Caring for Our Australian Alps Catchments: a Summary Report

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Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments

Summary Report for Policy Makers This Report was prepared for the Australian Government by: Graeme L. Worboys and Roger B. Good

The document is a “Summary For Policy Makers” of a 2011 Technical Report prepared for the Australian Alps Liaison Committee and the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency titled: “Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments: A Climate Change Action Strategy for the Australian Alps to conserve the natural condition of the catchments and to help minimise threats to high quality water yields” The Summary Report is published by the Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency www.climatechange.gov.au

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia Licence. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/au The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency asserts the right to be recognised as author of the original material in the following manner:

Citation: Worboys, G.L. and Good, R.B. (2011) Caring For Our Australian Alps Catchments: Summary Report For Policy Makers, Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, Canberra

Important Notice - Please Read The Summary Report is produced for general information only and does not represent a statement of the policy of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia and all persons acting for the Commonwealth preparing this report accept no liability for the accuracy of or inferences from the material contained in this publication, or for any action as a result of any person’s or group’s interpretations, deductions, conclusions or actions relying on this material. Cover photo collage (left to right): Main Range, Kosciuszko National Park, Winter 1980; Snowy River in spring thaw; Massed Silver Snow daisies and Billy Buttons, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park. Rear photo collage (left to right): Victorian Alps from Kosciuszko National Park; upper Club Lake Creek, a headwater stream of the Snowy River; Snow-gum, Charlotte Pass. Facing page (left to right): Silver Snow Daisy; Club Lake Creek; Snow-gum at the treeline, Charlotte Pass (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) Table of Contents

Contents iii List of figures and tables iv Preface v Summary of key findings vi Executive summary vii 1. The Australian Alps catchments 1 2. Climate change threats to the Alps catchments 5 3. 2010 Catchment Condition status 18 4. Protecting catchment condition and delivering optimum yield of quality water 33 5. 2010 catchment management 39 6. The natural values of the Australian Alps catchments 42 7. Key messages and policy directions 53 8. Conclusion 58 References 59

Summary Report for Policy Makers iii List of Figures and Tables

Figures 1.1 The Murray Darling Basin and the Australian Alps catchments (inset) 2 1.2 Australian Alps national parks and protected areas 3 2.1 Natural condition and its link to water yield, water flow regime and water quality 5 2.2 Some impacts to natural condition and their effects on water yield, water flow regime and water quality 5 2.3 Climate change influenced mean temperature increases for Australia for the past 40 years 6 2.4 Climate change influenced mean total rainfall for Australia for the past 40 years showing a decline for Southeastern Australia 6 3.1 The 235 Australian Alps sub-catchments assessed for their condition and trend in condition 18 3.2 Catchment condition assessment coding and trend in condition criteria 19 3.3 Catchment condition status depicted by colour 23 3.4 Catchment trend in condition status depicted by colour 23 3.5 Assessed natural condition of the Alps sub-catchments 24 3.6 Assessed trend in condition of Alps sub-catchments 24 3.7 Sub-catchments identified as having serious soil erosion problems in 2010 25 3.8 [Diagrams 1-5] The degradation of Sphagnum bog wetlands and associated fringing wet heath communities 26 3.9 Headward tunnelling erosion and flowline incision above an Erosion-Pavement-Feldmark 27 3.10 Incised erosion of organic soils, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park 27 3.11 Sub-catchments identified as declining in condition relative to their catchment yield status 28 3.12 Sub-catchments with feral horse problems 29 3.13 Sub-catchments with introduced deer populations 31 3.14 Sub-catchments with major weed management issues 32 6.1 Southeastern Australia Bioregions identified by the Interim Biographic Regionalisation (IBRA 6.1) including the Australian Alps 43 6.2 Physiography of the Australian Alps 46 6.3 Mean annual precipitation for the Australian Alps showing the highest catchment yields coinciding with the highest relief 47

Tables 2.1 Climate change predictions 14 2.2 Measured climate change trends (1900-2009) 16 3.1 Criteria used to guide interviewee assessment of catchment condition 21 4.1 Management responses needed for the Alps sub-catchments 34 4.2 Climate change management issues requiring additional responses 36 6.1 The Australian Alps national parks and other protected areas 42 6.2 Area of bioregions conserved as protected areas in the Alps 44 6.3 Annual average water volumes in gigalitres (GL) flowing from the Australian Alps protected area catchments (sourced from the literature) 48

iv Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Preface

This is a “Summary for Policy Makers” of a Academy of Science in 1957 (AAS 1957) and led to technical assessment report of climate change major catchment conservation works for the Alps. adaptation responses needed for the Australian The 2011 Technical Report was prepared based Alps catchments titled “Caring for our Australian on guidance from a multi-organisation Steering Alps Catchments”. Committee; the generous input of experts from The full Technical Report was commissioned by many organisations; expert condition assessment the Australian Alps Liaison Committee (AALC) advice from experienced protected area rangers and the Department of Climate Change and and managers; and, the latest research data and Energy Efficiency (DCCEE) and was completed by analysed information provided by the AALC and Dr Graeme Worboys, Roger Good and Andy Spate State, Territory and Commonwealth Government in close co-operation with the Alps protected organisations including CSIRO, and, catchment area Agencies. It was submitted to the AALC and research scientists. DCCEE in June 2010 (Worboys et al, 2011). Its The following Summary for Policy Makers purpose was to evaluate the natural condition does not necessarily represent the views of the of Australia’s high mountain catchments within governments of the ACT, NSW and Victoria or the the Australian Alps national parks and protected Australian Government. It does however provide areas in 2010; to identify significant current and valuable guidance for responding to issues which future threats to those catchments associated with may impact one of Australia’s most important climate change and to assess priority adaptation economic resources, the high quality water responses. flowing from the Australian Alps which provides This was the second catchment condition on average, around 29% of the total annual flows assessment completed for the Australian Alps. of the Murray Darling Basin. The first was published by the Australian

Summary Report for Policy Makers v Summary of Key Findings

The provision of an annual average of 9600 area; more droughts; more frequent severe fire gigalitres of high quality water from the events and more severe storms. Australian Alps to the Murray-Darling Basin is Climate change for the greater south-eastern an ecosystem service of national economic, social Australia is also predicted to be drier in 2050. The and environmental importance. This water could Alps water is valuable in 2010, but every gigalitre be worth as much as $9.6 billion per year to the flowing from the Alps catchments to the Murray- Australian economy through its contributions to Darling Basin will become more important in the agricultural production and other industries in the future. Basin; through electricity generation and through This high quality water yield is directly linked to recreation and tourism to the Alps region. good, natural catchment condition. The water is a The pure, potable water helps support many of significant ecosystem service of benefit to people, the 2.1 million people living in the Basin as well as and the catchments will need active management people in Adelaide and many towns and regional to maintain their natural condition and to be areas of South Australia. Waters flowing east from resilient to projected climate change effects. the Alps are also of great economic importance. The 2010 catchment condition assessment The Australian Alps national parks and other found that without substantial management protected areas which protect these water interventions to deal with these threats, the catchments are extremely significant for their delivery of high quality water was likely to be outstanding biodiversity, landscape and scenic impacted, with the Alps catchments providing values. They have been officially listed as part of water of poorer quality and often in large sudden Australia’s National Heritage. flows rather than gradual releases. The catchments In 2010, a second catchment condition assessment would be less able to deal with severe storm of the Australian Alps was undertaken. The first events, resulting in extreme water runoff and flash was completed by the Australian Academy of floods. Degradation of the natural condition of the Science in 1957. catchments would have major national economic The assessment identified that the existing effects impacts as well as implications for the safety of of climate change as well as soil erosion, pest people. animals and weeds were impacting the natural Six whole-of-Alps catchment priority management condition of the catchments and thus on water actions are proposed. These climate change quality, water yield and water flow regimes. adaptation responses target key threats; build The catchments were found to be highly vulnerable climate change resilience; optimise water yields; to projected climate change impacts and the and extend over 15 years to be effective. These potential for future severe erosion was of special Priority Actions were costed at about $7 million concern. The assessment identified that 60% of per annum which is small relative to the estimated 235 sub-catchments across 1.64 million hectares annual economic value of the water generated of Alps parks were in a poor or moderate (natural) from the Alps. condition and 76% were in a declining or no- New and improved management responses are trend-change condition. There were very serious considered urgent to optimise high quality water whole-of-Alps catchment threats including soil yields, in the face of the identified immediate erosion, feral horse impacts and weed invasions. threats and the increasing effects of predicted Projected climate changes for 2050 identify hotter and drier conditions resulting from harsher conditions for the catchments. This climate change. Investment in these adaptation includes up to 24% reduction in precipitation; management actions are in the national economic an average temperature rise of potentially up to interest and would generate major long term social 2.90C; a substantial reduction in snow covered and environmental benefits. vi Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Executive Summary

The high quality and reliable waters from the geodiversity and landscape and scenic values. Australian Alps are of national economic, social They are an iconic part of Australia and are and environmental importance. In 2005, 3980 National Heritage listed. The Alps help conserve gigalitres (GL) of Victorian Alps waters flowing one of the richest biodiversity areas on the annually to the Murray-Darling Basin were mainland. Many birds and animals are found conservatively estimated to be worth nowhere else in Australia or the world, and $4 billion to Australia’s economy. On this basis many are threatened or endangered, including then, the average annual 9600GL generated by the Mountain Pygmy Possum and the strikingly the Australian Alps catchments could, in 2005 coloured Corroboree Frog. The Alps flora include terms, be worth as much as $9.6 billion a year to the massed summer wildflower areas of the alpine the national economy. herbfields; the ancient gnarled Snow-gums at These Alps waters represent around 29% of the the snowline; tall wet eucalypt and rainforest annual average inflows of the Murray-Darling communities; and dry native pine woodlands in Basin. They are very reliable and help generate the rainshadow areas of the mountains. Glacial $15 billion worth of Australia’s agricultural landscapes; limestone cave systems; deep gorges; produce annually including 45% of Australia’s plunging waterfalls; broad river valleys and the irrigated production ($5.5 billion); 56% of its highest and very rugged winter snow covered grape crop; 42% of fruit and nuts and 32% of its mountains of the Australian mainland add to total dairy production. The water helps support diversity, scenic appeal and importance of many of the 2.1 million Australians living in this area. the Basin, Adelaide and many towns of South The effects of climate change are predicted to Australia. The Alps catchments also deliver water adversely impact these natural values of the to easterly (coastal) flowing streams and maintain Alps and this would threaten the delivery of high a $300 million per annum environmentally quality water yields. In 2010, an assessment of sustainable hydroelectric power generation. The the natural condition of the Alps protected area high quality waters also contribute to a vibrant catchments was completed. It was presented $280 million per annum snow and mountain in a Technical Report titled -“Caring for our based tourism industry supported by snow Australian Alps Catchments”- (Worboys et al, making and potable water supplies. 2011). The report assessed the natural condition The Alps waters bring many environmental of 235 sub-catchments; identified significant benefits. They contribute to the well-being current and predicted climate change threats and of natural ecosystems of the high mountain identified management adaptation investments catchments; they provide environmental flows (Priority Actions) needed to respond to the most for downstream rivers and they help to dilute the serious threats. This Summary Report presents effects of salt and silt laden waters sourced from aspects of the full Technical Report, and its the greater Murray-Darling Basin catchments. contents are briefly presented here. The integrity of this high quality Alps water however is vulnerable. It is highly reliant on the 1. The Australian Alps catchments high mountain catchments of the Alps parks The Australian Alps encompass the upper being in good, natural condition. Any reduction catchments of the Snowy, Murray and in condition, could seriously impact water quality, Murrumbidgee Rivers that deliver water directly water yield and natural flow regimes. and indirectly (through the Snowy Mountains The Australian Alps are extremely important for Scheme) to the Murray-Darling Basin and easterly their outstanding biodiversity, their remarkable flowing streams. These high Alps catchments fall

Summary Report for Policy Makers vii within the Australian Alps national parks and • a reduction in the extent of plant communities, other protected areas (Alps parks) which span such as the Short Alpine Herbfield, which 1.64 million hectares and include the nationally depend on semi-permanent snow patches; recognised Namadgi National Park (Australian • the drying out of important Sphagnum bogs Capital Territory), Kosciuszko National Park and wetlands; (New South Wales) and the Alpine National • changes in the distribution and abundance of Park (Victoria). The protected areas are actively plant species, such as the expansion of the Tall managed for their natural condition. The Alps Alpine Herbfield community into Short Alpine parks are National Heritage listed, they are Herbfield areas; the expansion of shrubland recognised as a National Landscape and two sites (heaths) into areas which have become drier; within the Alps are recognised as international an expansion of feldmark communities into Ramsar wetlands. They help protect 70% of the new erosion areas and an overall up-mountain Australian Alps Bioregion. The Alps are an iconic movement of vegetation communities. Some destination for Australians, they have a rich plant communities may no longer exist; cultural heritage of great antiquity and they are • degradation of mountain forests such as Alpine managed for conservation as a single landscape by Ash communities which will be subject to three protected area management organisations increased frequency and severity of fires; and under the guidance of an Alps co-operative management agreement. • changes to the habitats of fauna species dependent on snow cover such as the 2. Climate change threats Mountain Pygmy Possum. Such changes are predicted to directly threaten The effects of climate change are predicted to be the natural condition of the Alps catchments and the single greatest threat to the natural condition this would impact water quality, water yield and values of the Australian Alps catchments. water flow regimes through: Projected climate change for the Alps for the year • more frequent and severe wildfire events that 2050 includes: remove protective catchment vegetation cover • increases in mean temperatures of 0.6 and lead to soil erosion, water quality and to 2.9°C; water flow regime impacts; • a predicted decrease in overall precipitation by • post wildfire regeneration of forests within up to 24% by 2050; the catchments which retains water within- • lower humidity; catchment for forest types such as Mountain • less snow cover; Ash, and the resulting impacts on water yield • changed river flow regimes with the absence of delivered by the catchments; the annual spring snow-thaw run-off; • the cover of the alpine vegetation reduced by • more frequent and hotter fires; increased UV, resulting in soil erosion of the altitudinally highest catchments which are the • more droughts; highest water yielding areas; • more severe storms; and • altitudinal (up-mountain) plant distribution • higher total ultraviolet radiation due to less shifts leading to disturbed and changing cloud and more sunlight in the mountains. environmental settings, soil exposure and Changes to the Australian Alps catchments are erosion; predicted as a result of these influences and • reduced vegetation cover and exposed soil include a number of direct effects such as: areas caused by disturbance from fires, feral • dieback and exposure to soil erosion and horses, wild pigs, other feral animals and areas needle-ice activity in alpine plant communities, affected by humans that will be impacted by such as the Tall Alpine Herbfields; more frequent severe storm events and intense

viii Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments rainfall. This will result in more severe soil This assessment provides an essential baseline erosion and catastrophic flood run-off. from which to monitor climate change impacts. The issue of soil cover protection on catchments The assessment identified 60% of the 235 sub- is complex. For the forested Alps catchments catchments were in a poor or moderate natural maintaining soil stability is dependent on there condition. The trend in their condition identified being 70 to 100 percent vegetation cover and that 76% were in a declining or no-trend- greater than 10 tonnes per hectare of ground change condition. The Australian Alps protected litter. This level of cover will be difficult to achieve area Agencies have undertaken considerable and maintain under predicted temperature conservation work for up to 66 years, but it takes increases, reduced total precipitation and more many years to restore lands disturbed by prior frequent high intensity fires. Smaller levels of landuse. In addition new threats and pressures fuel load cover (such as 10 tonnes per hectare) were impacting the natural condition of the may reduce the capacity of forest ecosystems to mountains and most of the restored areas were facilitate rainfall infiltration. This could result still vulnerable to climate change. in higher soil surface water flows. Such high The 2010 assessment found serious threats discharge rates could result in flooding with that included active soil erosion and increasing downstream dam storages not being able to numbers of feral horses and deer which contribute store, regulate and release environmental flows to soil erosion. Feral horses numbers were efficiently. reported as having increased by 300% from 2003 Other indirect climate change effects may impact to 2009 and are predicted to achieve a further the Alps catchments. These could include: 55% increase by 2012. Control action was needed • reduced water yield caused by frequent fires given that feral horses contribute to erosion killing subalpine Snow-gum communities and pollution of the very highest catchments (which otherwise help enhance water yield by grazing, trampling and by causing incision from rain, clouds, fog, hoar frosts and to mountain wetlands and streams. Through improved snow deposition); and such action, they directly impact endangered Sphagnum bog ecological communities and • reduced water yield through enhanced their rich diversity of vertebrate and invertebrate evaporation (warmer temperatures and less species. Additional serious threats included snow covered area), and use by willows and frequent severe fires and the presence of four other weeds. weed species with great potential to spread The Alps catchments need to be resilient as (blackberry, broom, hawkweed and willow). In possible to these predicted threats. Understanding their 2010 condition, the Alps catchments were the condition of the catchments and the nature of considered to be vulnerable to predicted climate any threats is an important start to managing for change effects. resilience. 4. Protecting catchment condition 3. Catchment threats, condition and delivering optimum yields and trend in condition of high quality water In 2010 the natural condition of the Australian In response to the catchment condition Alps catchments was assessed for the second assessment the Technical Report recommended time in history and the first time in 50 years. A six Priority Actions to guide the Australian Alps total of 235 sub-catchments in the Australian Liaison Committee in preparing an adaptive Alps protected areas were assessed using three management response for the catchments. categories of condition (good, moderate or poor). The Actions focused on halting catchment The trend in condition was also identified as degradation, improving water quality, improving either declining, no-trend-change or improving.

Summary Report for Policy Makers ix catchment resilience and optimising water 6. The Natural Values of the Alps flow regime and water yield. Improvements Catchments in the capacity to manage in a climate change environment were also identified and included The significant natural, cultural and social values introducing adaptive management techniques, of the National Heritage listed Australian Alps using new and improved management tools, parks help maintain the natural condition of the monitoring the change in condition of the catchments. These include their ancient geological catchments, identifying threats and undertaking heritage and glacial landforms; the rich deep research into complex catchment management alpine humus soils and their importance as a issues. The Actions also identified targets that temporary reservoir for in-catchment waters; directly involved the people of the Alps with the the absolute purity of the Alps waters and the implementation of adaptive management in the diversity of water yield for sub-catchments that catchments. is dependent on their altitude and location. The Alps are important for their diversity of flora; the 5. 2010 catchment management special role of wetland ecosystems in catchments; the special native Australian fauna found in the The 11 Alps national park and other protected high country;. and the Alps natural scenery, areas were reserved at different times between recreation opportunities and opportunities for 1944 and 1996 and are managed by ACT scientific discovery for Australians. Parks, Conservation and Lands, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service and Parks 7. Key messages and policy Victoria. An integrated, cooperative and transboundary management approach for the recommendations Alps parks is achieved through a Memorandum of The Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Understanding (MOU) which includes the three Technical Report provides key messages and Agencies and the Commonwealth Government. policy recommendations which are: The MOU is managed by the Australian Alps • Water from the Alps catchments is of national Liaison Committee (AALC). The combined annual economic importance; investment by the three Agencies in 2009-10 for • The natural (good) condition of the catchments all aspects of management of the Alps parks was helps deliver high quality and reliable water $52.69 million. yield; The process of formal reservation of the protected • Climate change is impacting the natural areas does not mean that these lands always condition of the Alps catchments; possess a near-pristine condition status; rather, much of the land had a previous land use history • The 2010 catchment condition assessment and requires some form of rehabilitation and found the Alps catchments to be especially continued active management to restore its vulnerable to the predicted effects of climate full suite of conservation values. This prior change and there was an urgency for landuse of parks and new threats in a dynamic adequately resourced management responses environment are the main determinants of a to be implemented; catchment’s natural condition status. Constant • Management interventions (Priority threat management (and often restoration work) Actions) are needed to respond to severe and is needed for all catchments, with some areas immediate threats, to restore and maintain needing considerably more (long-term) work natural condition and to optimise water yield, than others. maximise water quality and maintain natural flow regimes in a climate change environment;

x Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments • Whole-of-Alps large-scale adaptative a sufficient time frame (15 years) to be effective. management responses to climate change These interventions include the protection would significantly benefit the national and enhancement of water yield through economy. weed removal and Snow-gum restoration; the protection of water quality by removing threat 8. Conclusion vectors and minimising soil erosion; and, the protection of water flow regimes by conserving New and improved policy responses are needed natural vegetation cover. Investment in climate to deal with climate change and other threats change adaptation responses will directly benefit to the natural condition of the Australian Alps the national economy and will help conserve catchments, the high quality waters they yield Australia’s outstanding National Heritage listed and their natural water flow regimes. On-ground alpine areas. responses are needed at a whole-of-Alps scale, with additional resources and implemented over

Alpine Groundsel (Senecio pectinatus) massed display, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011. (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers xi Lake Cootapatamba, a glacial moraine dammed lake near Mount Kosciuszko, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

xii Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 1. The Australian Alps Catchments

1.1 Introduction on the Victorian figures of 1000GL being worth approximately $1 billion, this Alps water could, This is a summary report of a Technical Report indicatively, be worth in the order of $9.6 billion titled Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments. to the Australian economy. The full Technical Report provides an assessment The 9600GL represents around 29% of the of the condition of the Alps catchments in 2010; average 32,800GL yearly inflow yield of the the identification of serious and worsening Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) and is generated threats; the likely impacts of predicted climate from just 1% of the 1000000 Km2 Basin (MDBA and suggested management responses. “Business 2010) (Figure 1.1). These waters contribute as usual” management responses were considered significantly to the agricultural production of inadequate to deal with the severe threats and the MDB and Australia’s economy. The Basin climate change trends and the Technical Report generates $15 billion worth of Australia’s advises major remedial on-ground and systems agricultural produce annually including 45% of management responses. Six “Priority Actions” Australia’s irrigated production; 56% of its grape and 30 “Targets” were presented in detail. The crop; 42% of fruit and nuts and 32% of its total Technical Report was submitted to the Australian dairy production. It includes 40% of Australia’s Alps Liaison Committee in June 2010 and farms and supports 2.1 million Australians published in June 2011. (MDBA 2010 p21). This Summary Report is an overview of the The natural condition of the Australian Alps Technical Report. It presents the results of a catchments helps deliver high quality (pure), catchment condition assessment of the Australian sediment free mountain water to the river Alps and identifies key messages and policy systems. The impoundments and turbines of directions arising from the evaluation. It describes the hydroelectric power stations of the Snowy why water generated from the Alps catchments is and Kiewa hydroelectric schemes benefit of critical importance for the economic future of from the essentially sediment free water, with the Murray-Darling Basin and Australia and the hydroelectric power generated by these schemes impacts of projected climate change on the Alps worth approximately $300 million annually catchments values. (Young 2004 p229). Additional benefits of $45 million per annum are achieved from this green 1.2 Economic importance of the Alps power for reduced carbon offsets (Young 2004 catchments p229). The pure water helps reduce snow making Water from the Alps catchments is important for and delivery of potable water costs for the $280 the Australian economy and especially for the 2.1 million per annum Alps ski industry. Natural million Australians living in the Murray-Darling condition in the mountains also helps to maintain Basin, the people of Adelaide and for many towns natural water flow regimes in the catchments. The of South Australia. It was estimated in 2005 that natural vegetation, litter cover and consequent the value of the 3980GL of water flowing from water infiltration tempers rapid run-off in the the Victorian Alps catchments, when all social steep mountains. This provides some slope and production benefits were considered, was stability; it tempers downslope water flow and worth at least $4 billion annually (PV 2009c). The is of particular importance for people’s safety in Alps, on average, yield around 9600GL of water the mountains during prolonged severe weather per annum for the Murray-Darling Basin. Based systems with heavy rain and flooding. The cost

Summary Report for Policy Makers 1 of providing alternative precautionary slope 1.3 Geography stabilisation would be very high. The Australian Alps with their highest peak, For downstream towns and water users, the high Mount Kosciuszko (2228 metres) are the highest quality of the water also means less potable water lands of the Australian continent. They are located supply treatment costs. For the health of the in the south-eastern corner of mainland Australia greater river system, the Alps provides water for and extend over 500 kilometres north to south environmental flows and it helps dilute the effects from the New South Wales (NSW) Brindabella of the salt and silt laden river waters of the greater Ranges, through Namadgi National Park in the Murray-Darling Basin. Australian Capital Territory (ACT), to the Snowy The natural (good) condition of the Alps Mountains (NSW) and then to the Victorian Alps catchments and the high quality water generated (Anderson and Atkins 2010) (Figure 1.2). is of national economic importance. But these catchments are dynamic and need constant management responses for threats to their natural condition. This is especially important in the context of climate change.

Figure 1.1 The Murray-Darling Basin and the Australian Alps catchments (inset) (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

2 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 1.2 The Australian Alps national parks and protected areas (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

1.4 Significance of the Australian ACT) and Blue Lake (Kosciuszko National Park, Alps catchments NSW) are recognised internationally as Ramsar Wetlands. Kosciuszko National Park in the heart The Australian Alps national parks and other of the Alps parks is a UNESCO World Man and protected areas (Alps parks) and their catchments the Biosphere Reserve. are a special place. They extend across 1.64 The natural values of the Australian Alps are million hectares and are famous for their winter outstanding. This is a special high mountain snowfields; summer alpine wildflowers and Bioregion in a continent which averages 330 rugged mountain scenic beauty. Their rich metres in altitude. The Australian Alps Bioregion heritage includes Aboriginal traditional use of includes evidences of past glacial and periglacial great antiquity and recent histories including activity including glacial lakes; diverse granitic, exploration; scientific discovery; the “Man from sedimentary and volcanic landscapes and Snowy River mountain folklore”; grazing; mining; special geological features such as limestone forestry; hydroelectric development; tourism caves and outcrops of serpentinite. It has rich, and conservation. The Australian Alps have been deep alpine humus soils and their associated recognised nationally for their special values rolling Tall Alpine Herbfield landscapes; clear with National Heritage Listing and recognition cascading streams and rivers and dynamic as a National Landscape. Specific features such mountain weather. The Alps support a diverse as the Ginini Wetlands (Namadgi National Park, flora with more than 850 vascular plants, a

Summary Report for Policy Makers 3 nationally threatened ecological community 1.5 Managing the catchments (Alpine Sphagnum Bogs) and rare and endemic alpine plant species such as the Anemone The exceptional natural values of the Alps Buttercup (Ranunculus anemoneus). The catchments are actively managed by the protected mountain habitats support unusual and colourful area Agencies of the ACT, NSW and Victoria invertebrates including the brightly coloured and through a uniquely Australian co-operative red and blue striped Mountain Grasshopper management agreement for the Australian Alps. (Acripeza reticulata). They also support over This 24 year old transboundary cooperative 300 vertebrate species such as the Alpine Water management at the headwaters of our most Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi), Flame Robin important rivers is described in Chapter 5. The (Petroica phoenicea) and black and yellow striped natural heritage values that are being managed Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree). are also presented in more detail, given their Seventeen mammals are either rare, vulnerable importance for understanding the concept of or threatened such as the endangered Mountain natural condition for the Alps, in Chapter 6. Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus). The Alps are important for international, national and 1.6 Climate change and the Alps regional migratory species and the high mountain Climate change is impacting the natural condition catchments are destinations for birds that are of the Alps catchments and this is affecting the the subject of international migratory bird water quality, its flow regime and the overall agreements. water yield of the catchments. This has major economic implications for the Murray-Darling Basin. These threats are described in more detail in Chapter 2.

Alpine Podolepis (Podolepis sp.) [three frames] and Native Dandelion (Microseris lanceolata) massed flowering [centre-left], Club Lake Creek Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011. Part of the massed summer wildflower displays and exceptional natural values of the Australian Alps (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

4 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 2. Climate Change Threats to the Alps Catchments

“Predictions of the effects of enhanced greenhouse climate change suggests that the alpine environments and their dependent biota are amongst the most vulnerable environments in Australia and their protection and that of the adjacent eucalypt montane forests and woodlands are vital for biodiversity conservation at the national scale” (Mansergh et al, 2004 p73)

Water yield, water quality and water flow regimes (ecosystem services) from the Alps are directly linked to the natural condition of the catchments Water and this condition is affected by climate change Yield (Figure 2.1).

Natural condition is good condition, and is Fire Weeds defined as the condition of the Alps catchments pre-European settlement. It is the naturally vegetated, stable, and non-eroding Alps Natural catchments, their associated healthy, functioning Condition ecosystems and their stable or naturally eroding soils and natural surface and sub-surface water Water flow Water flows. Natural condition helps define restoration regime Quality goals for the many disturbed areas of the Alps. It is a conservation goal to retain areas in this state Soil despite constant threats to the catchments. Erosion

Pest Vegetation Fire Water Animals Developments cover Yield

Figure 2.2 Some impacts to natural condition and their association with water yield, water flow regime and water quality

Natural Condition Natural condition enhances the resilience (and stability) of catchments to climate change impacts Water flow Water and other threats such as invasive animal and regime Quality plant species and human use (Figure 2.2). In addition, it helps maintain the natural scenic beauty, ecosystem function and biodiversity Figure 2.1 Natural condition and its link to water richness of the Alps. yield, water flow regime and water quality

Summary Report for Policy Makers 5 Climate change threats to the natural condition of the catchments are predicted to impact high quality water delivery from the Alps. The climate change effects that have been measured and predicted changes for the natural environments of the Alps catchments are briefly reviewed here. Some of the implications are also described.

2.1 Temperature The Alps have been warming at about 0.20C per decade over the past 35 years (Green and Pickering 2009) which is at a higher rate Snow covered terrain in 1980, Main Range of Kosciuszko than many other areas of Australia (Figure National Park 2.3). Climate change predictions identify that (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) temperatures will continue to rise and for the year 2050 average temperatures will have further Snow cover has declined on average by 15 metre- increased by somewhere between +0.6 to +2.90C days per decade. [Metre days are calculated when (NSW DEC 2006; Green and Pickering 2009). the depth of snow is multiplied by the number of days at that depth and summing the weekly result to give a single figure for each year]. This is from 213 metre-days in the decade following 1954 to 146 in the past 10 years (Green and Pickering 2009 p214). Spring thaw has been occurring on average two days earlier per decade, with very low snow years (1999 and 2006) represented by the two earliest thaws on record (Green and Pickering 2009 p214).

Figure 2.3: Climate change influenced mean temperature increases for Australia for the past 40 years (Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology)

Higher average temperatures have many predicted implications including the up-mountain shift of vegetation communities and animal habitats; more storms; more drought conditions and a higher fire frequency and more severe fire behaviour. Figure 2.4: Climate change influenced mean total rainfall for Australia for the past 40 years 2.2 Precipitation showing a decline for Southeastern Australia In the past 54 years there has been a significant (Source: Australian Bureau of Meteorology) decrease in snow as measured at the 1830 metre altitude Spencers Creek Snow Course, Kosciuszko National Park (Green and Pickering, 2009 p214).

6 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Predicted higher temperatures will mean More intense storms are predicted for the Alps, any precipitation falling in the Alps will fall including more intense precipitation events (PV increasingly as rain rather than snow. Climate 2009a). Increasing temperatures and decreasing change predictions identify that the “snow- precipitation together with other secondary covered-area” sustaining snow for more than climate regime changes such as lower humidity, 60 days may be reduced by up to 96% by 2050 increased number of cloud-free days and (Hennessy et al, 2003). There are also predicted increased levels of ultra-violet radiation (UV) are changes in precipitation regimes for the Alps. also predicted (Good 2008, Good et al, 2010). An The Murray-Darling Basin (including the Alps) increase in the number of frosts may also occur is likely to be 10% drier than past experience in some alpine areas given a reduction in snow (Prosser 2009; MDBA 2010 p33). This is based cover and an increasing number of cloud free on (median) 2030 climate change predictions days (Williams et al, 2009). These changes will completed for the Murray-Darling Basin have impacts on the existing native vegetation Authority. The overall amount of precipitation species and communities. Drought conditions will in the Alps is predicted to decrease by up to 24% occur and extreme and catastrophic fire weather by 2050 (Hennessy et al, 2003) and an increased conditions are predicted to be more frequent. number of droughts are predicted. Severe storms are predicted along with their implications for 2.4 Impacts to native flora heavy rain and potentially excessive and rapid The Alps plant communities most impacted flooding events. initially by climate change will be the higher 2.3 Changes in weather elevation alpine and subalpine communities including Snowpatch and Feldmark; Tall Alpine High intensity storms in the Alps can be damaging Herbfield; Short Alpine Herbfield and Sod-tussock to both vegetation and soils. Intense storms have Grasslands and groundwater communities. already resulted in erosion of areas of exposed In the highest catchments of the alpine area soils following extreme wildfires in the Australian it is predicted that the Short Alpine Herbfield Alps in 2001, 2003, and 2007. Soils exposed will disappear and be replaced by Tall Alpine by feral horses, introduced deer and other feral Herbfield, while the Sod-tussock Grasslands animals and development activities by humans and wet herbfields will dry and become Tall are also impacted by these events. Alpine Herbfield (Pickering et al, 2004; Green and Pickering 2009). These dynamic changes in community distribution will not greatly impact water yield from the alpine area catchments in the short-term but, as the predicted extinction of a number of inter-tussock herbaceous species occurs, fragmentation of the vegetative cover will occur leading to soil exposure and eventually, increased soil erosion. This directly affects water quality. Seasonal melt-water flows will diminish as snow patches diminish, thereby affecting the flow regimes and the immediate downstream vegetation communities (Green and Pickering 2009).

Intense summer thunderstorm developing over the Australian Alps in 2010 (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 7 2.5 Impacts to native fauna Endemic alpine species such as the Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus) and Broad- toothed Rat (Mastocomys fuscus) which are dependent on reliable winter snow cover for their survival will be directly impacted by the variable snow cover and a future without snow cover. Many habitats presently suitable for these species will be lost (Pickering et al, 2004).

Short Alpine Herbfield community in 1974 (located below the snow patches) near Club Lake, Kosciuszko National Park. At this site in 2010, this plant community had been colonised by Tall Alpine Herbfield species (Source: Roger Good collection)

The high elevation alpine and subalpine areas are also the areas of highest precipitation and, while relatively small, they are the highest yielding catchments on a unit area basis. It is an area which will need to be managed very carefully, where change in condition will need to be monitored closely and where adaptive responses such as soil conservation work may be needed. Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus), The individual alpine area sub-catchments yield Australian Alps the most water per catchment area. However the (Source: Linda Broome) greater part of the subalpine and montane areas It is predicted that there will be a loss of some are forested and it is these forested catchments subalpine and alpine specialist species and more which contribute the greatest total volume of generally, an up-mountain migration of species water, both as surface runoff and as contributions (Dunlop and Brown 2008). Invasive species are to groundwater and subsequent groundwater predicted to cause additional problems. seepage to the rivers and streams. Hotter and drier climatic conditions will influence the rate 2.6 Invasive species of forest ground litter accumulation and most significantly, the reduction of fuel moisture of The fragmentation of native vegetation and ground litter fuels (Williams et al, 2009). exposure of soils provides opportunities for Other predicted changes in vegetation include invasion by exotic plant species, particularly vegetation thickening due to increased CO2; those that adapt to or benefit from changes in changes in treeline (downslope into frost hollow environmental conditions and climate change, basins and upslope into higher altitudinal areas); such as Broom (Cytisus spp) and Hawkweed the drying of wetlands, bogs and fens (Dunlop and (Hieracium spp). The increasing upward invasion Brown 2008); and, the impacts of more frequent of these weed species to the highest elevations is and intense fires on fire sensitive species such as already occurring and will be further enhanced by Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) (Williams et predicted warmer conditions. al, 2009).

8 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments An outbreak of the aggressive weed Hawkweed Winter needle ice formed on a road edge, Mount Sarah, (Hieracium sp) discovered near Round Mountain in Alpine National Park, Victoria. The soil moisture freezes Kosciuszko National Park in December 2010. Treatment overnight, forms needle ice crystals, expands vertically responses were immediately implemented and lifts some soil with it. Repeated many times, this destabilises any exposed soil areas and leaves disturbed (Source: Anthony Evans) soil ready for erosion at snow melt or during rainfall events (Source: Sera Cutler) Introduced animals are (similarly) moving higher into the Alps. Feral horses (Equus calballus) and their associated damage to bogs and fens are of 2.8 Frequent extreme fires and soil particular concern. The organic soils of many of erosion and water yield impacts these mires are being damaged by feral horses and Predicted dryer forest fuels and higher energy then further incised by more rapid water runoff. electrical storms are likely to lead to more 2.7 Soil erosion from less snow frequent wildfire ignitions and higher intensity fires. For obligate seeders (which depend entirely Where the Alps flora is impacted by reduced snow on seed to regenerate after fire) such as Mountain cover, the soil stability may also be impacted. The Ash (Eucalyptus regnans), an increase in fire reduced snow cover (which otherwise provides frequency may influence catchment yield through an insulation layer) may lead to increased freeze- larger areas of post-fire regenerating forests. thaw ice or frost-heave (needle ice) activity in Such regrowth utilises larger amounts of water alpine soils, including some of those which were in-catchment (Williams and Gill 1995). For restored in NSW in the 1960s. Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis), another

Feral horses (Equus calballus) in the highest and remaining unburnt catchment areas following the 2003 Australian Alps fires, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Dane Wimbush collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 9 obligate seeder, the seed source may diminish With declining plant species numbers and with increasing fire frequency (if the Ash does vegetation and ground litter cover, the soils of the not reach seed bearing maturity prior to the next forested catchments are more prone to accelerated fire event) and there may be species composition erosion as evidenced in the Alps following the changes in the catchments (Williams et al, 2009). 2003 fires. Any unstable and eroding catchments These frequent high intensity forest fires will will have higher catchment discharge rates, in turn impact the stability of the understorey carrying high levels of sediments to dam storages vegetation species leading to fragmentation of the and reducing the quality of the water. forested areas. The maintenance of soil stability in the forested 2.9 Climate change and water yield, Alps catchments is very much dependent on water quality and flow regime the retention of a vegetative cover of 70 to Water yield 100 percent and greater than 10 tonnes per hectare of ground litter (10 to 35 t/ha) (Costin A natural vegetated condition will help maintain et al, 1960; Good 1976; Worboys 1981; Good water yields from catchments. Managing for 1982; Good 1986; Costin 2004; Leaver 2004). climate change threats to water yields includes This level of vegetative and litter cover will be managing for fires, removing weeds and restoring difficult to achieve and maintain under predicted critical ecosystems. Though difficult to achieve temperature increases, reduced total precipitation in hotter and drier conditions, a lower frequency and more frequent high intensity fires. This of major, intense, forest fires in the catchments minimum level of vegetative cover for catchment may help increase yield through less in-catchment stability is also the minimum fuel level which water being committed to post-fire forest contributes to high intensity wildfires. It is a regeneration. The restoration of previously killed direct tension between catchment conservation high altitude Snow-gum communities (from and wildfire management objectives for the Alps. grazing and burning [Byles 1932 cited in Zylstra Further research work is needed to investigate 2006, Costin et al, 2004]) will help enhance water this complexity. yield in a predicted environment of declining precipitation (Costin and Wimbush 1961). These

2003 Australian Alps wildfire, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Michelle Watson)

10 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments restored high altitude Snow-gum communities Water quality will harvest additional water from cloud, fog and Clear, high quality water is sourced from non- hoar frosts and will maintain enhanced snow eroding catchments and climate change may deposition (a snow-fence effect) in winter (Costin cause impacts to vegetation cover and resulting and Wimbush 1961, Costin et al, 2004). Climate soil erosion. Non-natural soil erosion impacts change and its associated warmer conditions will high mountain streams and impacts downstream enhance the distribution of many weeds. The infrastructure, including impoundments which removal of willows which extract an estimated service hydroelectric power generation and 5.5 megalitres of water for every 2-3 kilometres domestic water supply dams. Disturbance of of infested river (Doody 2011) will enhance natural vegetation in high altitude environments downstream water yield. exposes soils to soil erosion.

Areas of subalpine Snow-gums (Eucalyptus pauciflora) in The Corin Dam ACT, in October 2010 Kosciuszko National Park were killed by grazing and fire. The reservoir sources its high quality water from the This has happened in two ways. Historic wildfire events Australian Alps catchments in Namadgi National Park burnt the Snow-gums, they resprouted and stock grazed and the water is used as a source of drinking water for the new growth which killed the trees. The practice of Australia’s national capital, Canberra burning-off Snow-gums also caused resprouting which was (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) subsequently grazed. It is these human disturbed areas which are proposed for restoration to achieve 10% water yield enhancement for the high mountain catchments. (Source: Roger Good collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 11 Flow regime Vegetation in a natural condition helps prevent rapid run-off, soil erosion and slope instability and assists in maintaining water quality. In the alpine area, damaged vegetation can lead to rapid incision, undercutting, tunnelling and headwater erosion of the alpine humus soils. In forested lands, a very careful catchment management balance is required. The majority of the Alps forests have, at equilibrium fuel accumulation, fuel loads in the order of 20 to 70 tonnes per hectare (t/ha) (Good 1982; Good 1986; Leaver 2004). Smaller levels of forest litter Kosciuszko National Park in 2011. This former Sphagnum cover such as 10t/ha may reduce the capacity of Bog community was restored in the 1960-70’s and shows forest ecosystems to facilitate rainfall infiltration expanding Sphagnum (brighter green on the left) but new (Costin 2004). This could result in higher soil entrenched erosion and soil loss (photo centre) which requires maintenance to prevent further soil loss surface water flows, erosion, higher discharge (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) rates and downstream dam storages not being able to efficiently store, regulate and release the consequent environmental flows. The capacity

Simple soil erosion control intervention work at a critical endangered species site. Two year old restoration work at the 2003 fire damaged Pengilley’s Sphagnum bog endangered ecological community, near Smiggin Holes, Kosciuszko National Park. The hessian covered straw impoundment has contained the water, prevented stream incision and allowed the wetland to partially regenerate (Source: Roger Good collection)

Thick subalpine understory regeneration in an Alpine Ash (Eucalyptus delegatensis) community, Alpine National Park near Falls Creek Victoria in 2007. This area burnt during the 2003 Australian Alps fires. The alpine ash regenerates only from seed after fire and creates dense regrowth (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

12 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments to regulate such water flows for multiple use 2.10 Climate change impacts on is central to the ’operation’ of the engineered natural condition Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers system, part of the Murray-Darling Basin Scheme. Excess water Predicted changes in climate and weather factors flowing over impoundment spillways becomes lost in the Alps include temperature increases and water in terms of its potential for multiple-use. precipitation regime changes (less snow); less In the climate change predicted future of more total precipitation; changed seasonality of frequent and severe storm events, the ability precipitation and more extreme precipitation of natural vegetation cover and forest litter to events (Hennessy et al, 2003; Pickering et al, hold soils in place; to allow water infiltration 2004; Dunlop and Brown 2008; Hennessy et al, and to provide stability to steep mountain slopes 2007; Garnaut 2008; Green and Pickering 2009; is critical. Good (natural) vegetation cover can PV 2009a (Table 2.1). The predictions presented lessen the energy of down-mountain water flows are for a range of higher CO2 emission levels from which is critical for catchment conservation; 1990 levels for periods extending to 2030, 2050 for minimising the frequency of catastrophic and 2100. Climate change has been happening high energy flood events; for increasing the for many years and this has been measured safety of humans in the Alps and for protecting (Table 2.2). Factors associated with the changing infrastructure such as impoundments and environment include more cloud free days, lower hydroelectric power generation sites. humidity and increased total solar radiation (UV) (Howden et al, 2003). Climate change is predicted to influence the natural condition of the catchments and this in turn will influence the nature of water quality,

Shade-cloth use for wetland restoration, Cotter The Cotter Dam in the ACT overflowing during the La Nina catchment, ACT, 2005. The shade-cloth helps protect the inspired heavy rains that affected eastern Australian regenerating Sphagnum and other wetland species from catchments in the spring and summer of 2010. The Cotter the damaging effects of UV radiation. Dam on the Cotter River is downstream of the Corin Dam (Source: Roger Good collection) and includes catchments outside of Namadgi National Park which are affected by human disturbance (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 13 flow regime and water yield. Active management effects? Or, were they vulnerable to threats which interventions will be needed to maintain natural could impact the catchments and the yield of condition. Given this it was important to know high quality water? Such a “baseline” condition in 2010 the actual condition of the 1.64 million assessment of the Australian Alps catchments was hectares of the Alps parks catchments. Were conducted. It was the second such evaluation in the catchments in sufficiently natural (good) the history of the Alps catchments, the first being condition to be resilient to climate change completed by the Australian Academy of Science in 1957 (AAS 1957).

Table 2.1 Climate change predictions

Australia Victoria Alps Catchments (Hennessy et al, 2007; (Vic DSE 2009) (Green, 2003; Hennessy et Garnaut 2008; Allison et al, al, 2003; Pickering et al, 2009; Steffen et al, 2009; Vic 2004; Dunlop and Brown DSE 2009) 2008; Hennessy et al, 2007; Garnaut 2008; Green and Pickering 2009; PV 2009a; Williams et al, 2009) Average Temperature [For 2030] • Projections for 2050 are Increases • 2008 emission levels lead for an increase between to a 25% chance of a 2°C (low emissions scenario) rise in temperature 0.6°C and (high emissions scenario) 2.9°C [Best estimates for 2100] • 1.6°C increase (450 ppm CO2) • 2.0°C increase (550 ppm CO2) • 5.1°C increase (no mitigation) • The north-west is expected to warm more quickly than the rest of Australia Heatwaves • Increase in the number of • More days above 35°C heatwaves Bushfires • Fire seasons will start • More days with very • (High risk) By 2030 more earlier high and extreme fire frequent hot fires reduce • They will finish later behaviour regeneration of Alpine ecosystems • They will be more intense • Changes will occur to fire intensity and frequency • Frequent fire: possible • More frequent very conversion of woodlands extreme and catastrophic to shrublands and fire conditions are grasslands predicted Precipitation • Likely decreased • Less annual rainfall, but For 2050 precipitation in temperate more extreme rainfall • Possible reduction by lands events 24% (from 1990) for high emission scenario Snow • Retreat of the snowline. • Fewer frosts For 2050 No snow in 2100 for the no • Possible reductions (for mitigation scenario high emission scenario) to 96% in the area sustaining snow cover for more than 60 days for 2100

14 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Australia Victoria Alps Catchments (Cont’d) (Cont’d) (Cont’d) • For 450 ppm CO2: Sufficient snow for Resorts • For 550 ppm CO2: Some snow • No-mitigation: No snow Pattern of precipitation • Changes to seasonality For 2050 and patterns of rainfall • Precipitation is expected intensity to decrease by up to 24% Runoff • More floods • Reduced spread of stream • Changes to water flow flows due to loss of snow, regimes in rivers and bogs and fens wetlands are predicted • (Medium risk) By 2040 there is reduced snow depth and rainfall and increased evaporation leads to lower yield and lower water quality Drought • Increased risk of drought • More droughts • The alpine area is highly sensitive to more frequent droughts Weeds and pests • Changes will occur • Less snow, invasion of the to weed and pest alpine area by introduced distribution herbivores and carnivores • (High risk) By 2070, increased competition from invasive summer weeds Habitats and Ecosystems • For alpine/montane lands • Decrease in Sphagnum • Potential loss of species bogs dependent on adequate • Vegetation thickening due snow cover to CO2 • Increased establishment • Rising treeline, upward of plant species at higher migration of species and altitudes ecosystems • Potential displacement of • Loss of snow cover species, changes to snow insulation and habitat for patch species species • Potential extinctions of summit restricted species; • Changes in hydrology and impacts to fens and bogs • Changes in phenology with earlier spring thaw Landuse • Increase in snowmaking • Increase in summer tourism and recreation • Loss of snow insulation for soils and greater needle ice impacts

Summary Report for Policy Makers 15 Table 2.2 Measured climate change trends (1900-2009)

Australia Victoria Alps Catchments (Hennessy et al, 2007; (Vic DSE 2009) (Hennessy et al, 2003; Garnaut 2008; Steffen et Pickering et al, 2004; al, 2009; Vic DSE 2009) Dunlop and Brown 2008; Hennessy et al, 2007; Garnaut 2008; Green and Pickering 2009; PV 2009a) Measured trends 1900-2009 • 1910-2007: average • The alpine region has temperature increase warmed over the past 35 0.9 °C (Figure 2.1) years at 0.2°C per decade • Rainfall is higher in the • Warming trends at alpine north and west, drying sites over 35 years have in southern and south- been greater than at lower eastern Australia altitudes (Figure 2.2) • There has been a • There have been low statistically significant stream flows over the decrease in snow over the period 2000-09 past 54 years • 2009 CO2 emissions are • Spring thaw has been tracking at the upper occurring 2 days earlier bounds of the most each decade pessimistic IPCC scenarios • The frequency of “big dumps” of snow has decreased • The decline of the Short Alpine Herbfield plant community due to warming has been recorded

Burnt areas on the western face of the Main Range and alpine area, Kosciuszko National Park following the 2003 Australian Alps fires (Source: Dane Wimbush collection)

16 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Treeline Snow-gum, Charlotte Pass Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 17 3. 2010 Catchment Condition Status

A whole-of-Alps assessment of the natural lands, maintenance work is constantly needed condition and threats to the catchments was and new threats and pressures impact the natural needed. It would help identify if the catchments condition in this dynamic landscape. were, in 2010, either resilient or vulnerable to the Natural (good) condition is important for the effects of climate change. It would also identify if Alps catchments. It is the role of protected area any management interventions were needed. managers to help achieve and maintain this It could be assumed that the Alps catchments natural condition and consequently it is their were essentially in a natural state given their responsibility to know the condition of the protected area status for up to 66 years. Thanks catchments and to respond to any threats. In to considerable conservation work, this is the 2010 an assessment of the natural condition was case for many areas. However there are also completed and was guided by three questions: many other parts of the catchments which 1. What was the overall natural condition of the were substantially modified during their pre- Alps catchments? protected area history and these have required 2. What was the trend in the natural condition of extensive restoration and maintenance work. these catchments? and, This work is on-going and unfinished. It takes 3. What were the principal threats to the Alps many years to restore disturbed high mountain catchments?

Figure 3.1 The 235 Australian Alps sub-catchments assessed for their natural condition and trend in condition (Source NSW DECCW 2010)

18 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 3.1 The assessment method then confirmed by an Alps Catchments Project Steering Committee. Simplicity of method was The 2010 survey method selected used the sought and a ‘traffic light’ approach to classifying expert opinion of rangers and area managers the individual catchment condition was taken to systematically assess the condition of the (Figure 3.2). The assessment categories of good, Alps catchments. This approach was used given moderate and poor were used for the 235 sub- the absence of a standardised, GIS based and catchments. quantified baseline natural condition data for the catchments from which to analyse condition. Catchment condition The 1.64 million hectares of catchments were “Good” identifies that the sub-catchment area divided for analysis into 235 sub-catchments in was well vegetated with a stable native species the order of 10000 hectares in area (Figure 3.1). groundcover and was little impacted by factors Only significant sub-catchment condition issues such as feral animals. Good condition does not were targeted and expert management staff were necessarily infer ‘near pristine’ which is the asked to analyse many condition variables prior optimum natural condition for protected area to providing a summative judgement of condition. catchments. Supporting information, triangulation of input advice and immediate peer review of judgements “Moderate” identifies that a sub-catchment was made were used prior to each sub-catchment essentially stable but had incomplete vegetation condition and trend in condition assessment being cover with minor soil instability. This may be the finalised. The qualitative assessment completed result of (for example) vegetation destruction and was indicative and not prescriptive though it has soil disturbance by feral horses and feral pigs. credibility given the reliability of the expert inputs “Poor” identifies that the sub-catchment had and triangulation methods used. been significantly disturbed and degraded, there was a low percentage of groundcover and soil Basis for the method used erosion was evident. It may have had a history of pre-protected area landuse impacts. There was The catchment condition assessment method was likely to be the presence of weeds and introduced determined during three workshops conducted for animal populations. the Alps Catchments Project. It was reviewed and

Improving Trend in condition One of three categories were recognised for “trend Poor No Trend Change in condition” for each sub-catchment which were Declining “declining”; “no trend change” and “improving” (Figure 3.2). Improving “Improving” identifies that the vegetation cover

Moderate No Trend Change and species complexity, in combination with a reduction in the area of disturbance and soil Declining loss, had improved in response to conservation management and natural healing. In most Improving sub-catchments this status recognises that Good No Trend Change introduced animal control and weed management programmes (at the time of the assessment) were Declining achieving their objectives.

Figure 3.2 Catchment condition assessment coding and trend in condition criteria

Summary Report for Policy Makers 19 “No-trend-change” identifies that the area overall 3.2 Catchment condition decision was neither improving nor declining. The area making process and criteria may be improving in parts (such as an area that was being restored) and may be declining used elsewhere (such as impacts from weeds). It Rangers and area managers were asked to make recognises that threat mitigation programmes judgements on condition and trend in condition were in place but were only just keeping up with relative to a number of key criteria (Table 3.1). the level of impacts (it was not getting worse). These criteria were determined at workshops “Declining” identifies that irrespective of conducted as part of the Alps catchments project. feral animal and weed control programmes Each interviewed expert reviewed a number of being undertaken by the Alps Agencies, native criteria that could influence their assessment vegetation cover and species populations for a sub-catchment before reaching a condition were declining and soil instability and erosion decision for each sub-catchment. were evident. Management actions were not keeping pace with impacts caused by historical 3.3 Advantages of the method landuse impacts; increasing introduced animal In the absence of a standardised GIS based populations and weed invasions and there was data-base for the Alps parks, this method of catchment damage and degradation resulting interviewing sub-catchment management experts from these impacts. provided a number of benefits for the project.

Australian Alps protected area management staff contributing to the catchment condition survey January 2010 (Clockwise from top left) NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service; Parks Victoria; NSW GIS expert Doug Mills; ACT Parks and Conservation (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection).

20 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments The method was simple, cost-effective and was generated was sourced from the best available focused on major issues. It provided an indicative knowledge and highly qualified and experienced assessment of the natural condition and trend in professional staff, the findings must be considered condition of the catchments at a whole-of-Alps indicative. scale. Some other limitations for the assessment included the general lack of readily accessible 3.4 Limitations to the method quantified data for some sub-catchments; the need to average the condition assessment The assessment was based on judgments from information across sub-catchments; differences individuals and not by quantitative data and in the relative knowledge and experience of systematic survey and this was an important personnel completing the assessment; and, limitation. In addition, no field survey or ground the general degree of difficulty in assessing truthing was completed. Though the information

Table 3.1 Criteria used to guide interviewee assessment of catchment condition

Management issues (concerns) Guidance for assessing condition status Vegetation status Stability of the vegetation and percentage of natural cover. Exposure of bare (unvegetated) soil for more than 15% of an area provides a guide for poor condition. Introduced animal presence The abundance and distribution (and percentage (Deer, horses, pigs, foxes, rabbits) area) of the particular catchment utilised by the pest animal is assessed. The dominant pest animals were identified. “Other introduced animals” may be recognised where there were serious issues with species such as cats, hares, goats and wild cattle. Introduced plants (weeds) The abundance and distribution (and percentage (Blackberry, willows, broom, hawkweed) area) of the particular catchment utilised by the introduced plants were assessed. The dominant introduced plants were identified. Other introduced plants may be recognised where they present serious issues Wildfire and prescribed fire The frequency, distribution and accumulated number of fires were assessed. Fire was treated as a natural phenomena except where there was an increased fire frequency that was non-natural and there were cumulative impacts Infrastructure developments The location and area covered by developments where they lead to threats which include introduced plants and animals, soil erosion and pollution. Soils and soil erosion This includes active erosion which may be localised, in many locations or it may occur as extensive and severe areas of erosion.

Summary Report for Policy Makers 21 the degree and extent of impacts across sub- Results: The 1957 catchment condition catchments. Wherever possible, these limitations assessment identified that: were minimised by supplementary supporting 1. There was serious deterioration in the information and triangulation of evidence. vegetative cover; a decline in catchment efficiency and widespread surface soil erosion; 3.5 An insight: The 1957 catchment 2. The watershed value of the regions was the condition assessment paramount consideration; The 1957 catchment condition assessment method 3. Catchments were in danger if there was a used by the Australian Academy of Science loss in the infiltration capacity due to the was similar to the 2010 assessment. It used a deterioration of vegetative cover and were in combination of written inputs from catchment great danger if this deterioration was likely to authorities, interviews, expert advice and a lead to accelerated soil erosion which could, in literature review and was based on the authors time, reach devastating proportions. experience and knowledge of the condition of the catchments (AAS 1957). It differed from the 3.6 The 2010 catchment condition 2010 detailed assessment of 235 sub-catchments assessment in that it generated a single overview assessment The natural condition status was assessed for 235 of the condition for the NSW and Victorian Alps sub-catchments. The map generated (Figure 3.3) catchments. is indicative, but identifies some major concerns The 1957 assessment involved a four person for catchment managers. Many sub-catchments Committee led by Professor J.S. Turner and which were either in a moderate or poor condition. The included Professor R.L. Crocker; Dr J.W. Evans trend in condition assessment map also identified and Mr A.B. Costin. The (abbreviated) 1957 terms many sub-catchments where the condition was of reference, method and findings were. not changing or was declining (Figure 3.4). Terms of Reference: The Key questions were: 1. Is there any deterioration of the water catchments? Is it of national importance? 2. What are the major causes of the deterioration? 3. What procedures should be adopted to arrest the decline and to improve the position?

Method: The method included: 1. Correspondence to 20 organisations with the three questions: Is there serious deterioration? What policy should be adopted in response to the deterioration? and What evidence is available to support the views above? 2. A literature review; 3. Interviews of key personnel; and 4. A special inspection of the catchments of the Snowy Mountains area and the Victorian Alps. The subalpine treeline at the Snowy River, near Charlotte Pass, Kosciuszko National Park, in “good” condition in January 2011 after 67 years of conservation management (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

22 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 3.3 Catchment condition status depicted by colour (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

Figure 3.4 Catchment trend in condition status depicted by colour (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 23 3.7 Catchment condition status ground. A declining catchment condition status was a serious assessment. The overall condition status of the Alps catchments was of concern with more than 60% of 60 catchments either in poor or moderate condition 50 (Figure 3.5). The management aim of all park managers is to achieve at least good condition and 40 if possible, near pristine status. For downstream 30 managers of water, this high quality catchment status is what would generally be expected for 20 a protected area. However, many protected % of All Catchments areas were established over lands which had a 10 legacy of landuse impacts. The task of restoring 0 these historically disturbed areas is formidable, Declining No Trend Change Improving it takes time and active management work is Figure 3.6 Assessed trend in condition of the constantly needed. Restoration and repair work Alps sub-catchments in the mountains is seasonal, and it takes longer (Source: NSW DECCW 2010) to be successful given colder growing conditions. The condition assessment identified that much 3.9 Soil erosion threats more work was needed to restore catchments to a natural condition and to maximise resilience to Soil erosion had been identified as a specific climate change. threat impacting the natural condition of sub- catchments in many locations (Figure 3.7). 60 This was unacceptable in a climate change

50 environment where resilient catchment ecosystems are needed to endure hotter 40 temperatures and more severe storm events. Significantly, three of the sub-catchments 30 identified as declining in condition were located 20 in the highest water yielding areas of the Alps % of All Catchments (Figure 3.11). These Kosciuszko National Park 10 sub-catchments were impacted badly by grazing

0 and had extensive revegetation and restoration Poor Moderate Good works completed in the 1960s and 1970s. Catchment Condition However exposure to harsh alpine conditions and Figure 3.5 Assessed natural condition of the wear and tear has led to areas of renewed erosion. Alps sub-catchments The process of degradation of the alpine ground (Source: NSW DECCW 2010) water communities at these high altitude sites, 3.8 Trend in condition status from first disturbance to soil loss and to a status of Erosion-Pavement-Feldmark has been illustrated The trend in condition of more than 70% of sub- (Figure 3.8, Diagrams 1-5). Soil conservation catchments was assessed as “no trend change” works repaired many of these disturbed areas, or even worse, “declining” (Figure 3.6). Rangers but full restoration was impossible given the and area managers who identified no change amount of soil lost. Recovery of these wetlands were often accounting for sub-catchments where is occurring, but it is slow. Regular maintenance important conservation gains had been made, but of the original restoration work is also needed as where there were also new or enhanced threats further insidious headward erosion (Figure 3.9) and where management inputs were just holding and stream incision (Figure 3.10) occurs. Such erosion has other causes in many sub-catchments.

24 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 3.7 Sub-catchments identified as having serious soil erosion problems in 2010. Some of these areas were treated in the 1960s-1970s but need maintenance work. (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

New erosion (2011) requiring maintenance showing the loss of about 10 cm of organic soils in a previously restored soil conservation site, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 25 Figure 3.8 [Diagrams 1-5] The degradation of Sphagnum bog wetlands and associated fringing wet heath communities The degradation is initiated by disturbance from grazing, trampling, stream incision or other factors. The subsequent erosion of organic soils and lowering of the water table; the transformation of vegetation communities fringing the wetland; and, the establishment of an erosion-pavement-feldmark occurs following this disturbance. Restoration of these areas requires constant maintenance. Untreated, headwall erosion of these sites can re-occur resulting in erosion of undisturbed peat deposits and Alpine Humus soils (Source: Roger Good)

26 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 3.9 Headward tunnelling erosion and flowline incision above an Erosion-Pavement-Feldmark. This is a 1960s soil conservation restoration site which includes regenerating Sphagnum near Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011 (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Figure 3.10 Incised erosion of organic soils, Club Lake Creek, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Roger Good collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 27 50

20 Number of catchments 15

0 600-800 800-1000 1000-1200 1200-1400 1400-1600 1600-1800 1800-2000 2000-2250

Mean ann. precip. range (mm)

Figure 3.11 Sub-catchments identified as declining in condition relative to their catchment yield status (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

Longer term non-natural and active incision, causing undercutting of organic soils and lowering of water table, Club Lake Creek Catchment, 2011, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

28 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Serious erosion vectors are pest animals such is re-introducing historic grazing and trampling as feral pigs, deer and the rapidly growing of wetland pressures in the Alps (Figure 3.12). populations of feral horses found in the Alps The rapid growth and spread in introduced deer catchments. The rapid growth in horse numbers numbers is also a problem (Figure 3.13). (Dawson 2009) is a particular concern since it

Figure 3.12 Sub-catchments with feral horse problems. Feral horses contribute to catchment degradation and soil erosion and in 2010 were rapidly growing in numbers in the Alps. If left uncontrolled, their impacts are predicted to contribute to an expansion of sub-catchments with serious soil erosion problems (Figure 3.7) (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

Feral horses in the Australian Alps, 2009 (Source: Roger Good collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 29 Introduced deer have expanded across the Alps rapid growth in numbers in the Australian Alps catchments. Their relatively recent rapid growth can be expected to impact habitats, ecosystem in numbers and expansion of range is of concern function, soil erosion and water quality. The (Figure 3.13). These non-native pest animals have impacts of climate change and increased deer been a recognised as a serious problem in New numbers are likely to increase non-natural Zealand and studies there have demonstrated erosion. The control of deer numbers is an they have impacts on the natural condition of important issue for park managers. catchments (Husher and Frampton 2005). The

Damage by large numbers of feral horses to wetlands, Cooleman Plain Kosciuszko National Park, 2009 (Source: Andy Spate collection)

3.10 Weed threats becoming harder. Willows, blackberries, broom and hawkweed are considered to be particularly The condition assessment identified that serious threats for the Alps catchments. These introduced plants (weeds) continue to be a major weeds all impact the natural condition of the threat to the Alps sub-catchments. They have a catchments. They affect native habitats and capacity to change habitats and influence water ecosystem function and some such as willows flow regime, quality and yield. Climate change diminish water yield in catchments. Weeds predictions identify that the distribution of weeds such as blackberries and broom are also a major may expand, including up-mountain as average negative for recreation access and visitor use in temperatures increase. the Alps, especially along rivers. There is a need Some sub-catchments are especially impacted to control, contain and reduce the areas impacted (Figure 3.14) and the ability to control the and if possible to eliminate these weeds. expansion and new recruitment of these weeds is

30 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 3.13 Sub-catchments with introduced deer populations (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

3.11 Bushfire threats 3.12 Summary of catchment The predicted increase in the frequency and condition assessment findings severity of bushfires in the Alps was identified as Across the Australian Alps national parks 38 a serious threat to the Alps catchments. Rangers percent of 235 sub-catchments were assessed to and area managers were also aware of a dilemma. be in good condition; 54 percent were in moderate To conserve the catchments in steep mountainous condition; and eight percent were in a poor terrain and prevent soil erosion, a minimum of condition. Only 55 catchments (less than 25%) 10 tonnes per hectare of forest litter and at least were improving, while 42 (17%) were declining. 70% soil cover is needed. Coincidently, this forest Most sub-catchments (58%) exhibited no change litter fuel load was considered by fire managers despite Agencies being active and professional to be the upper limit of ground fuel desired for with their management programs. For an fire management control in the mountains. The environment of climate change, there were too few two objectives are contradictory and this was a sub-catchments assessed as good and improving. complex problem that needed further research. It was concluded that the Alps catchments were not sufficiently resilient to climate change in 2010. They were highly vulnerable in many areas to the projected climate change effects of higher

Summary Report for Policy Makers 31 temperatures, less precipitation, droughts and were soil erosion damage requiring restoration severe weather events and the potential for severe and maintenance; feral animals causing new soil erosion. soil erosion (and particularly feral horses and The catchment assessment also identified four introduced deer); the expansion of weeds such immediate threats to the catchment condition, as willows, broom and hawkweed; and more water quality, yield and flow regimes. These frequent and severe bushfires for the Alps.

Figure 3.14 Sub-catchments with major weed management issues (Source: DECCW 2010)

32 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 4. Protecting Catchment Condition and Delivering Optimum Yields of Quality Water

With only 38% of 235 sub-catchments considered “Pressure-State-Response” framework (OECD to be in good condition, additional management 1993, 2004), the direct and indirect “Pressures” responses were needed. But what management exerted by human activities can be assessed responses were most appropriate? What actions relative to the “State” or condition of the should have priority? Were management catchments and the societal “Responses” needed responses based on 2010 experience useful in a (Table 4.1). In this framework the pressures rapidly changing climate change environment? impact the “state” or condition of the catchments What other adaptive management responses and this stimulates society’s “response” given were needed for long term Alps catchment these impacts are considered by citizens and management? These were important questions governments as being unacceptable for society. which needed to be addressed. The responses are organised actions that either A step by step process of analysis was completed respond directly to the pressure, or improve to identify those priority actions which were most the environmental conditions affected (NZ important in a climate change environment. MFE 2007). This framework also helps identify Dealing with the immediate threats and causality of issues. It ensures that management is establishing causality for them was the first step. responding to the actual causes of threats and not just the symptoms. 4.1 Establishing causes of Alps The “responses” identified (Table 4.1) were catchments threats and developed from an understanding of causality; responses natural condition needs and an appreciation of the complexity of interactions that need to be Human caused activities in the Alps cause considered for the Alps. The responses aim to help “pressures” (threats) on the Alps environments retain the resilience of the Alps catchments in an either directly or indirectly and this changes environment of climate change. the integrity of the natural catchments. Using a

Severe erosion and loss of deep Tall Alpine Herbfield soils Severe erosion Kosciuszko National Park alpine area following grazing, Kosciuszko National Park alpine area 1960s in the 1960s. This area was treated in the 1970s. Some of (Source: Roger Good collection) these treatment areas needed maintenance in 2010 (Source: Roger Good collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 33 Table 4.1 Management responses needed for the Alps sub-catchments (Pressure-State-Response Framework)

Pressures State Impacts Response (Threats) (Values being threatened) (To society) (Priority Actions) Non-natural soil erosion 4% of 235 Alps sub- Impacts to society from Responses need to deal of the high mountain catchments had soil erosion include water with major causes of catchments significant soil erosion. quality (turbid water); non-natural soil erosion Loss of soil causes altered flow regimes; including: impacts to habitat sedimentation of • Frequent fire impoundments; impacts diversity, species • Feral Horses richness and ecosystem to healthy ecosystem • Deer function of the Alps function and the diversity catchments of species • Management tracks and trails • Developments • Visitor use Introduced animals 17% of the 235 Alps Impacts include the Responses are required sub-catchments were disruption of healthy to deal with rapidly significantly impacted by habitats and ecosystems; expanding populations introduced animals impacts to populations of introduced animals Introduced animals of rare and endangered including: impact on the natural animals; trampling, soil • Feral Horses erosion and stream bank ecosystems of the • Deer AAnp’s and threaten the impacts; the spreading extinction of some rare of weeds; and impacts to and endangered species water quality Introduced plants 13% of the 235 Alps Introduced plants invade Responses are required sub-catchments were and subsume native for species that impact impacted by introduced habitats; some diminish on catchment yield, plants catchment water yield; those that spread Introduced plants and impact on ecosystem aggressively and those disrupt healthy habitats function. They pose that will rapidly expand and ecosystems and problems for recreation their range under climate transform natural use of many areas of the change especially: Australian setting values AAnp’s. • Broom • Willows • Blackberries • Hawkweeds Frequent fire 70% of the Alps sub- Frequent intense Responses are required catchments have been fires and associated to minimise the incidence burnt by large fires twice vegetation changes can of non-planned fires (or more) in the past 10 change the nature of for strategic catchment years, and 12% of the catchment water yield environments, especially Alpine and 87% Sub and water quality and can the alpine and subalpine Alpine has been burnt change the nature and including: twice or more composition of habitats • Enhancing an Frequent intense fires and ecosystem function Alps catchments affect soils, vegetation fire research and communities, animal information capacity habitats, catchment yield to assist planning and and water quality values preparing for fire

34 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 4.2 Climate change dynamics: as additional sunlight and UV killing of alpine Understanding the changes flora; the impacts of additional severe droughts; hotter temperatures and more frequent and happening in the Alps severe fires. Precautionary measures would also catchments include much more sophisticated integrated Responding to threats is just one management management approaches with supporting systems response in a climate change environment. of management information. The Alps managers need to be on the “front Precautionary considerations would include that: foot”. They need to be well informed about the 1. Mountain soils are managed to retain a natural nature of changes occurring in the mountains to vegetation cover, especially given increased undertake responsible management actions and exposure to frosts with less snow (potential soil this will require routine “change in condition freeze-thaw and needle ice activity); extreme assessments”. The current 50 year frequency storm events and resulting soil erosion and for Alps catchment condition assessments (1957 impacts to water quality; and 2010) is inadequate, especially given the 2. Key ecosystems in the landscape are kept as magnitude of change predicted for the catchments healthy as possible as they will have to endure in the next 40 years (Table 2.1). Threats to the hotter and drier conditions. Healthy wetland Alps catchments potentially have major economic ecosystems for example are important for their ramifications as well social and environmental biodiversity richness and in high altitude areas consequences. They need to be identified early they act as a natural barrier to fire. This may and adaptation responses implemented. Alps require conservation work on wetlands such as catchments change in condition monitoring erosion control and restoration work; and improved water yield monitoring is needed 3. Weeds be aggressively contained and and so are assessments of the effectiveness of controlled since it is predicted that many management interventions. Adaptation work of weeds will spread vigorously up-mountain in this nature has been identified by the Council warmer conditions; of Australian Governments (COAG) as being important at the highest level of Australian 4. The impacts of agents of soil erosion and soil intergovernmental liaison and cooperation. In disturbance at a whole-of-Alps scale (such as the COAG approved 2007 National Climate feral horses) are controlled; Change Adaptation Framework the document 5. Biome shifts of native vegetation (up- predicts (for water resources) a need for further mountain, into frost-hollow basins and understanding of impacts of climate change southwards) and predicted species losses on water resources and dependent ecosystems are anticipated, monitored and changes in and for integrating climate change related risks condition (including sudden, catastrophic into water management (COAG 2007 p11). The events) managed if appropriate and if possible; Technical Report identifies this requirement for 6. Management responses (including connectivity the Alps. conservation) are undertaken at a landscape scale given that climate change predictions 4.3 Precautionary management for identify Southeastern Australian landscapes natural condition will be impacted across many degrees of latitude; The Alps managers, based on climate change 7. Research and monitoring work is undertaken projections, can anticipate future threats and to measure sub-catchment water yield; to track take precautionary actions to help minimise condition changes in the catchments including their effects. Adaptive interventions may be new threats; for understanding the complexity needed (for example) in anticipating threats such

Summary Report for Policy Makers 35 of change and as a basis for implementing 4.4 Protecting natural catchment adaptive management; and condition and delivering high 8. Management software and information yields of quality water systems and staff skills and capacities are instituted in order to undertake adaptive Managing for the protection of the Alps management responses and that the catchments in an environment of climate change community is well informed about such will therefore need responses to immediate responses. threats; improvements in baseline condition An investment in pro-actively maintaining and change in condition information and the the natural condition of the catchments is an implementation of a range of precautionary investment in high quality water flowing from the actions. These responses help build resilience catchments. to climate change; adapt to climate change and mitigate its impacts (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2 Climate change management issues requiring additional responses

Resilience • Minimise non-natural soil erosion in the catchments • Restore key damaged ecological communities • Facilitate connectivity conservation in the wider landscape Adaptation • Respond vigorously to existing and new pest animal and introduced plant threats • Research, plan and prepare for predicted “catastrophic” scale fire events for the Alps catchments • Undertake precautionary management for threatened species • Work with people, local communities, and industry • Establish systems and a capacity to monitor changes in the condition of the natural environments of the Alps catchments from a known baseline condition including water yield • Invest in fire research • Monitor the change in condition of key species • Assess “Thresholds of Potential Concern” for species, habitats and ecosystems • Monitor the severity of threats and changes in threat status • Undertake adaptive management for important projects • Invest in research which predicts climate change effects and which helps deal with the complexity of change Mitigation • Conserve and protect strategic organic soils and peatlands of the Alps catchments • Conserve the green carbon present within the Alps catchments • Restore disturbed lands

4.5 Caring for the Alps catchments these interventions. Severe erosion in the catchments was of greatest concern. It is a very The Pressure-State-Response analysis real threat to high quality water delivery which identified that a number of important also has important economic ramifications. management interventions were needed for Predicted climate change conditions of hotter, the Alps catchments (Table 4.1). Assessing drier conditions, droughts and severe storms precautionary considerations helped prioritise

36 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments are forecast to exacerbate erosion problems. damage to wet areas and soil erosion) which Eroding mountain slopes also have the potential were impacting the catchments in 2010 would be to exacerbate major flood events during controlled and reduced. This is a major, long term severe storms in the mountains. Management task for the Alps catchments. Water yield and interventions which halt erosion, deal with water quality would benefit from these actions. incipient erosion and vectors of erosion such (ii) Building resilience for Alps ecosystems as pest animals and frequent severe fires are recognised as high priority responses. Soil erosion control, wetland restoration and protection and targeted Snow-gum restoration The predicted more frequent severe fires in work were identified. Long-term Snow-gum forested areas of the catchments will impact restoration work is predicted to enhance water yields, water quality (soil erosion) and flow water yields in an environment of declining regimes. Greater management research is needed precipitation. Priority soil erosion control work to deal with the complex issue of the minimum should be given to the highest water yielding catchment litter-cover needed to protect soils in catchments. steep mountain catchments and responses needed to deal with responsible fire fuel levels. This (iii) Adapting to new climate regimes work has been identified as a priority given the This invests in being prepared for severe fire enormity of this issue. events and the potential for catastrophic events. Management interventions which target water The Action includes pre-organisation and yields from the catchments are given priority. In establishment of selected species assurance a predicted declining precipitation environment, populations. It invests in closely co-operating every gigalitre transferred to downstream rivers is managers and scientists executing adaptive significant. The removal of willows will contribute management practices to achieve better more water to rivers and the restoration of catchment management. (previous) subalpine Snow-gum communities will help contribute to enhanced water yields (iv) Undertaking management innovation through enhanced water volumes groomed Climate change is predicted to bring with from fog, cloud, hoar frost and snow deposition it regular change and greater complexity of (Costin and Wimbush 1961). Providing catchment management. Managers will need to be well managers and researchers with the opportunity informed and have systems which help managers to understand the changing natural condition understand and respond to this complexity. This and water yield in the catchments to adaptively Action targets a range of software, hardware, improve management responses is also important. remote sensing, monitoring and operational tools Part of this work includes researching complex specially developed to assist with responses at catchment management problems to assist a whole-of-Alps scale as well as for individual managers. Based on these considerations, six sites. The innovation could assist with the large- management interventions were identified for the scale monitoring of catchment condition; the Alps catchments. cost-benefit evaluation of investments in the catchments; and, water yield, water quality and 4.6 Six Priority Actions water flow regime performance monitoring. Six major and innovative whole-of-Alps (v) Undertaking research for better catchments management actions (Priority Actions) have been This Action increases research in the Alps identified. They are: particularly natural condition monitoring. It (i) Halting active catchment degradation would include quantifying baseline catchment condition for the Alps and establishing a capacity The increasing number of weeds (impacting water to assess change in condition of the catchments yield), introduced deer and feral horses (causing

Summary Report for Policy Makers 37 routinely. It would research critical issues such as Alps catchments. The investment would provide the management of catchment fire fuel loads and direct employment opportunities; ensure that catchment soil stability needs. people are informed about the works; and, ensure that people can help support the catchment (vi) Involving people and communities conservation work. It would help ensure This response would involve the people of that the community is supportive of the the Alps area and other people who wish to investments being made. participate in the conservation of the Australian

Wetland conservation work, Australian Alps showing stream incision prevention work; maintenance of water tables and the application of shade cloth to facilitate recovery of Sphagnum and other species (Source: Roger Good collection)

38 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 5. 2010 Catchment Management

The 1.644 million hectares of Alps catchments 5.2 Restoration of damaged located in the Australian Alps parks are managed catchments (respectively) by the ACT Government (ACT Parks Conservation and Lands); the NSW Government The Alps catchments management task is great, (National Parks and Wildlife Service) and the there are many issues to deal with and there are Victorian Government (Parks Victoria). The some very difficult threats. The condition of the principal purpose of the Australian Alps protected Australian Alps catchments in 2010 was a product areas is to conserve and protect the natural and of its landuse history; disturbance history; cultural values of the high mountain catchments management interventions; the virulence and of the Australian mainland. A total of $52.69 impact of invasive species; dynamic environment million was spent on the management of the Alps conditions and the time it takes for high mountain parks in 2009-2010. This amount is the combined lands to fully heal following restoration work. total of the individual annual budgets allocated The oldest of the Alps protected areas, Kosciuszko by the three Alps protected area management National Park in NSW has achieved many Agencies. The investment was committed to important conservation improvements. They staffing costs and the active, full operational reflect in 2011, 67 years of on-going conservation management of the parks. Despite this work. Summer grazing of the high mountain investment, its carefully scrutineered allocation catchments from the 1820’s to 1944 caused and its professional implementation, serious extensive soil erosion damage. Grazing was whole-of-Alps climate change related threats to removed from the alpine area in 1944; from areas the natural catchment condition still exist. above 1370 metres in 1958 and all grazing leases were terminated in 1972. During the late 1960’s 5.1 Transboundary co-operative management In 2010, a transboundary co-operative management programme for the Australian Alps had been in place for 24 years. It was based on an Australian Alps Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) signed by Ministers of the Environment for two states and a Territory and the Commonwealth. The co-operative management vision states: “Agencies working in partnership to achieve excellence in conservation management of natural and cultural values and sustainable use through an active programme of cross-border co-operation” (Anderson and Atkins 2010 p88)

The Australian Alps Liaison Committee (AALC) is responsible for the operation of the MOU and a small, annual “pooled” budget is allocated for co- Grazing in the alpine area near Mount Kosciuszko pre 1944 operative projects. (Source: Bulder Byles collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 39 soil conservation works were initiated given anemoneus) that were greatly reduced under the value of the catchments and water to the stocking” economy. In 1973 drought relief grazing was once (Costin et al, 2000; 2004 p57) again permitted in the alpine area and this was a Many historically impacted areas however still major set-back for the costly restoration work that need maintenance or restoration works. New had been implemented. threats are also emerging and park managers In 1982 the Kosciuszko National Park plan of in 2011 are fully occupied working to achieve management legally prohibited grazing within the conservation outcomes. Park (Worboys and Pickering 2002 p10). Many Recent independent assessments of the condition of these conservation management interventions of the catchments by alpine ecologists Dr Alec had been highly contentious. The net long-term Costin and Dane Wimbush stated: benefit however has been the effective restoration or retention of some the original natural values of “Loss of topsoil on parts of the Main Range has the water catchments. caused a change in vegetation that is virtually permanent, with feldmark species colonising “(...) most of the vegetation of the Kosciuszko bare soil pavements” plateau has achieved a relatively stable state, (Wimbush and Costin 1979; Costin 2004 p57). with changes being cyclic in response to short term changes in climate (Scherrer 2003). An “In general the recovery trend of the past 40-50 exception is the continuing increase in some years has reached a plateau of relative stability, species such as Ribbony Grass (Chionochloa but not always in the original condition. Near frigida) and the Anemone Buttercup (Ranunculus original conditions have been achieved where

Catchment soil erosion prior to soil conservation works, 1960, Mount Carruthers, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Roger Good collection)

Catchment soil erosion after soil conservation works, 1974, Mount Carruthers, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Roger Good collection).

40 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments sufficient organo-mineral topsoil remained, but history with many degraded areas; inherited weed not where topsoil loss proceeded to the residual species and feral animals. Landuse management stony erosion-pavement stage” debates still exist, including the scientifically (Costin 2004 p30) disproven argument that alpine grazing reduces blazing (Williams et al, 2006). It has been shown Namadgi National Park in the ACT was that the practice of broad scale burning off for the established in 1984 and its core area had less Alps was “resulting in catchment degradation disturbance history thanks to the very early not in catchment stability” and “there was no and strict management of the Canberra water instance where the burning program had any supply catchments. The natural Ginini wetland influence on the outcome of subsequent wildfire (an International Ramsar site) is a mountain suppression operations” (Leaver 2004 p119). Sphagnum bog wetland in a good condition. Parks Victoria had multiple, active and on-going There were past major grazing activities in the programs that were responding to threats to the nearby Naas and Gudgenby valleys and some catchments. In just 22 years of active protected forestry operations. Namadgi requires full time area management, important headway had active management to deal with new issues and to been made, but given the extent of the historical restore the impacts of historical landuse. damage, it is early days in what will be a long- The Alpine Park in Victoria was established in term program of restoration work. 1989 and it bought with it a complex landuse

Damaged Sphagnum bog, Club Lake Creek Catchment, Scientific apparatus at Charlotte Pass, Kosciuszko March 2011 following two severe rain storm events. The National Park used by CSIRO scientists Dr Alec Costin and free standing water had drained; silt deposited; and, the Dane Wimbush in 1961. This apparatus was used to assess Erosion-Pavement-Feldmark further incised the capacity of snow-gums (Eucalyptus pauciflora) to (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) intercept water from rain, cloud and fog as a contribution to water yield in the Alps catchments (Costin and Wimbush 1961). Their work demonstrated that the trees enhanced catchment water yield by 10%. (Source: Alec Costin collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 41 6. The Natural Values of the Alps Catchments

The natural values and some of the cultural values water delivery and regionally as a tourism of the Alps catchments are described here to destination. Eleven Australian Alps national illustrate their national significance. The Alps are parks and reserves help protect the Alps and their a small area of Australia with a big influence. They catchments and occupy 1.644 million hectares occupy a total area of about 25 000 km2 or 0.3 across the ACT, NSW and Victoria (Figure 1.2; percent of Australia (Crabb 2003) and contribute Table 6.1). substantially to the wealth of the nation through

Table 6.1 The Australian Alps national parks and other protected areas (Vic CE 1992a; Vic CE 1992b; Vic CNR 1995; Vic NRE 1996; NSW NPWS 1997; Hardy 2000; Crabb 2003; PV 2005; NSW DEC 2006; ACT DTMS 2007; CAPAD 2008; NSW DECC 2008; IBRA 2009, AALC 2010) Protected area Area (ha) Established IUCN IBRA Bioregion(s) partly Protected conserved by the protected Area Category areas Australian Capital Territory Namadgi National Park 106095 1984 II Australian Alps and South Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve 5450 1962 II Eastern Highlands New South Wales Bimberi Nature Reserve 7100 1985 II Australian Alps, South Brindabella National Park 18484 1996 II Eastern Highlands and South East Corner Kosciuszko National Park 673542 1944 II Scabby Range Nature 4982 1982 IA Reserve Victoria Alpine National Park 646200 1989 II Australian Alps, South Avon Wilderness Park 39650 1987 IB Eastern Highlands and South East Corner Baw Baw National Park 13530 1979 II Mount Buffalo National Park 31000 1898 II Snowy River National Park 98700 1979 II Total Area 1644733

42 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 6.1 Bioregions conserved flat Australian mainland. The Alps parks help conserve 64% of this Bioregion and a proportion of The mountainous terrain and biodiversity of the the South Eastern Highlands (SEH) and South East Australian Alps Bioregion (AA) is quite different Corner (SEC) Bioregions (Figure 6.1, Table 6.2). to Bioregions found in the otherwise (essentially)

Figure 6.1 Southeastern Australia Bioregions identified by the Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation (IBRA 6.1) including the Australian Alps (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

Alpine Daisy (Brachyscome spathulata), upper Snowy River, Kosciuszko National Park. (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 43 Table 6.2 Area of Bioregions conserved as protected areas in the Australian Alps (CAPAD 2008) (Note: The SEH and SEC Bioregions include some protected areas external to the Alps catchments)

IBRA Code IBRA 6.1 Region Total IBRA Area Total Area Percent for the State/ Protected (ha) Protected Territory/Nation (ha) Australian Capital Territory AA Australian Alps 40382 40378 99.99% SEH South Eastern Highlands 195431 89156 45.62% New South Wales AA Australian Alps 460061 376403 81.82% SEH South Eastern Highlands 4720672 701222 14.85% Victoria AA Australian Alps 714460 357132 49.99% SEH South Eastern Highlands 3179092 693120 21.80% SEC South East Corner 1395739 377642 27.06% Australia AA Australian Alps 1214902 773912 63.70% SEH South Eastern Highlands 8095195 1483498 18.33% SEC South East Corner 2555337 880994 34.47%

6.2 Natural significance protected area lands of World Biosphere Reserve and International Ramsar Wetland status. The “The alpine areas (...) are of international Alps are different in the lowest, flattest and significance. They are a world-class example of driest (except for Antarctica) continent on Earth mid-latitude alps, of which there are few in the (Lindenmayer 2007; ABS 2008). They are winter southern hemisphere. They are also unusual in snow covered high mountain water catchments the development of alpine humus soils on a gently and are the most important and reliable source of rounded landscape” water for the Murray-Darling Basin. (Costin et al, 2004 p57).

“Although occupying less than 0.3 percent of 6.3 Geology the continent, the Australian Alps present to The geology of the Australian Alps is important the world a large and irreplaceable sample of for its evidence of part of the earth’s evolution; the Australian natural history (...)” diversity of rock types present; the complexity of (Costin 1989) the tectonic setting; the record of past life and its The Australian Alps national parks and other outstanding and diverse landforms. The evolution protected areas and their associated catchments of the base rocks of the Alps is a microcosm of are significant to Australia and to Australians the evolution of eastern Australia during the (Good 2002). They have been recognised in Palaeozoic from 490 million years ago to about Australia’s prestigious National Heritage List 320 million years ago. The Alps rocks are old under six criteria; they are officially recognised and are part of a geological province called the as a National Landscape and they include Lachlan Orogen. They were formed in an Island Arc geological environment which featured at

44 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments least three major tectonic events (changes in the to weathering and prolonged erosion and a large earth’s crust). North-south fault systems; uplift peneplain developed. Tertiary basalt eruptions and mountain building, subduction of sediments, helped to preserve some of the sediments of this volcanism and magmatism were associated with period and contributed to the evolution of many this tectonic setting (Finlayson 2008 p16). Coral distinctive flat top mountains of the Alps. Uplift reef systems and sedimentary sequences were that formed the eastern highlands occurred slowly also developed. and progressively during the Tertiary (65 million The Alps basement rocks include a cross-section years to 2.5 million years ago) with the Australian of the diversity of rocks formed in this Island Alps benefiting from uplift along old faults. With Arc setting. The rocks are distributed unevenly the steady uplift of the old peneplain, the relative across the landscape and have been influenced resistance to erosion of the underlying rock types and shaped by multiple ancient fault systems. was a dominant factor in the evolution of the They include a record of ancient life of the seas current landscapes. This erosion of the ancient of that time including graptolites preserved in peneplain has left a characteristic Alps landscape Silurian slates, corals found in ancient Silurian of plateau and cascading ridge and spur terrain limestone reefs and fish fossils found in Devonian (Figure 6.2). The Alps landforms have been sediments. This diversity, complexity and richness evolving over a long time. Erosion and solution of of rock types, their evolutionary history, the the limestone areas of the Alps has created karst preserved life and their spatial arrangement terrain and cave systems, many of which have across the landscape is special. developed massed speleothem displays such as stalactites and stalagmites. Preferential erosion From about 320 million years ago, the Alps of other rock types in the landscape has produced landscapes had been uplifted, they were exposed

The Sentinel and the western fall of the Main Range to the Geehi Valley, of Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 45 waterfalls, landscapes of granitic tors, wide valleys The Australian Alps are of special geological and plains, basalt capped mesas and steep and significance. The antiquity of the Tertiary cliffed escarpments. landscape, the diversity of rock types, the Just 30000 to 10000 years ago, the highest of complexity of the geology, the evidences for the Australian Alps were subject to glaciation Earth’s evolutionary development and rare and and intense cold. Cold climate features included unusual rock types are important. In addition, glacial scoured and moraine dammed lakes, the extent of erosion and extraordinary diversity lateral and terminal moraines, kettle moraines, of landforms and the very slow (yet to be fully ice-scoured rock surfaces, permafrost caused explained) origin of these mountains formed in stone arrangements, and string-bogs. The most an intra-continental plate tectonic setting makes recent 10000 years of relatively stable climate has them very special. witnessed the development of deep mountain soils and the evolution of the unique Australian Alps habitats and their biodiversity.

Figure 6.2 Physiography of the Australian Alps (Source: NSW DECCW, 2010)

46 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Figure 6.3 Mean annual precipitation for the Australian Alps showing the highest catchment yields coinciding with the highest relief (Source: NSW DECCW 2010)

6.4 Soils and entrenchment impairs these functions (...)”. The deep alpine humus soils and their vegetation The Australian Alps with their deep organic soils communities have a special significance for their are recognised as special “soil mountains” (Costin role in maintaining the integrity of the high 1989, 2004) and are unusual on a world basis mountain catchments and their ability to provide since most high mountain areas have thin or no water of high quality and sustained yield and soil at the highest elevations (AALC 2006 p13). natural flow regimes. These rich subalpine and alpine soils receive, store, process and supply a larger quantity of high quality water than any other group of soils on the 6.5 Water and Catchment values continent (Costin 2004 p27). Costin (2004 p29) “The Australian Alps are of outstanding national also states: significance because they contain the highest “Along drainage lines within a catchment, yielding and most efficient water catchments groundwater soils have a further controlling in Australia providing the majority of water role in spreading and filtering catchment run- resources (irrigation, domestic use and off before it enters streams. The groundwater environmental flows) for South-East Australia, soils have to carry a heavy “water load”; they and associated electricity generation” can function successfully only if they retain their (AALC 2006 p20) almost level even surface. Incision by gullying

Summary Report for Policy Makers 47 The Alps waters are special for their purity. Four the high catchments is about 1800 to 2000mm. of the glacial lakes of the Alps have the purest The catchments are very efficient in capturing and waters in Australia, they are clear and have low delivering high quality water to the Alps rivers turbidity (Cullen and Norris 1989, p282). Aquatic and streams and yield approximately 1000mm of invertebrates and native galaxids (Galaxias olidus the average falls (Figure 6.3). The average annual and G. brevipinnis) are found in these streams water yield is approximately 9600GL (Table (Cullen and Norris 1989, p284). The alpine areas 6.3) which is around 29% of the average water receive the highest amounts of precipitation in the yield of the Murray-Darling Basin (MDB) from mountains (Good 1992) (Figure 6.3). about 1% of the total Basin area (MDBA 2010). The highest precipitation is in the order of 3800 The Alps water is particularly valuable because mm annually for a location immediately north of its constant flow compared with the wildly of Mount Kosciuszko (Brown and Milner 1989 fluctuating discharges of other Basin rivers and p300). The total annual average precipitation of streams.

Table 6.3 Annual average water volumes in gigalitres (GL) flowing from the Australian Alps protected area catchments sourced from the literature. (Note that different estimates have been provided by different sources with the source of average flow figures used by this report accounted for)

State/Territory Average annual volume of water (GL) Reference catchments NSW/ACT 4500 GL from the Alps catchments, plus an Brown and Milner 1989; DSIR average 1140 GL diverted from the Snowy River 2000 catchments to the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers NSW Snowy Hydro is required to provide minimum Young, D 2004; SHL 2006 releases of 2088 GL to the Murray and Murrumbidgee Rivers Victoria 3980 GL from the Alps catchments SKM 2005; PV 2009c Aggregated (from the above) average annual flows from the Australian Alps is about 9620GL Victoria and NSW The long term average yield or flow for all of the Brown and Millner 1989 Australian Alps is 13100GL Note: Based on the above information, the average annual water inflow to the MDB used for the purposes of the Technical Report was 9600GL

Headwaters of the Snowy River during spring thaw, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

48 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 6.6 Flora communities and habitats the Alps parks (Kirkpatrick 1994). This single genus dominates the forest landscape from “the [Australian] Alps assemblages of habitats the subalpine to the sea and such equivalent and communities (...) are among the richest on distribution does not occur anywhere else in the the mainland (...)” world (Costin 1989). (Costin 1989 p9). Wetland communities, including bogs and mires The vegetation communities of the Australian and the organic soils and peat deposits they Alps and their habitats are diverse, reflecting the protect, are particularly important in assisting mountainous terrain, high altitude, a diversity of natural flow regimes of streams. Many species rock types and a marked rain-shadow effect due are dependent on them, such as the endemic to water laden air from the west being stripped alpine and subalpine frogs. The alpine area on the of its moisture as it rises over the mountains and highest mountains of the mainland Alps has one moves eastwards. Some 852 species of vascular of the highest proportions of endemic and rare plants and 221 species of non-vascular plants are species of any alpine flora on Earth (AALC 2006). recorded in Kosciuszko alone, and at least 380 The summer massed wildflower displays of the of these are found in the alpine and subalpine Australian Alps are some of the most spectacular areas (Maiden 1898, Good 1992; AALC 2006). on Earth. Forty–six species of Eucalyptus are recorded for

Rare and endangered flora, Club Lake Creek Valley, Kosciuszko National Park, January 2011 (From top left clockwise) 1) Rock garden with two Kosciuszko endemic species, Dichosciadium ranunculaceum (white flower below-right of the Silver Snow Daisy) and to the right-centre, the large dark green leaf of the endangered Anemone Buttercup (Ranunculus anemoneus); 2) the rare Wedge Oschatzia (Oschatzia cuneifolia); 3) detail of Dichosciadium ranunculaceum [Kosciuszko endemic]; and 4) the soft cushion plant (Colobanthus nivicola) [Kosciuszko endemic] (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 49 Some other alpine and subalpine flora, Australian Alps, Kosciuszko National Park, January 2010 Comprising (clockwise from top left) Sphagnum wetland; Native Dandelion (Microseris lanceolata); Mountain Gentian (Chionogentia diemensis); Snow-gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora); Mountain Celery (Aciphylla glacialis); Carpet Heath (Pentachondra pumila) [and centre]; Waxy Bluebell (Wahlenbergia ceracea); Silver Snow Daisy (Celmisia sp.) (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Wetlands are particularly significant in the subalpine and alpine with the Ginini Flats wetland in the Brindabella Range in Namadgi National Park recognised as an International Ramsar wetland (ACT DTMS 2007). On a per hectare basis, wetlands conserve the greatest diversity of species for the alpine and subalpine areas. They play an important role in maintaining the local water table, they assist in controlling the steady down-mountain water flow regime and they contribute to retaining water quality.

Ginini Wetland, Namadgi National Park, a Ramsar Wetland and headwater catchment area for ACT’s Bendora Water Supply Dam (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

50 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 6.7 Fauna There are trans-equator birds (two species); north-south (eastern Australia) migrants (13 There are more than 300 vertebrate species species); less well defined nomadic species (six recorded for the Alps catchments. This is a rich species); and birds which undertake regional assemblage of amphibians, birds, reptiles, and, altitudinal movements (Green and Osborne mammals. Of these species 17 mammals, 15 birds, 1994). The Flame Robin (Petroica phoenicea) nine reptiles, nine frogs and 11 fish are classified for example is a seasonal altitudinal migrant. as rare, vulnerable or threatened (Mansergh et Latham’s Snipe (Gallinago hardwickii) breeds al, 2004 p77). The mountains are an important in Japan, flies to Australia for summer and then destination for vertebrate and invertebrate returns (Green and Osborne 1994 p81). It is migrant species. Over 60 different bird species listed under the Japan Australia Migratory Birds are known to use the alpine and subalpine areas Agreement (JAMBA) (as well as the CAMBA, the as a spring, summer and autumn destination migratory bird agreement with China). and include altitudinal, regional, national and The Alps are a destination for migrating (up- international migrants. Following summer mountain) invertebrate species, including the (for example), one of Australia’s largest bird Bogong Moth (Agrotus infusa) which travels from migrations of hundreds of thousands of Yellow- its north-western NSW and southern Queensland faced Honeyeaters (Lichenostomus chrysops) hatching areas to the mountains for summer, and takes place from the mountains towards the returns (Green and Osborne 1994 p145). forests and scrubs of the coast (Costin 1983 p5).

Some Australian Alps fauna (Clockwise from top left) Little Raven (Corvus mellori); Mountain Pygmy Possum (Burramys parvus); Little Raven feeding chick; Emu eggs (Dromaius novaehollandiae); Spotted Tree Frog (Litoria spenceri); Eastern Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus); Alpine Water Skink (Eulamprus kosciuskoi); Spotted-Tailed Quoll (Dasyurus maculatus); Corroboree Frog (Pseudophryne corroboree) (Source: Australian Alps collection; Graeme L. Worboys collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 51 6.8 Cultural and social values establish the conservation importance of the catchments; their unique ecosystems and water The Australian Alps has a rich cultural and social catchment values and the soil erosion impacts heritage. Aboriginal people have continuously that grazing in the catchments was causing. lived and visited the Alps area from at least The Alps have been a favourite recreation 21000 years ago as evidenced by archaeological destination for people for many years and sites (Flood 1980). Their strong cultural links attractions such as Yarrangobilly Caves House and associations with the mountains continue (1901); Mount Buffalo Chalet (1910); and the today. The Alps have diverse European and Mount Franklin Chalet (1938) were just some Chinese cultural traditions associated with of the facilities established (AALC 2006). The explorers, pastoralists, settlers, miners, loggers, construction of the Kiewa and Snowy Mountains scientists, hydroelectric scheme developers and Hydroelectric schemes introduced many people recreationists. Gold, copper and tin mines were to Australia at a critical time in its development established in different locations in the mountains following the Second World War. and locations like “Sawpit Creek” in Kosciuszko reflect their early Alpine Ash logging heritage, In 2010 the Australian Alps were a significant though logging extended in some parts of the Alps destination for sight-seers, hikers, painters, until the 1980s. photographers, river rafters and other visitors. They were a favourite recreation destination Many scientists such as Baron Ferdinand von for thousands of snow play visitors and skiers Mueller (botanist); Professor Edgeworth David each year and important ski resorts have been (geologist) and Clement Wragge (climatologist) established in the Alps protected areas such as pioneered scientific discovery in the Alps (AALC Perisher Valley, Thredbo and Blue Cow. 2006). More recently, the work of scientists Alec Costin; Maisie Fawcett and Dane Wimbush helped

Alec Costin (left) and Dane Wimbush measuring non- Maisie Fawcett’s grazing exclusion plot established in natural stream erosion at Schlinks Pass, Kosciusko the 1940s, Bogong High Plains, (now Victoria’s Alpine National Park, 1974 National Park) taken in the late 1990s. A historic research (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection) plot in Victoria’s Alpine catchments (Source: Roger Good collection)

52 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments 7. Key Messages and Policy Directions

The impacts of climate change on the Australian million per year. In a hot, dry and drought prone Alps catchments will affect the delivery of high Australia, this reliable and high quality water is quality, reliable water to the Murray-Darling nationally significant for Australia’s economy. Basin and easterly flowing streams. Active management to retain the natural condition of Natural condition helps deliver high the Alps catchments is of national economic quality reliable water importance in addition to the environmental conservation benefits that this work will bring. The natural condition of the catchments The key messages and policy directions from helps maintain the economic benefits of the Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments water flowing from the Alps and needs active Report are presented here and provide policy management to retain this condition guidance for an adaptive management response The high quality of waters from the Australian to climate change for the economically important Alps, their flow regimes and yield are directly Australian Alps catchments. linked to the natural condition of the catchments. This natural condition of the catchments Water from the Alps catchments is of across 1.64 million hectares is dependent on national economic importance their protected area status and their active management by protected area organisations. Every gigalitre of water flowing from the Significant threats currently exist and in 2009- Australian Alps provides an important 10 the Australian Alps protected area Agencies contribution to the nation’s economy invested $52.7 million dollars in the management In 2005, the annual average 3980GL of Victorian of the Alps. These works included soil erosion Alps water flowing to the Murray-Darling Basin control (for water quality); weed removal (for was conservatively estimated to be worth $4 minimising water yield impacts); pest animal billion. This is about $1 billion per 1000GL. Based control (for water quality and water flow regime on this; the total of 9600GL (around 19 Sydney benefits) and fire management (for minimising Harbours) of water flowing annually from the Alps water yield impacts). The natural condition of the catchments to the Basin is of national economic catchments cannot be retained without adequate significance. These waters constitute around management intervention. 29% of the Basin in-flows and contribute directly to its $15 billion worth of agricultural produce Climate change is impacting the Alps annually including 45% of Australia’s irrigated natural condition production; 56% of its grape crop; 42% of fruit and nuts and 32% of its total dairy production. Climate change and other immediate threats It helps support 2.1 million Australians living in are impacting the natural condition of the Alps the Basin, the people of Adelaide and the people catchments and are affecting water yield, water of many towns of South Australia. The natural flow regimes and water quality condition of the Australian Alps catchments helps The Australian Alps catchments are especially deliver pure, high quality, sediment free water vulnerable to climate change. By 2050, higher to the Basin. The impoundments and turbines temperatures of 0.6 to 2.9°C are predicted and of the hydroelectric power stations of the Snowy annual precipitation is predicted to decrease by and Kiewa hydroelectric schemes benefit from 24%. The 2050 predictions also identify there will this high quality water and the sustainable be no areas of snow lasting more than 60 days; electricity generated is worth in the order of $300 more frequent drought conditions; more frequent

Summary Report for Policy Makers 53 extreme fire weather conditions and severe fires; The catchment condition in 2010 was and, a greater incidence of severe storms. These vulnerable to climate change predictions will impact the natural condition of the catchments. The 2010 condition assessment found the Alps catchments to be especially vulnerable In 2010, predicted climate change trends were to the predicted effects of climate change manifest in the Alps with recorded temperature and there was a special urgency for adequate increases of 0.2°C per decade, a reduction in management responses to be implemented snow of 15 metre-days per decade and spring thaw averaging two days earlier per decade An assessment of the natural condition and being measured. In the decade of 2000 and trend in condition of the Alps catchments was 2009, severe fires occurred in 2001, 2003 and completed in 2010. It was identified that 60% of 2007. Reduced snowfalls have exposed alpine 235 sub-catchments within 1.64 million hectares soils to enhanced needle ice activity and soil of the catchments were in a poor or moderate erosion; water yield was impacted by post-fire natural condition. In addition, a total of 75% of forest regeneration and weeds such as willows; the sub-catchments were either in a “no-trend- and, water quality was impacted by soil erosion change” or “declining” condition. Soil erosion from fire exposure of soils and severe storms and threats; serious weed and pest animal threats; greater disturbance from introduced animals. an inability to track change in condition of the Water flow regime was impacted by disturbance catchments; and, new threats at a whole-of- to natural ecosystems, especially from fire and Alps scale were issues of serious concern. This pest animals. Predicted climate change effects condition was unacceptable for predicted climate identify that these catchment issues will be worse, change environments which will exacerbate many not better in the future. such impacts. The 2010 condition status reflects

Alpine area communities in the highest water yielding area of the Alps partially burnt during the 2003 Australian Alps fires, Kosciuszko National Park (Source: Dane Wimbush collection)

54 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments the magnitude of historic land-use impacts management responses for optimising water yield and the scale of threats in the Alps catchments. have been identified. One target aims to restore Additional investment in adaptation to climate approximately 17000 hectares of Snow-gum change responses is needed to supplement the woodland in the highest yielding catchments of $52 million per annum currently committed Kosciuszko National Park to enhance catchment to the Alps catchments by the protected area yield by an (preliminary) estimated yield of management Agencies. The supplementation 30000 megalitres (or about 12000 Olympic needed has been estimated to be $7 million swimming pools) per annum when the restored per annum for at least 15 years. This is a small Snow-gums are mature. Based on the indicative percentage of the annual economic benefits 2005 Victorian economic assessment, the value provided by the water yields flowing from the of this water could be in the order of $30 million Alps catchments. It is in the long term national per annum. Another target aims to remove willows economic interest for greater investments to from all Alps catchments streams to achieve be made. annual savings of about 5.5 megalitres of water per infestation hectare (Doody 2011). The water yield Optimising water yield needs and financial benefit estimates need to be refined targeted management further, but the indicative benefits are clear. Active Alps catchment management Maintaining water quality needs interventions would optimise the available water yield flowing to the Murray-Darling Basin active restoration of soil erosion and and easterly flowing streams catchment protection In just 40 years from 2010, it is predicted there Active restoration of soil erosion in the Alps will be up to 24% decrease in overall precipitation catchments and adequate treatment of soil for the Alps. Predicted higher temperatures at erosion vectors such as feral horses would help this time will mean that any precipitation will be maintain the high quality of water flowing from less effective. Translated to water yield, this could the Alps catchments cause a substantial percentage reduction of water Soil erosion impacts water quality and 4% of for the Murray-Darling Basin. A major decline the 235 Alps sub-catchments needed immediate would have nationally significant economic restoration work in 2010, including some of consequences. To respond to this situation, the highest water yielding areas. Some 17% of

Willows (and blackberries) impacting a natural stream, Australian Alps (Source: Roger Good collection)

Summary Report for Policy Makers 55 the catchment areas were being impacted by Maintaining natural water flow introduced animals and this was a major issue for regimes needs adaptive management these areas. Soil erosion has the potential to be far worse by 2050 given the effects of increased Ultra responses to threats Violet impacts to alpine flora (less cloud and more Natural flow regimes would be facilitated sunshine); more frequent fires exposing soils; by constantly monitoring the condition of increased frost heave in higher but snow-free the catchments as measured from baseline; areas; more frequent severe storm events; and, predicting climate change futures; researching increasing populations of pest animals such as complex issues and, implementing adaptive feral horses and deer. Soil erosion in high energy management responses to threats mountain environments is a serious issue. Silt The natural condition of the high mountain laden waters shorten the life of impoundments catchments will be constantly changing in and hydroelectric power station turbines and add the period leading to 2050 due to higher to the costs of water treatment for downstream temperatures; prolonged droughts; more users. Some of the Priority Actions focus on frequent incidence of severe fires in the the restoration of eroding areas for the Alps catchments; increased threats from weeds and catchments and include responses to agents of soil pest animals; more severe storm events; the erosion such as feral horses. risk of flood events and catastrophic run-off and

Ginini Swamp, Namadgi National Park 2010 (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

56 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments the upward migration of species and habitats. 3. Adapting to new climate regimes There will be a need to adaptively define “natural 4. Undertaking management innovation condition” as biomes shift upwards in the 5. Undertaking research for better catchments mountains. Maintaining naturalness however 6. Involving people and communities will be important for retaining natural flow regimes. It will be especially important when For the research, a rigorous, systematic and catchments are subjected to severe storm events quantified Alps catchment baseline natural including torrential rain, excessive run-off and condition assessment is needed, as are regular flooding. Management interventions that would follow-up change in condition assessments. help facilitate natural flow regimes to temper This needs to be part of the Alps catchments such events include managing for resilience; routine management and is a significant climate responding to threats such as weeds and pest change adaptation investment. The benefits of animals; the retention of catchment litter cover; such actions for water delivery to the Murray- catchment protection research; climate change Darling Basin (and consequently for the national forecasting research and monitoring and adaptive economy) far outweigh the costs required. It is a management. Researchers and managers should climate change adaptation of national economic assess the baseline condition and change in significance; of great social benefit to the people condition of the catchments on a frequent basis of the Murray-Darling Basin and others and of to be informed of change and to respond to national environmental conservation significance. identified threats. An absence of whole-of-Alps Achieving natural condition of the intervention would have negative catchments needs a whole-of-Alps economic and environmental management response to climate impacts. change Optimising Alps high quality water yield for the Action is needed to implement six Priority Murray-Darling Basin is needed in a climate Actions in the Alps catchments to achieve change environment natural condition of the catchments and In the predicted drying Southeastern Australia to optimise high quality water yields in an climate change environment the Alps water environment of rapid climate change. yield would be less than its potential without To adequately respond to climate change it has supplementary intervention and this would been identified that there is a need to “accelerate, have impacts on agricultural production in the reorient and refine” protected area management Murray-Darling Basin and for hydroelectric power practices in Australia. The 2010 Caring for our generation. Without a whole-of-Alps intervention, Australian Alps Catchments Report recognises water delivered would be poorer in quality and the such innovation and a whole-of-Alps response natural condition of the Alps catchments would to climate change is bought forward. Six major decline as soil erosion occurs, aggressive weeds (integrated) Priority Actions for the Alps expand and impacts of feral animals become catchments are recommended. These are: worse. 1. Halting catchment degradation 2. Building resilience for Alps ecosystems

Summary Report for Policy Makers 57 8. Conclusion

New and improved policy responses are needed Heritage listed environments of the Australian to deal with the pervasive and worsening Alps. The recommended six climate change threats to the natural condition and high quality adaptation management Priority Actions are a water yield of the Australian Alps catchments. direct whole-of-Alps adaptive response. They Without such policies, the optimum water focus on retaining the optimum high quality water yield in a climate change environment would flows and yields from the catchments; they invest not be achieved; water quality would decline in enhancing water yield in a drying climate; and and natural flow regimes would be disturbed. they deal directly with the key threats impacting Inaction would have a negative impact on the the natural condition of the Alps. These climate national economy and would cause a decline in change adaptation management actions are an the natural condition of the significant National investment of national economic importance.

Mature Snow-gum, Kosciuszko National Park, June 2010. (Source: Graeme L. Worboys collection)

58 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments References

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Summary Report for Policy Makers 59 Costin, A.B., Gray, M., Totterdell, C.J. and Wimbush, D.J. (2000) Kosciuszko Alpine Flora, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Melbourne Costin, A.B., Wimbush, D. and Kirkpatrick, J. (2004) ‘Chapter 9, Flora Values’ (in) Independent Scientific Committee, An Assessment of the Values of Kosciuszko National Park, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney Crabb, P (2003) Managing the Australian Alps: A History of Cooperative Management of the Australian Alps National Parks, Australian Alps Liaison Committee and Australian National University, Canberra Cullen, P. and Norris, R. (1989) ‘Chapter 16, Significance of Lakes and Rivers in the Australian Mainland Alps’ (in) Good, R. (ed) The Scientific Significance of the Australian Alps, Proceedings of the First Fenner Conference, Australian Alps Liaison Committee, Canberra pp281-295 Dawson, M. (2009) 2009 Aerial Survey of Feral Horses in the Australian Alps, Australian Alps Liaison Committee, Canberra DEWHA [Commonwealth Department of Environment Water Heritage and the Arts] (2009) 2008-2009 Annual Report, Commonwealth Department of Environment Water Heritage and the Arts, Canberra Doody, T. (2011) Sucking it up: water win from removing willows, Canberra Times Report by Nicky Phillips on a paper published in the Journal of Environmental Management, Canberra Times, Tuesday 11th January 2011, Canberra Dunlop, M. And Brown, P.R. (2008) Implications of Climate Change for Australia’s National Reserve System: A Preliminary Assessment, Department of Climate Change, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, CSIRO, Australian Government, Canberra DSIR [Commonwealth Department of Industry Science and Resources] (2000) Corporatisation of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme, Draft Environmental Impact Statement, Summary and Conclusions, Commonwealth Department of Industry Science and Resources, Canberra Finlayson, D.M. (2008) A Geological Guide to Canberra Region and Namadgi National Park, Geological Society of Australia (ACT Division), Canberra Flood, J. (1980) The Moth Hunters, Aboriginal Prehistory of the Australian Alps, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra Garnaut, R. (2008) The Garnaut Climate Change Review, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Good, R.B. (1976) Contrived Regeneration of Alpine Herbfields, Proceedings of the ANZAAS Conference ANZAAS Congress, Hobart Good, R.B. (1982) The Effects of Prescribed Burning in the Subalpine Area of Kosciusko National Park, MSc thesis, University of New South Wales, Sydney Good, R.B. (1986) ‘A basis for fire management in alpine national parks’, in (ed) Frawley, K. Australia’s Alpine Areas – Management for Conservation National Parks Association (ACT) Canberra, pp82 –104 Good, R.B. (1992) Kosciuszko Heritage, New South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville Good, R.B. (2002) ‘The significance of mountain catchments to society, The Australian Alps catchments’ (in) Mackay, J. (ed) Proceedings of an International Year of Mountains Conference, Jindabyne. 2002, pp219-224 Good, R.B. (2008) ‘Management adaptations to climate change impacts in the Alpine Area’, in Proceedings of National Parks Association (ACT) “Corridors for Survival in a Changing World” ACT National Parks Association, Canberra Good, R.B., Wright, G., Hope, G. and Whinam, J. (2010) ‘The impacts of increasing solar ultraviolet light on the wetland mires of the mainland Australian Alps’, Australian Plant Conservation 18:4

60 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Green, K. (2003) ‘Impacts of global warming on the Snowy Mountains’, in (eds) Howden, M. , Hughes, L., Dunlop, M., Zethoven, I., Hilbert, D. and Chilcott, C., Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity in Australia, Outcomes of a Workshop Sponsored by the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, October 2002, CSIRO, Canberra Green, K. And Osborne, W (1994) Wildlife of the Australian Snow-Country, Reed Books, Chatswood Green, K. And Pickering, C.M. (2009) ‘The decline of snowpatches in the Snowy Mountains of Australia: Importance of climate warming, variable snow, and wind’, Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, Vol 41, N0 2, pp212-218 Hardy, A.M. (ed) (2000) Terrestrial Protected Areas in Australia, 2000 Summary Statistics from the Collaborative Protected Area Database (CAPAD), Department of the Environment and Heritage, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra Hennessy, K., Whetton, P., Smith, I., Bathols, J., Hutchinson, M. And Sharples, J. (2003) The Impact of Climate Change on Snow Conditions in Mainland Australia, Australian National University, CRES, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Atmospheric Research, Aspendale Hennessy, K., Fitzharris, B., Bates, B.C., Harvey, N., Howden, S.M., Hughes, L., Salinger, J. and Warrick, R. (2007) Australia and New Zealand. In (eds) Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Howden, M., Hughes, L., Dunlop, M., Zethoven, I. (2003) ‘Outcomes of a workshop sponsored by the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, October 2002’, in (eds) Howden, M., Hughes, L., Dunlop, M., Zethoven, I., Hilbert, D. and Chilcott, C. Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity in Australia, Outcomes of a Workshop Sponsored by the Biological Diversity Advisory Committee, October 2002, CSIRO, Canberra Husheer, S.W. and Frampton, C.M. (2005) ‘Fallow deer impacts on Wakatipu beech forest’, New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29, pp83-94 IBRA [Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia] (2009) Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation of Australia Version 6.1, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, available at www.environment.gov.au Kirkpatrick, J.B. (1994) The International Significance of the Natural Values of the Australian Alps, Australian Alps Liaison Committee, Canberra Leaver, B. (2004)’ Chapter 12, Fire Values’ (in) Independent Scientific Committee, An Assessment of the Values of Kosciuszko National Park, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney Lindenmayer, D. (2007) On Borrowed Time, Australia’s Environmental Crisis and What We Must Do About It, CSIRO, Melbourne Maiden, J.H. (1898) ‘A contribution towards a flora of Mount Kosciusko’, Agricultural Gazette NSW Volume 9:720 Mansergh, I., Newsome, A. and Shorthouse, D. (2004) ‘Chapter 10, Fauna’ values (in) Independent Scientific Committee, An Assessment of the Values of Kosciuszko National Park, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville MDBA [Murray-Darling Basin Authority] (2010) Guide to the Proposed Basin Plan, Volume 1, Overview, Murray-Darling Basin Authority, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra NSW DEC (2006) 2006 Plan of Management, Kosciuszko National Park, National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney

Summary Report for Policy Makers 61 NSW DECC [Department of Environment and Climate Change] (2008) Scabby Range Nature Reserve Draft Plan of Management, National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney NSW DECCW [Department of Environment and Climate Change and Water] (2010) Alps Catchment Maps, (Generated Using GIS data by Dr Doug Mills), Department of Environment and Climate Change and Water Queanbeyan NSW NPWS (1997) Bimberi Nature Reserve Plan of Management, National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney NZ MFE [New Zealand Ministry for the Environment] (2007) State of New Zealand’s Environment, Ministry for the Environment, Wellington Available at: http://www.mfe.govt.nz OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development] (1993) OECD Core Set of Indicators for Environmental Performance Reviews, A Synthesis Report by the Group on the State of the Environment, Environmental Monographs No 83, OECD, Paris OECD (2004) OECD Key Environmental Indicators, OECD Environmental Directorate, Paris Pickering, C.M., Good, R.B. and Green, K. (2004) Potential Effects of Global Warming on the Biota of the Australian Alps, Australian Greenhouse Office, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra Prosser, I. (2009) Benefits of Water from the Australian Alps Catchments: Environmental, Economic, Social, Political and Managerial, Powerpoint Presentation to the Australian Alps Catchments Project, 9-10 September 2009 PV [Parks Victoria] (2005) Baw Baw Plan of Management, Parks Victoria, Melbourne PV (2009a) (Draft) Climate Change Risk Assessment and Management Plan, Marsden Jacob Associates and Broadleaf Capital International, Parks Victoria, Melbourne PV (2009b) Parks Victoria, 2008-2009 Annual Report, Parks Victoria, Melbourne PV (2009c) (Draft) Greater Alpine National Parks Management Plan Discussion Paper, Catchments and Water, Parks Victoria, Melbourne Scherrer, P. (2003) Monitoring Vegetation Change in the Kosciuszko Alpine Zone, Australia, PhD Thesis, Griffith University, Gold Coast SHL [Snowy Hydro Limited] (2006) Corporatisation of Snowy Hydro, Environmental Impact Statement (Summary) Snowy Hydro Limited, Cooma SKM [Sinclair Knight Mertz] (2005) State of the Parks, Run-Off from Victorian Parks, Sinclair Knight Mertz, Armadale p11 Smith, A.C.M. (2010) Birds of the Great Eastern Ranges: Movement and Connectivity, Flame Robin Figure sourced from an Unpublished Report to the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water, Sydney (Printed with the permission of NSW DECCW) Steffen, W., Burbidge, A.A., Hughes, L., Kitching, R., Lindenmayer, D., Musgrave, W., Stafford Smith, M and Werner, P (2009) Australia’s Biodiversity and Climate Change, A Strategic Assessment of the Vulnerability of Australia’s Biodiversity to Climate Change, Technical Synthesis, Technical Synthesis of a Report to the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, Department of Climate Change, Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra Vic CE [Victoria Department of Conservation and Environment] (1992a) Alpine National Park Bogong Unit Management Plan, Melbourne Vic CE [Victoria Department of Conservation and Environment] (1992b) Alpine National Park Wonnangatta-Moroka Unit Management Plan, Melbourne

62 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments Vic CNR [Victoria Department of Conservation and Natural Resources] (1995) Snowy River National Park Management Plan, Melbourne Vic DSE [Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment] (2009) Securing Our Natural Future, A White Paper for Land and Biodiversity at a time of Climate Change, Melbourne Vic NRE [Victoria Department of Natural Resources and Environment] (1996) Mount Buffalo National Park Plan of Management, Melbourne Whitten, S.M. and Bennett, J.W. (2001) Non-market Values of Wetlands: A Choice Modelling Study of Wetlands in the Upper South-East of South Australia and the Murrumbidgee River Floodplain in New South Wales, Australian National University, Research Report No 8, Canberra Williams, R.J., Wahren, C.H., Bradstock, R.A. and Muller, W.J. (2006) ‘Does alpine grazing reduce blazing? A landscape test of a widely held hypothesis’, Austral Ecology, Vol 31, pp925-936 Williams, R.J, Bradstock, R.A., Enright, N.J., Gill, A. M., Liedloff, A.C., Lucas, C., Whelan, R.J., Bowman, D.J.M.S., Clarke, P.J., Cook, G.D., Hennessy, K.J. and York, A. (2009) Interactions between Climate Change, Fire Regimes and Biodiversity in Australia, A Preliminary Assessment, Report by CSIRO-led consortium, Australian Government Department of Climate Change, Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra Williams, S. (2009) Australian Alps Streams and Values, powerpoint presentation to the Australian Alps Catchments project, Canberra Williams, J.E. and Gill, A.M. (1995) The Impact of Fire Regimes on Native Forests in Eastern New South Wales, Environmental Heritage Monograph Series No 2, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney Wimbush, D.J. and Costin, A.B. (1979) ‘Trends in Vegetation at Kosciuszko, I) Grazing Trials in the Subalpine Zone 1957-1971, II) Subalpine Range Transects 1959-1978, III) Alpine Range Transects 1959- 1978’, Australian Journal of Botany, Vol 27, No 6 pp741-87 Worboys, G.L. (1981) Prescription Burning within Kosciuszko National Park: A Basis for Planning, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Internal Report, Jindabyne Worboys, G.L. and Pickering, C.M. (2002) Managing the Kosciuszko Alpine Area: Conservation Milestones and Future Challenges, Mountain Tourism Research Report Series No 3, CRC for Sustainable Tourism, Griffith University, Gold Coast Worboys, G.L., Good, R.B. and Spate, A.P. (2011) Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments: A Climate Change Action Strategy for the Australian Alps to Conserve the Natural Condition of the Catchments and to Help Minimise Threats to High Quality Water Yields, A Technical Report prepared for the Commonwealth Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, Canberra and Australian Alps Liaison Committee, Jindabyne Young, D. (2004) ‘Chapter 16, Economic Evaluation’ (in) Independent Scientific Committee, An Assessment of the Values of Kosciuszko National Park, NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Sydney

Summary Report for Policy Makers 63 64 Caring for our Australian Alps Catchments