volume, 332–352. 20 See the Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung’s Groh­ Kunstkritik, vol. 25 (Deiningen, 2015); Stefan “Degenerate” Art: Mit Kandinsky, Liebermann 14 See the exhibitions Tradition und Propa- mann Project, accessed February 24, 2020, Koldehoff, Die Bilder sind unter uns: Das und Nolde gegen Hitler, exhibition catalog, ganda: Eine Bestandsaufnahme; Kunst aus der http://willgrohmann.de. See also Im Netzwerk Geschäft mit der NS-Raubkunst und der Fall Liebermann Villa am Wannsee, Berlin Zeit des Nationalsozialismus in der Städtischen der Moderne: Kirchner, Braque, Kandinsky, Gurlitt (Berlin, 2014); Oliver Meier, Michael (Wädenswil, 2018); Michael Tymkiw, Nazi Sammlung Würzburg, Museum Kultur- Klee, Richter, Bacon, Altenbourg und ihr Kritiker Feller, and Stefanie Christ, Der Gurlitt-Kom- Exhibition Design and Modernism (Minneapo- speicher, Würzburg (2013); GegenKunst: Will Grohmann, exhibition catalog, Staatliche plex: Bern und die Raubkunst (Zurich, 2017); lis, 2018). “Entartete Kunst” – NS-Kunst – Sammeln Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Kunsthalle im Maurice Philip Remy, Der Fall Gurlitt: Die 10 See Klaus Staeck, ed., Nazi-Kunst ins nach ’45, Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich Lipsiusbau (Munich, 2012); Will Grohmann, wahre Geschichte über Deutschlands größten Museum? (Göttingen, 1988). (2015–16); Art in Battle, KODE – Art Texte zur Kunst der Moderne (Munich, 2012); Kunstskandal (Berlin et al., 2017). 11 Große Deutsche Kunstausstellung Museums of Bergen (Norway) (2015–16); Konstanze Rudert, ed., Zwischen Intuition und

4 The “Entartete Kunst” database, hosted 1937−1944 database, accessed February 24, “Artige Kunst”: Kunst und Politik im National- Gewissheit: Will Grohmann und die Rezeption y by the Forschungstelle “Entartete Kunst” at 2020, http://www.gdk-research.de/db/apsisa. sozialismus – Compliant Art: Art and Politics der Moderne in Deutschland und Europa the FU, is available online at https://www. dll/ete. Hans-Ernst Mittig’s lecture, originally in the National Socialist Era, Situation Kunst 1918−1968 (Dresden, 2013). geschkult.fu-berlin.de/en/e/db_entart_kunst/ given at the international conference mar- (for Max Imdahl), Kunstsammlungen der 21 See Gilbert Lupfer and Thomas Rudert,

index.html (accessed April 16, 2020). king the inauguration of the GDK Research Ruhr-Universität Bochum, (2016—traveled eds., Kennerschaft zwischen Macht und Moral: t Pol i c 5 De Gruyter’s titles in the Forschungs- platform, was revised and published in 2014: in 2017 to the Kunsthalle Rostock and the Annäherungen an Hans Posse (1879−1942) stelle “Entartete Kunst” series are listed Hans-Ernst Mittig, “Offene Kapitel beim Kunstforum Ostdeutsche Galerie Regens- (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 2015). at https://www.degruyter.com/view/seri- Umgang mit NS-Kunst in Museum, Aus- burg); Vermacht. Verfallen. Verdrängt: Kunst The volume contains proceedings of the al/234937?rskey=zDE87o&result=1&q=ent- stellung und Forschung,” RIHA Journal 0098 und Nationalsozialismus; Die Sammlung der “Forschungen zu Hans Posse” conference artete+kunst (accessed February 24, 2020). (October 9, 2014), accessed February 24, Städtischen Galerie Rosenheim in der Zeit des held December 5–6, 2013, at the Staatliche t an d Ar 6 For the titles published by Fink-Verlag 2020, https://www.riha-journal.org/artic- Nationalsozialismus und in den Nachkriegs- Kunstsammlungen Dresden. as part of its Forschungsstelle “Entartete les/2014/2014-oct-dec/mittig-offene-kapitel. jahren, Städtische Galerie Rosenheim (2017); 22 A working version is already available

Kunst” series, see https://www.fink.de/view/ 12 Press release (in German) to the Zwischen Ideologie, Anpassung und Verfolgung. online in German. Kommentierte Online- Er a Ar Untergang einer Tradition: Figürliche Kunst und Nationalsozialismus in Tirol Edition der fünf Reisetagebücher Hans Posses -

serial/EK (accessed February 24, 2020). exhibition , Tiroler zi Here I also point to my recent overview in Bildhauerei und das Dritte Reich, accessed Landesmuseum Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck (1939−1942) im Deutschen Kunstarchiv am English of the “Degenerate Art” campaign February 24, 2020, Georg-Kolbe-Museum, (2018–19); and Design van het Derde Rijk, Germanischen Nationalmuseum, accessed N a and the various aspects of art collecting Berlin, 2001–02, https://www.georg-kolbe- Design Museum Den Bosch, ’s-Hertogen- February 24, 2020, https://editionhansposse. during the Nazi era: Christoph Zuschlag, museum.de/taking-positions/. See also the bosch (2019–20). gnm.de.

32 33 23 See Birgit Schwarz, Hitlers Sonderauftrag tationszentrum Reichsparteitagsgelände, Zentralinstituts für Kunstgeschichte, 43 See Ulrike Saß and Christoph Zuschlag, Ostmark: Kunstraub und Museumspolitik im Nuremberg (Nuremberg, 2012); Wolfgang vol. 30 (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, Chapter 6.4: “Aus- und Weiterbildung,” in Nationalsozialismus, Kommission für Prove- Ruppert, ed., Künstler im Nationalsozialismus: 2012); Katrin Engelhardt, “Ferdinand Möller Leitfaden Provenienzforschung zur Identi- nienzforschung, vol. 7 (Vienna, Cologne, and Die “Deutsche Kunst,” die Kunstpolitik und die und seine Galerie: Ein Kunsthändler in fizierung von Kulturgut, das während der Weimar, 2018). Berliner Kunsthochschule (Cologne, Weimar, Zeiten historischer Umbrüche” (PhD diss., nationalsozialistischen Herrschaft verfolgungs- 24 See Ruth Heftrig, Olaf Peters, and and Vienna, 2015). Universität Hamburg, 2013), accessed bedingt entzogen wurde, ed. Deutsches Barbara Schellewald, eds., Kunstgeschichte im 30 Information on the project German Sales December 27, 2019, https://ediss.sub. Zentrum Kulturgutverluste und Arbeitskreis “Dritten Reich”: Theorien, Methoden, Praktiken, 1901−1945 available in English at https:// uni-hamburg.de/volltexte/2013/6507/pdf/ Provenienzforschung e. V. (Magdeburg Schriften zur modernen Kunsthistoriogra- www.arthistoricum.net/themen/portale/ger- Dissertation.pdf. 2019), 122−125. phie, vol. 1 (Berlin, 2008). man-sales/ (accessed February 24, 2020). 36 See “Artists’ Archives: Knowledge Store- 44 A list of exhibitions (including those in 25 See Ruth Heftrig, Olaf Peters and Ulrich 31 Galerie Heinemann online, hosted by house and Text-Based Memory,” “Estates other countries) is posted in German on the Rehm, eds., Alois J. Schardt: Ein Kunsthistoriker the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in of / Collections Relating to Mediators of DZK website. See https://www.kulturgutver- zwischen Weimarer Republik, “Drittem Reich” Nuremberg, accessed April 22, 2020, http:// Art,” and “Company-Archives Relating to luste.de/Webs/DE/Recherche/Ausstellungen- und Exil in Amerika, Schriften zur moder- heinemann.gnm.de/en/welcome.html. Galleries,” accessed April 24, 2020, https:// Provenienzforschung/Index.html (accessed nen Kunsthistoriographie, vol. 4 (Berlin, 32 For a description in German, see https:// berlinischegalerie.de/en/collection/our-col- February 24, 2020). 2013); Ruth Heftrig, Fanatiker der Sachlich- www.kulturgutverluste.de/Content/03_For- lection/artists-archives/. 45 Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte, keit: Richard Hamann und die Rezeption der schungsfoerderung/Projekt/Germanisches- 37 See Uwe M. Schneede, “Eine kleine Ge- Munich, Rekonstruktion des “Führerbau-Dieb- Moderne in der universitären deutschen Kunst- Nationalmuseum-Nuernberg/Projekt1.html schichte der aktuellen Provenienzforschung,” stahls” Ende April 1945 und Recherchen zum geschichte 1930–1960, Schriften zur moder- (accessed February 24, 2020). For similar in Gesammelt, gehandelt, geraubt: Kunst in Verbleib der Objekte, https://www.zikg.eu/ nen Kunsthistoriographie, vol. 5 (Berlin and descriptions in English, see “Background,” Frankfurt und der Region 1933 bis 1945, ed. projekte/projekte-zi/fuehrerbau-diebstahl; Boston, 2014); Iris Grötecke, “Alfred Stange accessed April 22, 2020, http://heinemann. Evelyn Brockhoff and Franziska Kiermeier, Freie Universität Berlin, Department of Art – Politik und Wissenschaft: Ordinarius des gnm.de/en/background.html and “Deutsches Archiv für Frankfurts Geschichte und Kunst, History, The Mosse Art Research Initiative Bonner Kunsthistorischen Instituts von 1935 Kunstarchiv im Germanischen National- vol. 78 (Frankfurt am Main, 2019), 12−22. (MARI), https://www.mari-portal.de/ (both bis 1945,” in Das Kunsthistorische Institut in museum,” accessed April 22, 2020, https:// 38 The painting was later sold at auction to accessed February 24, 2020) Bonn: Geschichte und Gelehrte, ed. Roland www.archives.gov/research/holocaust/inter- the Neue Galerie, New York. See Ludwig 46 See Christoph Zuschlag, “Vom Iconic Kanz (Berlin and Munich, 2018), 147−175. national-resources/gnm.html. von Pufendorf, ed., Erworben, besessen, Turn zum Provenancial Turn?: Ein Beitrag zur 26 “Call for Papers: Museums Under Natio- 33 See Gesa Jeuthe, Kunstwerte im Wandel: vertan: Dokumentation zur Restitution von Methodendiskussion in der Kunstwissen- nal Socialism,” conference held June 13–15, Die Preisentwicklung der deutschen Moderne Ernst Ludwig Kirchners “Berliner Straßenszene” schaft,” in Von analogen und digitalen Zugän- 2013, accessed April 22, 2020, https:// im nationalen und internationalen Kunstmarkt (Bielefeld, 2018). gen zur Kunst: Festschrift für Hubertus Kohle www.dhm.de/archiv/news/symposien/docs/ 1925 bis 1955, Schriften der Forschungsstel- 39 Nicola Kuhn, “Hauptstadt der Resti- zum 60. Geburtstag, ed. Maria Effinger et al. call_for_papers.pdf. Quoted (in German) in le “Entartete Kunst,” vol. 7 (Berlin, 2011). tution: Wie Berlin loslassen lernte,” Der (Heidelberg, 2019), 409−417, online at art- the introduction to Tanja Baensch, Kristina 34 Christine Fischer-Defoy and Kaspar Tagesspiegel (February 9, 2016), accessed historicum.net, https://doi.org/10.11588/art- Kratz-Kessemeier, and Dorothee Wimmer, Nürnberg, eds., Gute Geschäfte: Kunsthandel February 24, 2020, https://www.tagesspie- historicum.493.c6573 (accessed December eds., Museen im Nationalsozialismus: Akteure – in Berlin 1933−1945, exhibition catalog, gel.de/berlin/hauptstadt-der-restitution-wie- 27, 2019). A shortened version appeared in Orte – Politik (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, Centrum Judaicum, Landesarchive Berlin, berlin-loslassen-lernte/12898508.html. Provenienzforschung in deutschen Sammlungen 2016), 11–19, 11. et al. (Berlin, 2011). The exhibition was also 40 DZK online, Forschungsförderung/Pro- 2019 (see note 40), 347−355. See also Jane 27 Christian Hirte, review of ibid., H-Soz- shown at the Haus am Kleistpark and the jektstatistiken, accessed February 24, 2020, C. Milosch and Nick Pearce, eds. Collecting Kult: Kommunikation und Fachinformation für Mitte Museum. See “Booming Business: https://www.kulturgutverluste.de/Webs/DE/ and Provenance: A Multidisciplinary Approach die Geschichtswissenschaften (December 6, The Art Trade in Berlin 1933–1945,” with Forschungsfoerderung/Projektstatistiken/In- (Lanham, MD, 2019). 2016), accessed February 24, 2020, www. a link to a full directory of all art trade dex.html. See also the periodical Provenienz 47 See Theodor W. Adorno, “The Meaning hsozkult.de/publicationreview/id/reb-24525. professionals active in Berlin from 1928 & Forschung, published twice a year by the of Working through the Past,” trans. Henry 28 See Uwe Fleckner and Max Hollein, to 1943: https://www.aktives-museum.de/ DZK as well as the volume Provenienzfor- W. Pickford, in Can One Live after Auschwitz:

eds., Museum im Widerspruch: Das Städel en/exhibitions/booming-business/ (accessed schung in deutschen Sammlungen: Einblicke A Philosophical Reader, ed. Rolf Tiedemann y und der Nationalsozialismus, Forschungsstelle April 22, 2020). in zehn Jahre Projektförderung, vol. 1 of the (Stanford, 2003), 3–18. “Entartete Kunst,” vol. 6 (Berlin, 2011); Jörn 35 See Patrick Golenia, Kristina Kratz- DZK’s Provenire series (Berlin, 2019). 48 Ulrich Pfisterer, “Hans im Glück: Kunst- Grabowski and Petra Winter, eds., Zwischen Kessemeier, and Isabelle le Masne de Cher- 41 See Felwine Sarr and Bénédicte Savoy, geschichte heute,” Zeitschrift für Kunstge-

Politik und Kunst: Die Staatlichen Museen mont, Paul Graupe (1881−1953): Ein Berliner The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage: schichte 79, no. 1 (2016):3–9. t Pol i c zu Berlin in der Zeit des Nationalsozialismus Kunsthändler zwischen Republik, Nationalso- Toward a New Relational Ethics (Paris, 2018); (Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 2013); Kai zialismus und Exil (Cologne, Weimar, Berlin, Restituer le patrimoine africain (Paris, 2018); Artinger, Das Kunstmuseum Stuttgart im 2016); Angelika Enderlein, Der Berliner Zurückgeben: Über die Restitution afrikanischer Nationalsozialismus: Der Traum vom Museum Kunsthandel in der Weimarer Republik und Kulturgüter (Berlin, 2019). Of the more “schwäbischer” Kunst, ed. Ulrike Groos, im NS-Staat: Zum Schicksal der Sammlung recent publications on the subject, the t an d Ar exhibition catalog, Kunstmuseum Stuttgart Graetz (Berlin, 2006); Elisabeth Nowak- Deutscher Museumsbund’s guidelines for (Cologne, 2020); Timo Saalmann, Kunstpoli- Thaller and Hemma Schmutz, eds., Wolfgang dealing with collected material from colonial

tik der Berliner Museen 1919–1959, Schriften Gurlitt, Zauberprinz: Kunsthändler – Sammler, contexts should be mentioned: Leitfaden Er a Ar zum Umgang mit Sammlungsgut aus kolonialen -

zur modernen Kunsthistoriographie, vol. 6 exhibition catalog, LENTOS Kunstmuseum zi (Berlin, 2014). Linz and Museum im Kulturspeicher Würz- Kontexten, 2nd ed. (Berlin, 2019). 29 See Jana Stolzenberger, ed., Geartete burg (Munich, 2019); Meike Hopp, Kunsthan- 42 The Arbeitskreis Provenienzforschung e. V. N a Kunst: Die Nürnberger Akademie im National- del im Nationalsozialismus: Adolf Weinmüller in shared the survey results with its members sozialismus, exhibition catalog, Dokumen- München und Wien, Veröffentlichungen des via email on April 9, 2019.

34 35 This conference volume and the For reasons of better readability, associated colloquium, which took no systematic gendering has been place in Berlin from May 16 to 18, used in this publication. 2019, were initiated and financed As far as relevant for the statement, by the Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung. all gender identities are explicitly included in the choice of form.

Concept of the colloquium: © Verbrecher Verlag 2020 Meike Hoffmann, Dieter Scholz, © Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung Aya Soika, and Bernhard Fulda (for this copy)

ISBN 978-3-95732-452-8 (German trade edition) Editors: Meike Hoffmann (For- ISBN 978-3-95732-453-5 schungsstelle “Entartete Kunst”, (English trade edition) Freie Universität Berlin) and Dieter Scholz (Neue National­ Bibliographic information published galerie, Staatliche Museen zu by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Berlin, Preußischer Kulturbesitz) The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Project Management, Nationalbiblio­graphie; detailed Picture editor: Natascha Hellwag bibliographic data is available online (Ferdinand-Möller-Stiftung) at http://www.dnb.dnb.de Translation: Brian Currid and Wilhelm Werthern (Zweisprach- kunst), Miranda Robbins Cover Illustration: German copy-editing: , Nordischer Künstler Katrin Günther [Nordic Artist], 1939, 673, colored English copy-editing: paste and pencil on paper mounted Kristie Kachler on cardboard, 26.9 × 21.4 cm, Design and Typesetting: private collection, Switzerland, Petra Ahke permanent loan to Zentrum Paul Typeface: Gill Sans Nova Klee, Bern (detail) Paper: PrimaSet 130 g /m2 Printing and Binding: DZA Druckerei zu Altenburg

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