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Home , Anuradhapura Kingdom, Chandrabhanu, Dambadeniya, History of Sri Lanka, Kuveni, Parakramabahu I

13th International Research Conference General Sir Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions

ID 652 The Drift of Ancient Kingdoms in the Post- Period: A Critical View of the Causes of Decline of

DD Samaragunarathna1 and MAJ Gimantha

Faculty of Defence and Strategic Studies General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University

1 [email protected]

Abstract— The Sinhalese monarchy has its groups with different cultural backgrounds that origins in the settlement of North-Indian Aryan arrived in Sri for the purpose of immigrants to the of . According inhabitation. The first immigrants of Sri Lanka settled in the riverbanks of Malwathu Oya which to historical records, the first Sinhalese kingdom was later developed as the Kingdom of was established by King Vijaya in the valley of . The -based civilisation Malwathu- in 6th Century B.C. It of Anuradhapura evolved mainly after the advent was subsequently unified as a state during the of . Later, due to invasion by the South reign of King Duttagamini and thus, the Indian Chola Empire, the administration was kingdoms became a power center of moved from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa in administration and continued for nearly fifteen the tenth and eleventh centuries. The main decades. However, one can notice a gradual centers of power, Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa were located in the administrative decline of the Sinhala Kingdom after the latter heartland referred to as ‘Rajarata’. The thriving part of the thirteenth century, and the geographic economy of agriculture-based Rajarata was drift of the center of power had also taken place supported by an efficient system. The over time. This study was aimed at analyzing the notable factor is that for nearly eighteen causes of the drift of the medieval ancient centuries, political, economic and social kingdoms, especially in the post-Polonnaruwa administration was centered around Rajarata. period. The researches argue that the rationality Archaeological remnants of Rajarata reveal a civilisation that flourished by following the core of the views produced by different authors on values of Buddhism and . Towards the various causes could be questioned. The causes, end of the twelfth century, the ancient kingdom found in various sources, such as climatic change, confronted many difficulties. After a century of collapse of the old order, exhaustion and growth, the energy that had founded the city of infertility of soil, the spread of malaria, foreign Polonnaruwa, built the in the Rajarata invasions, the collapse of the system, and retaliated the advances from South Indian and the attractions offered by the Wet Zone as and Burma. By the mid-thirteenth century, the great city was more or less abandoned and the against the Dry Zones are examined in detail by Kingdom of Polonnaruwa collapsed. This also led the researchers to gauge what has happened in to the collapse of the hydraulic civilization of the past. Malvatu-Mahavali. This phenomenon as per W. I. Keywords: Rajarata Kingdom, Oriental Siriweera is the drift of kingdoms to the Southwest of the country. Despotism, Invasions

Simultaneously, there was concentration of Introduction population in the north, resulting in the

emergence of an independent Tamil kingdom in The historical period of Sri Lanka starts with the the Peninsula in the last quarter of the 13th arrival of Vijaya in the 6th Century BC. century. , Yapahuva and Since this historical event, there were several in the Southwest successfully became waves of migrations, such as the arrival of the capital of the Sinhala kingdom from around Baddakachchana and Arahath (233 CE). 1232CE. onwards, but their economic and During this period, there were various foreign 222

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions cultural achievements were never on par with happened at the later part of the Anuradhapura those of Rajarata. Besides, Post Polonnaruwa kingdom. Although Sri Lanka had closer cultural these centers of power of the Sinhala kings relations with the North , South Indian existed only for short periods. The most powerful cultural interference was insignificant But, Hindu ruler of the time - Parakramabahu the 2nd who influences could be seen through the Sri Lankan vanquished Magha, started the restoration of society as well as it had an impact to the popular Polonnaruwa, but he established his base at Buddhism. According to Culavamsa some Dambadeniya. It is said that the around the Buddhist kings patronized Hinduism. Along with Thuparama in Anuradhapura was in wilderness scenarios such as the influence of Buddhism, it when his son Vijayabahu the 4th started the can state that they did not pose a severe threat restoration at Anuradhapura. The “Culavamsa” upon the stability of socio-cultural co-existence states that the latter assigned the protection of within the kingdoms. Simultaneously, there were the city of Anuradhapura to Vanniyars or forest frequent threats carried out by powerful South chiefs; proceeded to Polonnaruwa and restored it Indian states which affected the stability and the as well before leaving for his capital security of the Sri Lankan state. Thus, this was an Dambadeniya. Historians are not in agreement on era in which territorial annexation and conquest, the cause led to the depopulation of Rajarata. The or direct political influences were achieved reasons for the decay of monumental monastic through armies marching across land or by sea complexes, the intricate irrigation network and and confronting opponent face to face in the the degeneration technology which helped the battle. The series of South Indian invasions of Sri ancient Sri Lankan to build an impressive Lanka are commencing with the robbing of the civilization are still being debated. This paper royal by Sena and Guttika, who were the critically analyses the causes that had been sons of a Dravidian entrepreneur engaged in presented by various historian that said to have trading in horses. During the weak rule of led to the decline of Sinhala kingdom in Post Mahinda V (982-1017 AD) invaded Sri . Lanka about the year 993 A.D. And king Mahinda Thus the researchers argue about the rationality V had to flee to Rohana region while the son of of the views on various Several causes such as Rajaraja I known as Rajendra I, seized the crown, climatic change, collapse of old order, the decline jewels, the diadem and other valuables to India. It of agriculture due to soil erosion, exhaustion and marked the long-reigned infertility of soil, the spread of the malaria, which lasted for 13 centuries. foreign invasions, the breakdown of the elaborate administrative and social fabric which sustained The Cholas, having sacked Anuradhapura (1017 the complicated irrigation system, and the AD) moved the capital to Polonnaruwa which attractions offered by the Wet Zone as against the they named Janantha Mangalam and it marked Dry Zones have been postulated by various the initiating step towards the shift of the scholars. Sinhalese Kingdoms. It was located on the left bank of the Mahaveli river, was strategically Discussion located to thwart the resistance movements directed from the Rohona region, which was the A. The Northern and South Indian influence vs. safe heaven for rebels and the birthplace of the decline of the medieval Rajarata kingdom internal against the foreign captive Close commercial contacts between India and Sri within the country. Lanka are reflected in the many ancient written records and they highlight the fact that While the Cholas era was able to grasp the power was peopled by merchants in ancient times. over Rajarata region, several leaders organized According to Professor Paranavitana, accounts of resistance against them mainly from Rohana but the peopling of the Island, with merchants occasionally from the central mountain regions playing a leading role are more worthy credence. as well. Several regional leaders did want to make And the episode of reflects the victory of an attempt to re-gain the power into their hands immigrants over the indigenous people and the including the son of deposed king Mahinda V. But synthesis of their cultures, of course with the Prince Kitti became the only one who succeeds predominance of the superior culture of the his mission of unify all Sinhala forces against migrants. Therefor it can conclude that the same Cholas and establishing power in 223

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions

Polonnaruwa.During the Polonnaruwa period, were and left Polonnaruva hurriedly. The events only a few who ruled from the capital could that followed Magha's rule are totally different maintain their authority over the whole of Sri from the circumstances that prevailed when the Lanka. Except for Vijayabahu I (1070-1110), Cholas were expelled by Vijayabahu I. Once the (1153-1186) and Cholas were vanquished, the Sinhala rulers could Nissankamalla (1187-1196) the others were establish their authority in Rajarata basing rulers whose territorial power was mainly in the Polonnaruva as the capital and there were no Rajarata part of the Dry zone. Thus, it can claim further attacks from the Cholas or any other that foreign invasions played a key role in the Foreign power. decline and fall of the Rajarata civilization. As foreign invasions are nothing new in Sri Lankan , who invaded Sri Lanka towards history, yet this factor needs to answer questions the Mid-thirteen century, conquered some of the like what made specific invasion to the decline of regions held by Magha. Subsequently he Rajarata civilization and how did the collapse established his authority in certain parts of come at the latter part of the thirteenth century northern Sri Lanka with the help of the troops because On earlier occasions particularly when from . Around 1258 A.D. The Pandyan the imperial Cholas occupied Rajarata from King Jatavarman Sundara Pandya attacked him around 993 A.D. and more effectively from 1017 and levied tribute but when Chandrabhanu had A.D., the Sinhalese fought back and re-established established himself firmly in northern parts of the their authority in Rajarata. For an example, island, he defied the Pandyas and as a result, in Vijayabahu I (1070- 1110) who successfully 1263 A.D. Jatavarman Virapandya invaded his vanquished the Cholas maintained his hegemony kingdom, killed him and placed a son of for forty years at Polonnaruva and later Chandrabhanu, who accepted the authority of the Parakramabahu I (1153-1186) made the country Pandyas on the throne of the northern kingdom. productive on an unprecedented manner. But Thus, the Pandyas established their power in conditions in the thirteenth century were northern Sri Lanka. This event remarks the different. Magha who captured the throne of beginning of the Tamil kingdom of Jaffna and for Polonnaruva in 1215 A.D. brought havoc in the several decades thereafter there were two country and inflicted terror on the people. kingdoms in the island. One of these, the Sinhalese kingdom controlled the southern and Devastation of Magha and conditions prevalent central parts of the island, the other, the Tamil during and after his reign aggravated the neglect kingdom of Jaffna, dominated the North. From of the reservoir system and it’s interconnected this time onwards, except for a brief period of as well as the destruction of religious and seventeen years (1450-67) under other monuments in Polonnaruva. The remains of Parakramabahu VI, the country was politically the palace of Parakramabahu I “Vaijayantha divided till the British brought territorial unity in Pasada” indicate that it had been destroyed by 1815 A.D. Neither the Tamil rulers nor the fire. The reddish remains of the walls of the upper Sinhalese kings who lived in relative isolation in story suggest that the palace had been burnt at the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries could some point. Charcoal of burnt timber has also establish their capital in the heart of Rajarata but been found in this location. The ruled from Jaffna and the South West as there was Baddhasimapasada near the Alahana Parivena an equally powerful kingdom close by. also displays burnt marks. It is most likely that these destructions were caused during the rule of The Sinhalese, in fact, retreated further and Magha. According to the Culavamsa, Magha and further into places in the hills of the wet zone his warriors ‘put fetters on the wealthy and rich specifically towards South West. The and had taken away all their possessions’ kings as well as the Tamil rulers probably treated They wrecked the image houses, destroyed many the area around Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, cities, ravaged the viharas and maltreated the lay as a buffer region between the two kingdoms. brethren. Magha also gave the monasteries, This would also have resulted in the dislocation parivenas and many sanctuaries to his soldiers as of the administrative and social organization in dwelling places.' The “Nikaya Sangrahaya” states these areas. Due to the lack of a strong political that the Buddhist monks left their belongings center in Rajarata, communication and contacts such as books and bowls in places where they with other areas declined. The settlements 224

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions became isolated and isolation paved the way for A.D. The Cholas brought in chaos to Rajarata. Yet, stagnation. The local chieftains named Vannis the irrigation system survived and once they exercised the authority over these isolated were expelled the Rajarata civilization got to settlements. These chieftains theoretically another start and flourished. In most periods of acknowledged the overlordship of either the multi-centered administrative Tamil or the Sinhalese king but except in one or apparatus sustained the irrigation network. Not two rare instances, for all practical purposes all kings of Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva were were independent. The disunited chieftains strong, but irrigation system was not hampered who were scattered all over the dry zone could and disturbed even during the reigns of weaker not successfully organize the labor force required kings. to maintain the reservoir system and its closely interconnected system. When the chain Paranavitana, elaborating on the theme of system of anicuts, channels and reservoirs was centralization and collapse of the social order neglected the ruin was speedy and inevitable. argues out that the Sinhalese nobility known as the “kulinas” suffered to the utmost during the B. Collapse of ‘Old Order’ regime of Magha and that some of them escaped The American geographer and historian of , to areas in which he did not have any control. In Rhoads Murphey views that the collapse social his opinion without the kulinas who had the and administrative organization or the 'old order' specialized knowledge and experience in which systematized the construction and administration, including the maintenance of maintenance of the complex irrigation system irrigation works, the peasants neglected their was the main cause for the abandonment of traditional obligations towards the state. Rajarata Kingdoms. Murphey accepting the However, it is hard to believe that the early kings concept of 'oriental despotism' which was put of Dambadeniya who fought against Magha by Karl Wittfogel, suggests that only a lacked the support of the kulinas or more high level of organization and a massive labor precisely that of the officials with administrative force could be able to function the irrigation experience and knowledge. The officialdom of the works and provide their constant maintenance. Sinhalese kingdom on the eve of the Chola He also highlights that “Rajakariya” concept occupation was not very different from that in followed by the old society was key to have a existence at the time of Magha's invasion. They centralized administration of a despotic nature. supported resistance movements and after the In his view the collapse and total disintegration of Cholas were vanquished, the Sinhalese succeeded rajakariya and central authority had an absolute in re-establishing their social order and the control of resources adequately explain administrative machinery in Rajarata, but they the abandonment. On the other hand, R.A.L.H. seemed to have failed in a similar task after the Gunawardena has dismissed the view that the defeat of Magha towards the middle of the ancient Sri Lankan society fitted into Wittfogel's thirteenth century. Thus, it seems that there is no concept of oriental despotism. He argues that it valid ground to suggest that the suppression of was multi-centered, where apart from the king, the Sinhalese feudal nobility or kulinas and their monastic complexes and village level escape from Rajarata contributed to the organizations had a role to play in the permanent dislocation of the social and construction and maintenance of irrigation administrative organization in Rajarata. works. For an example the colloquially known, “vevai dagabai gamai pansalai” concept. The crucial question one has to answer is why they made no significant attempts to reoccupy Even when the central authority weakened, Rajarata after Magha's expulsion. Paranavitana irrigation system functioned until the thirteenth having discussed the drain on man power and century. A clear example is the reign of Mahinda material resources during the Chola conquest in V (982- 1017). Due to stiff opposition from the early eleventh century and in the subsequent and the army as well as from people campaigns that led to the restoration of the at Rajarata who refrained from paying even taxes Sinhalese sovereignty as well as during he abandoned the palace at Polonnaruva and Parakramabahu's internal and foreign wars sought in Rohana and ruled from there states that subsequent generations were not fit from 993 A.D until the Chola conquest in 1017 enough to struggle against adverse natural forces 225

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions and to resist the onslaughts of enemies from strongest pieces of evidence against climatic abroad. Liyanagamage and Murphey devoting change is that the modern and ancient irrigation attention to the weakening of human and works are so similar and can irrigate from the material resources, suggests that the policies of same catchment areas the same amount of Parakramabahu I including his expeditions cultivated land. It is not clear how he estimated abroad contributed to the sudden and complete the cultivated areas from the catchment areas in collapse which followed his death. The the Dry Zone in the past. Some of the smaller weakening of the Polonnaruva kingdom would reservoirs and canals recorded in the certainly have helped Magha to establish his cannot be properly identified and quite a number authority in Rajarata, but once Magha's hand was lie buried under a mantle of soil after the Dry removed, the Sinhalese did not successfully Zone was finally abandoned. The large reservoirs reoccupy strong Rajarata and maintain the such as the “Mahagalkadavala” also have not been reservoir system and magnificent buildings restored and “Padaviya, “Vahalkada” and erected by their ancestors. The drain on Mahakanadarava” reservoirs have been restored manpower and material resources after all, is not only after Murphey published his article. a phenomenon peculiar to the Polonnaruva kingdom. The last of the Anuradhapura kings, The small village tanks both in Rajarata and Mahinda did not have resources even to pay his Ruhuna functioned more effectively in the past soldiers. Thus, the causes for the decline of the than now. At present when large and small tanks Rajarata civilization and the abandonment of the overflow and spill in a particular year, and if the Dry Zone regions other than rains fail in the following year, the Dry Zone have to be sought elsewhere. experiences drought even after the modern diversification of the Mahaveli River. It is C. Climatic Changes reasonable to conclude that the capacity of the According to R.L. Brohier, T.W. Tyssul Jones and large and small tanks in the past and the area and E.K. Cook the climatic changes and the reduction intensity of cultivation around them were far of rainfall were the main causes for the decline greater than now. Murphey arguing against a and fall of the Rajarata civilization. When Rhoads climatic change states that the wet-dry zone line Murphey, in his article Ruin of Ancient ' coincides almost exactly with the line between published in 1957 stated climatic change as a the ancient irrigated and un-irrigated areas. The cause for the abandonment of the Dry Zone areas, basis of wet and dry zone divisions in fact tends many scholars accepted that views of Murphey is to vary with different studies in climatology. The correct. But the climatic factor as a cause for the 75-inch isohyet was commonly taken as the decline and fall of the Rajarata civilization needs boundary of the two zones. P.G. Cooray present to be reconsidered and henceforth Murphey’s on the basis of effective rainfall in the Dry Zone arguments have to be re-examined. Murphey in suggested a different boundary confirmed later his analysis of the causes that led to the collapse by B.H. Farmer. This boundary agrees generally expressed the opinion that climatic conditions of with that of Holmes who based his division the island in the past were basically similar to mainly the incidence of drought. On the other those of present. According to him ‘Dry Zone hand, without changes in the locations of climatic droughts are indeed terrible and impressive zones there could be climatic changes or experiences but occur yearly and especially fluctuations. For instance, rain fall may decrease clearly occurred at longer intervals of 10, 30 or in the wet zone and mountain region resulting in 100 years throughout the ancient period’ the the reduction of water carried by rivers Mahavamsa mentions them repeatedly. But it’s originating from these areas. Brohier and Cook also to be noted that there is no reference to suggested that during the time of the ancient droughts or famines in any for more Sinhala civilization, the unbroken mantle of forest than six centuries in the period between the in the mountain region induced a more abundant reigns of Silameghavanna (619-28) and and regular rainfall in the island. It is also likely Parakramabahu II (1236-70). Murphey argues that the agricultural conditions in the Dry Zone that the “ancient irrigation works, fords or were relatively stable during the period of the bridges suggests that the volume of water, carried ancient civilization. by dry zone rivers before the thirteenth century was greater than now”. In his opinion one of the 226

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions

The numerous reservoirs in the Dry Zone too the Dry Zone was more salubrious during the era indicate that the rainfall and water carried by of the Rajarata civilization than it was in the rivers were sufficient to store water to last during sixteenth century A.D. The thirteenth century the annual seasonal dry period. The flow of water also witnessed two famines and droughts, during through aqueducts in the royal pleasure gardens the reigns of Parakramabahu II and below the Tisavava and at and in the Bhuvanekabahu at least one of which may refectory at was undoubtedly indicate a climatic change. Although there had facilitated by pressure of water derived out of been several famines earlier, the only serious one rainfall. The large-scale clearance of forest in the recorded prior to the thirteenth century is the highland had resulted in reduction of water famine that occurred in the reign of Vattagamani supplies and other ecological changes. The (89-77 B.C.). According to the Culavamsa, the wooded slopes in the mountains with foliage famine which occurred during the reign of acting as a protection to the earth served to break Parakramabahu II was caused through the the force of the rainfall, to retain surface soil and 'influence of evil planets' and everything was to help the ground to absorb some of the burnt up'. Corn withered' and 'the whole of the moisture. When the ground absorbs moisture, people dwelling in Lanka were filled with the sub-soil springs are formed which afford the greatest anxiety. rivers the means of maintaining a perennial flow. But conditions have been altered by the D. Spread of Malaria denudation of the central mountain forest The spread of malaria being a cause for the resulting in the silting of large feeder channels decline and abandonment of the Rajarata and even rivers. Murphey states that progressive civilization is a debatable point. The cause of climatic change is 'intrinsically unlikely on malaria was advocated by Lucius Nichols, John meteorological grounds in this part of Still and S. Vere Pearson in the third and fourth Asia marked changes have occurred in the land decades of the 20th century when malaria was surface of the north-western parts of Sri Lanka rampant in Sri Lanka, particularly in the Dry between Tabbova to Tiruketisvaram near Mannal Zone. There is very little evidence on the origins the other hand, according to P.E.P. , and spread of malaria in the global context, from pre-historic times repeated elevation above although some writers tended to assume that it the sea and submergence and that the process is was virulent in the Mediterranean region as well a continuous one. With the oscillation as in Han . There is also no evidence for the phenomenon and other atmospheric factors, it is spread of malaria in Sri Lanka in the thirteenth likely that there were gradual climatic changes. and fourteenth centuries irrespective of the fact that sporadic references to diseases are made. The earliest map available of the Portuguese Once the tanks and the settlements around them connection with Sri Lanka, drawn by the Spaniard were abandoned, stagnant pools would have Cypriano Sanchez and published by Petrus been good breeding grounds for malarial vector Plancius sometime before 1601, contains a note anopheles. But it is far-fetched to suggest that which states that the Kingdom of Yala was malaria was a cause the abandonment of devastated by sickness three hundred years the ancient Sri Lankan civilization. previously. Certain northern areas in the map are described as "Deserto Par Donea" or "desert Conclusion through sickness". A later map which can be dated soon after 1638 with the "Insula Zeilan The foreign and civil wars which plagued the Olim Nune incolis Tenaris which country led to oriental despotism and thus the appears to be a Dutch edition of Plancius' map abandonment of the ancient rajarata civilization shows a remarkable improvement in the – a hydraulic society which flourished in dry zone configuration of the island but retains the original of Ceylon from the latter half of the first letter press. The same note appears on it millennium B.C to the thirteenth century and the regarding Yala. The conclusion which can be subsequent shift of the centers of population and drawn from this is that the Portuguese and early administration to the Wet zone in the south- Dutch writers knew the Dry zone area to be a western portions of the island have been devastated guesea region. This also points to the summarized and synthesized in this research. fact that climate in the region presently known as 227

13th International Research Conference General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University Defence and Strategic Studies Sessions

References English and French fluently. She’s interested in learning foreign , exploring history and Britanica (2020) ; Drift to . South West URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri- Muhandiram Arachchige Lanka/The-fall-of-Polonnaruwa#ref24244 [Date Javindu Gimantha is an of last accessed 31st of July 2020] undergraduate at faculty of defense and strategic Clarck C. & Haswell M. (1967) the Economics of studies of General Sir John Subsistence Agriculture, Macmillan & Co., ch. 2. Kotelawala Defense University. He followed Bio Cordington H.W (1960), Journal of the Ceylon Science for G.C. E A/L at D.S. Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society New Sereis, Vol Senanayake although his interests were VII, Part I, p.93-103. in the field of science, because of his passion for history and geopolitical affairs he continued his Farmer B.H. (1956), Rainfall and Water Supply in journey in field of international relations. the Dry Zone of Ceylon

Murphey R (1957) “The Ruin of Ancient Ceylon”, The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 16, no. 2. p.189- 196 Siriweera W.I. (2004), History of Sri Lanka from the earliest times up to the 16thcentury 2nd edition , Sri Lanka, Dayawansa Jayakody & Company. p.1-75. Paranawithana.S (1960), History of Ceylon, Vol.I, Pt. 2, Colombo, Ceylon University Press. p. 714- 18.

Paranawithana.S (1956) “Gimpse of th Politicle and Social Conditions of Medival Ceylon”. in SI Paul Peeris Felicitation Volume, Colombo. p.69- 74.

Strange W. L (1909), Report on Irrigation in Ceylon, The Ceylon journal of humanities, Vol I. no.II

Author Biographies Deshani Dewmini Samaragunarathna is an undergraduate at faculty of defense and strategic studies of General Sir John Kotelawala Defense University. She followed steam for G.C.E A/L at Good Shepherd convent, . She has completed a Diploma in International Relations at Bandaranaike Center for international studies and participated in Change Leadership Program 2020 organized by the East West Center, Hawaii. Deshani is multi-lingual speaking Sinhala, Tamil, 228