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Remote Sensing of Environment 112 (2008) 4020–4033 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Remote Sensing of Environment journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rse Evaluating hyperspectral imaging of wetland vegetation as a tool for detecting estuarine nutrient enrichment Daria Siciliano a,d,⁎, Kerstin Wasson b, Donald C. Potts c, R.C. Olsen d a Ocean Sciences Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, United States b Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, Watsonville, CA, United States c Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, United States d Remote Sensing Center, Physics Department, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, CA, United States ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Article history: Nutrient enrichment and eutrophication are major concerns in many estuarine and wetland ecosystems, and Received 1 March 2007 the need is urgent for fast, efficient, and synoptic ways to detect and monitor nutrients in wetlands and other Received in revised form 15 April 2008 coastal systems across multiple spatial and temporal scales. We integrated three approaches in a multi- Accepted 3 May 2008 disciplinary evaluation of the potential for using hyperspectral imaging as a tool to assess nutrient enrichment and vegetation responses in tidal wetlands. For hyperspectral imaging to be an effective tool, Keywords: spectral signatures must vary in ways correlated with water nutrient content either directly, or indirectly via Wetland Hyperspectral such proxies as vegetation responses to elevated nitrogen. Working in Elkhorn Slough, central California, Nitrogen where intensive farming practices generate considerable runoff of fertilizers and pesticides, we looked first Water quality for long- and short-term trends among temporally ephemeral point data for nutrients and other water HyMap quality characters collected monthly at 18 water sampling stations since 1988. Second, we assessed responses of the dominant wetland plant, Salicornia virginica (common pickleweed) to two fertilizer regimes in 0.25 m2 experimental plots, and measured changes in tissue composition (C, H, N), biomass, and spectral responses at leaf and at canopy scales. Third, we used HyMap hyperspectral imagery (126 bands; 15–19 nm spectral resolution; 2.5 m spatial resolution) for a synoptic assessment of the entire wetland ecosystem of Elkhorn Slough. We mapped monospecific Salicornia patches (∼56–500 m2) on the ground adjacent to the 18 regular water sampling sites, and then located these patches in the hyperspectral imagery to correlate long-term responses of larger patches to water nutrient regimes. These were used as standards for correlating plant canopy spectral responses with nitrogen variation described by the water sampling program. There were consistent positive relationships between nitrogen levels and plant responses in both the field experiment and the landscape analyses. Two spectral indices, the Photochemical Reflectance Index (PRI) and Derivative Chlorophyll Index (DCI), were correlated significantly with water nutrients. We conclude that hyperspectral imagery can be used to detect nutrient enrichment across three spatial and at least two temporal scales, and suggest that more quantitative information could be extracted with further research and a greater understanding of physiological and physical mechanisms linking water chemistry, plant properties and spectral imaging characteristics. © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction global use increased sevenfold between 1960 and 1995 (Tilman et al., 2002), and an additional threefold increase is expected by 2050 Water quality in many estuaries, bays, and other coastal marine (Tilman et al., 2001). The subsequent eutrophication of coastal and systems has declined progressively over the past century, often in estuarine waters is intensifying (Nixon & Pilson, 1984; Cloern, 2001) response to increased runoff of nutrients from encroaching agricul- with such symptoms as high concentrations of chlorophyll a (Beman tural and urban areas (Vitousek et al., 1997a, Matson et al., 1997; Lotze et al., 2005), macro-algal and epiphytic blooms (Peckol & Rivers, 1996) et al., 2006). Intensive high-yield agriculture depends on addition of and toxic algal blooms (Rabalais et al., 1996), all occurring with industrially produced nitrates (NO3) and ammonium (NH4). Their increasing frequency in coastal areas in much of the world. Nutrient enrichment of coastal and estuarine habitats often has far-reaching consequences with substantial economic and social costs (Turner ⁎ Corresponding author. Current address: Remote Sensing Center, Naval Postgraduate fi School, Monterey, CA, United States. et al., 1999) stemming from such events as sh-kills (Glasgow & E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Siciliano). Burkholder, 2000), restriction of shellfish aquaculture (Joint et al., 0034-4257/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2008.05.019 D. Siciliano et al. / Remote Sensing of Environment 112 (2008) 4020–4033 4021 1997), degradation of seagrass beds (McGlathery, 2001), smothering of spatial variation makes the task as laborious and time consuming as benthic organisms, and loss of biodiversity, ecological services, and direct water sampling over large areas. other environmental damage (Vitousek et al., 1997a). A third and increasingly common approach to environmental Traditional monitoring of water quality in estuarine and coastal monitoring in estuarine systems uses airborne or satellite imaging to systems relies on analyses of water samples collected periodically (e.g. provide high spatial resolution, synoptic, and non-intrusive integra- weekly, monthly, or less frequently) at a few sites, with spatial tion of spatial variation over large areas (Zhang et al., 1997; Phinn coverage determined primarily by ease of access, which often excludes et al., 2000; Goetz, 2006). When high spectral resolution is also remote or otherwise inaccessible locations (e.g. private lands), and is included, this approach may provide sensitive proxies for biophysical sometimes characterized by discontinuous or irregular temporal properties of wetland vegetation (Silvestri et al., 2002; Brando & coverage from opportunistic sampling (e.g. dependence on volunteer Dekker, 2003; Li et al., 2005). Multispectral sensors, which have a availability). This approach to monitoring water quality relies on small number (usually ≤10) of discontinuous, broad spectral bands, instantaneous point samples in space and time, but the value of these and relatively low spatial resolution (e.g. LANDSAT's 30 m pixels), have data has limitations, including often poor correlations between been used to delineate habitat boundaries and to partition ecosystems nutrient concentrations measured in this way and levels of eutrophi- into functional units (Zhang et al., 1997; Harvey & Hill, 2001; Shuman cation measured, for example, as concentrations of chlorophyll a. & Ambrose, 2003), but they cannot adequately resolve either the fine- In particular, low concentrations do not necessarily indicate the scale spatial heterogeneity and narrow ecotones common in most absence of eutrophication (Dettmann, 2001), especially when the wetlands, or the subtle spectral shifts associated with physiological intervals between samples are too large to capture ecologically changes in plants. Airborne hyperspectral sensors, on the other hand, important variation on other scales, such as daily to seasonal variation have many (≥100), narrow (2–15 nm), contiguous spectral bands; in nutrient inputs, water residence times, or unusual weather events have high spatial resolution (≤3 m) when flown at low altitudes; and (Bricker et al., 2003). have great potential for mapping wetland vegetation and for In California's coastal and estuarine habitats, nutrients usually correlating the spectral characteristics of plant species with environ- arrive in pulses that vary spatially and temporally in frequency, mental variables, including spatially variable nutrient uptake and duration and predictability (e.g. seasonal rainfall, or episodic influxes storage. Therefore hyperspectral imaging should be useful for of wastewater). Although pulses of high nutrients produce transient detecting water nutrient enrichment, provided that: 1) the vegetation peaks in the water column, nutrients also accumulate in soils and is nutrient limited; 2) the vegetation's uptake of water column vegetation when loading rates are very high (Dettmann, 2001; Kamer nutrients produces a spectral response; and 3) the spectral and spatial et al., 2001). For Elkhorn Slough, a central Californian estuary, Chapin resolutions of the imagers are appropriate for detecting subtle spectral et al. (2004) concluded that adequate resolution of such processes as shifts within and between vegetation patches. Costs of acquisition tides, diel cycling, and episodic runoff would require hourly in situ usually limit the frequency of imaging (e.g. annual) and hence the monitoring of water nutrient concentrations and physical conditions. temporal resolution of this approach, but when an image is acquired, While such a sampling program could capture temporal variation in it provides 100% spatial coverage for the watershed or coastal area of great detail at a few sites, it would be expensive, labor intensive and interest, and integrates past responses to nutrient variation over some impracticable for extended periods, and it would be impossible to period of time preceding the date