Social

• Studies Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011

ISBN: 978-9928-4000-3-1 Vol. 5, No. 2 5, No. Vol. • E. Barberis & V. Nanaj • J. Toth • S. Nikolidakis & F. Anastasopoulou • E. Sherifi • E. Hysa • E. Kalerante • L. Sokoli • T. Hagen • N. Ljarja & R. Gurakuqi • A. Canollari • E. Puka • A. Sulaj & F. Bezati • L. Xhakollari • J. Daci • Xh. Shala • E. Hysa • V. Duci • E. Mehmeti Studime Sociale Vëll. 5, Nr. 2, 2011 Social Studies • SOCIAL STUDIES / STUDIME SOCIALE

Vol. 5, No. 2, 2011 / Vëll. 5, nr. 1, 2011 DIRECTOR / DREJTOR LEKË SOKOLI EDITOR IN CHIEF / KRYEREDAKTOR SEJDIN CEKANI EDITORIAL BOARD / BORDI BOTUES SERVET PËLLUMBI EGLANTINA GJERMENI Chariman BARBARA HEYNS MARTIN BERISHAJ ANJEZA HOXHALLARI ALBANA CANOLLARI KARL KASER LIQUN CAO NEVILA KOÇALLARI TONIN ÇOBANI PAJAZIT NUSHI ZYHDI DERVISHI ALI PAJAZITI GRIDA DUMA GËZIM TUSHI KRISTO FRASHËRI ALFRED UÇI ILIR GËDESHI BRUNILDA ZENELAGA

“Education in ‘turbulent times’; the Albanian case in European and global context” 6th International Conference of the Albanian Institute of Sociology (Proceedings, I)

“Arsimimi në kohë të trazuara: Rasti shqiptar në kontekst europian dhe global” Konferenca e 6-të Ndërkombëtare e Institutit të Sociologjisë

Scientifi c Journal, certifi ed by the Highest Scientifi c Committee of the Republic of Albania; decision no. 170, date 20th of December 2010

© Albanian Institute of Sociology / Instituti i Sociologjisë

Ed: Lekë Sokoli Arti Grafi k: Orest Muça

Contacts / Kontakte: Rruga “Abdyl Frashëri”, pall. 3/3, Tiranë Tel: ++355 (4)2268819; Cel: 0694067682; 0682236949 E-Mail: [email protected]; [email protected] www.instituti-sociologjise.org

Contents:

Eduardo BARBERIS & Valbona NANAJ Albanians and the others: educational attainments and attitudes of migrants and nationals in Italian schools ...... 5 Janos TOTH Supra, inter and intrasocial motions: Prolegomena to the ontological poverty of societies ...... 15 Simeon NIKOLIDAKIS The albanian students’ stances & Fotini ANASTASOPOULOU and perceptions regarding the choiche of profession ...... 23 Edo SHERIFI Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents ...... 33 Eglantina HYSA Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 ...... 43 Evagjelia KALERANTE Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy ...... 53 Lekë SOKOLI Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians .....63 Timothy HAGEN Safe, just, and smart: Home education as an essential option for families in Albania and around the world ...... 77 Nertila HAXHIA (LJARJA) National Identity and & Romeo GURAKUQI Religions in Albania ...... 85 Albana CANOLLARI The possible effects of self-construals and social relationships on happiness ...... 99 Edi PUKA Education and Formation in adult education ...... 109 Anila SULAJ & Fatmir BEZATI School dropout by Roma children in Tirana ...... 117 Lediana XHAKOLLARI Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals ...... 123 Jordan DACI Human Rights as collective goods...... 131 Xhavit SHALA Interreligious communication, religious education and security issues ...... 139 Veronika DUCI Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease ...... 147

ALBANIANS AND THE OTHERS: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS AND ATTITUDES OF MIGRANTS AND NATIONALS IN ITALIAN SCHOOLS

Eduardo BARBERIS & Valbona NANAJ - University of Urbino “Carlo Bo”, Italy E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Based on fi rst results of the international research project GOETE, these paper analyses school trajectories of children with migration background (CMB), focusing also on specifi c issues concerning East-Central Europe (ECE) migrants. In particular, the attention is on lower secondary school pupils, and their transition to following education paths, according to infl uencing factors such as schooling, parenting, peers and institutions: immigration background accumulates with other social risks in a country characterized by low social mobility and high reproduction of disadvantage. To investigate these issues, we use a mixed-method approach, triangulating data on trajectories and institutions coming from: surveys with parents and pupils, focus groups and interviews with pupils, teachers, parents, principals, local stakeholders and experts. Keywords: immigration in Italy; educational trajectories; second generations; social disadvantage

1. Introduction: framing CMB school performance of Asian minorities in disadvantage in Italian education.1 the U.S.), this trend seems confi rmed in many countries. Disadvantages in education are often Relevant literature maintains that both associated with ethnicity and migration: ethnicisation of social disadvantage and there’s a growing body of literature on this discrimination are outcomes of a lack of issue: even if there are exceptions (e.g. the appropriate support for migrant children

1 This article results from a joint refl ection made by the authors. Though, chapters 1 to 4 have been written by Eduardo Barberis, chapters 5 and 6 jointly by Eduardo Barberis and Valbona Nanaj. It also took advantage by the debate occurred within the GOETE research group; in particular we would like to thank Silvia Demozzi and Federica Taddia (University of Bologna) that contributed to the analyses reported here.

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 5-13 6  Albanians and the others and youth (Heckmann 2008; Parreira do being an inconsistent institutional coping Amaral et al. 2011): actually, PISA studies of the phenomenon, notwithstanding a suggest that migrant and ethnic minority politicization of the immigration issue from youth disadvantage are primarily due to the the early 1990s and an increasing pressure failure of European schools in dealing with on welfare institutions due to the fast shift diversity, more than due to diversity itself to a family migration: undoubtedly, one of (OECD 2008). the most important issues is the growth of Thus, the degree of such disadvantage CMB born abroad and, more and more, in is connected to national education systems Italy (see tab. 1). and to the contexts their embedded in, A challenge for the Italian nation- framing how difference is treated. We making and welfare institutions: on the one will focus here on the interaction between hand, there’s an incomplete nation-making individual characteristics and institutional with long-lasting unbalances; on the other arrangements in educational inequality, hand a welfare consistent with this frame – analyzing how that disadvantages residual, fragmented, family- and category- accumulate in the Italian case. An based. A system highly ineffective in coping important issue both for the sending and disadvantages, that accumulate in a context the receiving countries, since it affects the of weak social mobility, both for traditional creation of human capital and the socio- and recent at-risk populations (Kazepov & economic development. Barberis 2005). Given this background, we can wonder 1.1. Italy and immigration if Italy has a model of integration for It’s hard to defi ne Italy still as a “new” its immigrants. If we think about grand immigration country – since it started to be narratives dominating the European such thirty years ago; it is anyway a late- debate (the English race relations, the comer, in comparison to many Western French intègration républicaine) the answer European countries. In this respect, Italy is probably negative, tied to the lack of is fully within a “Mediterranean” model a grand nation-making narrative itself of migration (King 2002), the main issue (Melotti 2008).

Tab.1 Demographic indicators (resident population) – Italy 2006-2009 Indicator / Year 2006 2009 Delta 06/09

Total population 59.131.287 60.340.328 2,05 Population < 18 y.o. 10.088.141 10.227.625 1,38 % of < 18 on total population 17,06 16,95 -0,64 Total births 560.010 568.857 1,58 Resident foreigners 2.938.922 4.235.059 44,10 Resident foreigners < 18 665.625 932.675 40,12 Whose: born in Italy 398.205 572.720 43,83 Births by both foreigner parents 57.765 77.109 33,49 % of foreigners on total population 4,97 7,02 41,24 % of foreigners < 18 on total population < 18 6,60 9,12 38,18 % of births by both foreign parents on total births 10,31 13,56 31,52 Source: our elaboration on data from demo.istat.it Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 7 

Though, we can see a mode quite This issue has to be framed in the consistent with its political culture and institutional context of the Italian education welfare state-making, whose main features system: since the 1970s, it has been are (Ambrosini 1999; Caponio 2008): an comprehensive, that is: disadvantaged emergency coping; the gap between formal groups are not taught separately, and the rules and actual practices; the delegation to schools offer a universal education setting, civil society; the localism. in case with projects and professionals As a whole, scholars in Italy variously to address particular problems. Though, defi ned this “mode” as indirect, implicit, we could state that a comprehensive subaltern_ we prefer here to defi ne it as approach to emerging social questions “micro-regulative”, lacking a state paradigm. (like immigration) have been much less object of a real debate, and have been 2. Italian education policy and CMB’s pursued without adequate skills and disadvantage resources – in a context where also the protection and support for “traditional” The education system is no exception categories of disadvantage have been hit in this, and in comparative terms it is even by retrenchment. considered the weakest integration policy Thus, schools and local authorities areas in Italy (Huddleston et al. 2011). built up their know-how incrementally The outcome on CMB’s careers is clear: within local public-private partnerships, and high drop-outs, late accomplishments and this became more and more true starting segregated choices of upper secondary from late 1990s, when decentralization schools (FGA, forthcoming; see also table became a keystone of new institutional 2 and 3). reforms, in a way that is turning to be just a “decentralization of penury” (Kazepov Tab.2 Share of late career students per citizenship 2010). In this context, emerging risks, and school level (school year 2008/09) like the ones concerning the integration of CMB, found fragmented answers, that we Italians Non-Italians try to sort out in the following paragraphs.

Primary 1,8 20,4 3. Methodology Lower secondary 7,1 50,2 Upper secondary 25,1 71,8 We will work out the relationship Source: our elaboration on MIUR 2009a between individual trajectories and institutional coping, as emerging from fi rst results of the EC-funded research GOETE Tab .3 Distribution of students per type of upper (Governance of Educational Trajectories secondary school (school year 2008/09) in Europe).2 School type Non-Italian Total pupils We investigated this issue in three cities pupils in Italy (Bologna, Ancona and Catania), mirroring territorial differences in social General + Art 21,4 42,8 needs and institutional answers. The focus Technical 38,0 34,0 is on pupils attending the last grade of Professional 40,6 23,2 lower secondary schools (usually 13 y.o., a crucial year, since they have to choose Source: our elaboration on MIUR 2009a, MIUR 2009b 2 For further information, see www.goete.eu 8  Albanians and the others the upper secondary school likely to affect non-Italian pupils are late (with a slight their future). To address the issue, the over-representation for ECE CMB) – up project used a mixed-method approach. to 67,3% for those living in Italy for less In § 4 we account for a survey with pupils than 5 years – while “late” Italians in our and parents’ on individual education sample are 7,6%. trajectories and well-being, while § 5 This is just partly due to bad achieving: analyses interviews and focus groups with there’s an effect of the institutional coping actors included in a school-centred network of migration (e.g. grades were newcomers (principals, teachers, pupils, parents, are placed): actually, non-Italians repeating experts and professionals). at least one year in their school career are 16,4% vs. 7,2% of Italians. So, while the 4. CMB and disadvantage in Italy: share of “late” Italian is similar to the share hints from a survey of those repeating a year (7,6 vs. 7,2), the gap for CMB is wide (48,2 vs. 16,4), Questionnaires were administered in showing that failures aren’t the only reason six lower secondary schools per city and to for a slow career. their parents. The students’ dataset includes Actually, 42,2% of CMB (and 50% of 1388 cases, and the parents’ one 1074. those from ECE countries), especially those The dataset is rich (> 250 variables) living in Italy for less than 5 years, changed concerning well-being, relationships, school primary school (vs. 13% of Italians), and results and career, attitudes and behaviours. 16,5% changed lower secondary school (vs. We analyse just main differences between 4,6%), thus it is likely that class insertion immigrant and local population, using after moves is a relevant factor. indicators of “settlement diversity”: 4.2. Satisfaction, motivation and well-  years lived in the country (8,8% of being: the exclusion of newcomers students and 12,8% of parents migrated Bad achievements are tied to a situation to Italy, half of whom have been living of “broken networks” that negatively affects in Italy for less than 5 years); attitudes and satisfaction and can magnify  citizenship (8,4% of students and disadvantage. CMB are less satisfi ed by their 9,2% of parents aren’t Italian citizens, school choice and – as Italian bad achievers some 2/5 from ECE countries); state too – they would have preferred  place of birth (8,9% of pupils and another one: they had no tool to choose 13,4% of parents were born abroad, (usually parents do), and they are dropped again some 2/5 from ECE countries) in an unfamiliar context. Considering a set of questions on Obviously these data are quite pupils’ well-being (Kidscreen-10), we can differentiated by city, since immigration see lower levels for almost every item, and is an issue mainly in Centre and Northern the gap is wider exactly for those referring Italy: 12,6% in Bologna, 9,1% in Ancona to relations: CMB feel more lonely and to and just 2,3% in Catania. spend less good time with friends. In this area, we have also a wider standard deviation, 4.1. Irregular careers showing differences among CMB: sadness, We have seen above offi cial data on loneliness and isolation are felt especially school regularity, showing that CMB by those living in Italy for less than 5 years. are often late in their education career. Though ECE CMB mean data are usually Our datasets confirms this: 48,2% of closer to Italian than to other migrants. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 9 

Tab.4 Answers to the Kidscreen-10 questions (“Over the last week I:”), mean by nationality on selected items Felt fi t Got on Felt full Felt Parents Had fun and well well of energy lonely treated with your at school fairly friends

Italian Mean 3,88 3,68 3,51 4,34 4,32 4,31 N 1259 1247 1249 1242 1249 1245 σ 0,97 0,94 1,05 1,04 1,02 1,01 ECE Mean 3,78 3,55 3,52 4,24 4,34 4,06 N 50 49 50 49 50 49 σ 0,95 0,84 1,02 1,03 0,77 1,23 Other Mean 3,65 3,41 3,33 3,86 4,06 4,00 N 65 64 64 64 64 65 σ 1,07 0,97 1,02 1,36 1,15 1,25

Anyway, as other studies show (FGA, (38,1% of newcomers vs. 31,4% of forthcoming), CMB are pleased by the long-staying migrants and 24% of school setting as an experience of peer those born in Italy). relationship and especially newcomers love to go to school more than Italians, possibly Thus, a rebalancing is needed with the because it is a “safe environment” where role of institutions, visible with a higher positive relations are more likely. share of newcomers seeking professional advice (psychologists, youth workers, 4.3. Poor relations school counsellors). Though, we should not overstate: in a set of questions on relationships with 4.4. Family background teachers and pupils at school, bot Italians In a context of weak but sought and foreigners have same mean values, relations, the role of family is also quite but newcomers rate a bit less peer group ambivalent. On the one hand, it is more solidarity, and more teachers’ help – showing binding: CMB, especially newcomers a need for reference persons, since they and females, spend more time than their feel more lonely, awkward and outsiders. colleagues in activities like helping at ECE CMB have profi les closer to nationals, home and looking after younger siblings though with stronger family relationships – and spend also more time in other and weaker friendship networks. activities usually done at home (using Other variables confi rm this trend: TV, computer). This also means that they spend less time doing activities outside,  CMB have less friends than Nationals, thus curbing their relational chances. especially within school; Furthermore, immigrant families often  as for social networks to cope with have poor tools to support their children problems, newcomers show a very in a frail period of their life: among the limited support network for most of relevant others to cope with problems, the relevant others (family members CMB refer less than Nationals to parents. and friends, for example), while Answers to another questions show that many seek advice on the internet they don’t feel like having someone to talk 10  Albanians and the others about their problems (for ECE CMB, Thus, the gap between expectations and especially fathers are absent). This also family socio-economic status is much wider means that they could feel more and more within migrant families (60%) than within distant from their parents, with parental nationals’ ones (30%). So, there’s also a role loosing authority and relevance in risk of fallen expectations in a country with children’s life. And this could be truer limited intergenerational upward mobility. in the Italian school system, where Not by chance, we can already homework and parental help is highly see effects of delusion in long-staying pushed, making things diffi cult for pupils CMB: they have lower aspirations than with poor family capital in the destination newcomers. Coding with ESeC, we see country (Dalla Zuanna et al. 2009). that their expectations are mainly in sectors Another side of this ambivalence where also their parents are overrepresented concerns expectations and the gap between and that become a kind of destiny. desired social mobility and support for it. On the one hand, it seems that immigrant 4.5. Reported behaviours: downward parents obsessively repeat their children assimilation of settled migrants that it is important to do well at school, The GOETE survey had also questions though their score is clearly under average on self-reported at-risk behaviours: we can as for actual interests in school progress see that 21,6% of CMB state they have and support (in this case, ECE are in- played truant (vs. 10,2% of Italians, but between for mothers, laggards for fathers). also ECE have similar shares), especially Thus, there’s a poorer family dialogue, long-stayers. Also other at-risk behaviours also on general issues like future, current are overrepresented among long-stayers: political issues and the like. they reported to have smoked tobacco, An ambivalence that becomes potential drunk alcohol, been sexually active, written/ confl ict when thinking about future careers: sprayed graffi ti more than the others. Part comparing future educational and job of the difference can be due to age (CMB choices according to pupils and parents, are older due to late school careers), but the the gap for CMB is much wider than for link with underachievement is anyway clear Nationals: there’s almost no nationality (cfr. also FGA, forthcoming). difference in pupils’ expectations, while immigrant parents have lower expectations, 4.6. Summing up risks for CMBs often lower than children. Above data show two different risk Furthermore, besides this relational trajectories for newcomers and long-stayers: dimension, there’s also a material the fi rst group feels excluded, the second is dimension: immigrant families are over- going toward a downward assimilation. represented among lower class households. In this respect, the importance They are more often single-earner – and of achieving at school should not be with lower status. Using the ISEI, we underrated. Somehow, a relevant share can see that the gap between Italian and of CMB living in Italy for more than 5 Non-Italian mothers is around 29%, and years seem to “give up”. Thus, it looks the gap between fathers is some 23% (it very important to close the gap as soon as is lower for ECE parents). possible, since this has an effect not only Though, applying ISEI to children’s on school career. expectations, we can see there’s no gap ECE CMB are in-between, with at all in aspired jobs among pupils, and behaviours and attitudes quite similar to ECE CMB have the highest aspirations. Italians, but weak social relations: possibly, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 11  proxy of a stigma that could lead to overwhelmed by unpaid tasks, without any Mertonian deviance (accepted goals, poor pampering from outside […] and this has means to achieve them), also in a context of an effect on pupils” [teacher]. broken family links... many ECE CMB have All in all, school staff feels overwhelmed. no or poor relations with their fathers, since Actually, their defi nition of disadvantage often ECE migration to Italy is female. includes “big” structures (social values, Though, deviance rate are not so high. parents’ weakness and – to a lesser extent – From an institutional point of view, we pupils’ culture), thus perceiving themselves can see that support agencies fail to cope as limited in their success chances. properly with newcomers and to make From this point of view, CMB “stress” up for their limited social resources; as further the institution, in a frustrating lack time passes, a spiral of demotivation and of adequate provisions to cope emerging downward assimilation starts, likely based issues. Anyway, in the last years, school staff also on fallen expectations. progressed in the understanding and facing Though, school is just part of the of CMB, acquiring skills in intercultural problem: somehow the educational task is education, and defi ning different risk profi les achieved, as the gap between nationals and (e.g. according to place of origin, individual CMB becomes smaller for those spending and family migration history). Thus, the more years in the Italian education and profi ling teachers enact has a strong effect belonging to generations born in Italy (Della on individual coping, lacking enforceable Zuanna et al. 2009; INVALSI 2010). enough inputs from the State level. Though, the main issue seems an Notwithstanding years of migration, inconsistent support network, with a poor national guidelines and institutionalized involvement of support professionals and local coping practice, the first issue of out-of-school agencies. We will try to teachers underline is still the coping of sort this issue out in the last part of this new-comers, especially those having paper, with a qualitative point of view already a formal education in the origin on defi nition of disadvantage and coping country and being inserted at school in and governance according to principals, the middle of the year: the need to focus teachers, parents and pupils. on language issues can easily turn into underachieving in many subjects, and thus 5. Defi ning and coping immigrant in frustrating school failures. disadvantage in local case studies “If we notice that a 13 y.o. has knowledge equal As we mentioned above, the local to a fi rst grade lower secondary school, we should dimension of coping is very relevant in put him/her there; though, such an older boy the Italian institutional system. We will in a fi rst grade causes discomfort...” [teacher] report here some qualitative evidences of coping strategies and defi nition of “Foreign pupils enrolling in December are problems in the school-centred network absolutely lost […] they can make it the fi rst case studies we analysed. year, but they’ll fail in the following one” First, it has to be said that in a [Albanian intercultural mediator] context of retrenchment disadvantaged youth can be particularly hit, and also the Furthermore, there’s the feeling that motivation of institutional actors is hit efforts made at school toward integration hard: “There’s no positive mood on our side, and intercultural participation are we [teachers] are demoralized, discouraged, neutralised in everyday life. 12  Albanians and the others

On the one hand, these pupils are torn school walls everything is forgotten, our work between parents’ expectations and cultural is lost” (principal) norms, and host country social models coming from the media and the peer group: Though, some difficulties and disadvantages are perceived as time- “Italian habits are not for my children. After bounded, as for lacking integration due school on Saturday, mine stay home doing their to short stays and school attendance, and homework, and we go out just together as a possibly to be solved as time passes. family […] They have friends at school, but on saturday they wander around; mine not, they “They always stay at home, they don’t go to haven’t yet a fi ancee” (Filipino mother) birthday parties. They have not been integrating yet […] I think that as time passes... now the “When they ask my daughter if she has a elder brother will go to an upper secondary boyfriend, I tell: - Don’t ask her like that, school, if he will be promoted: then, he will need we don’t follow such model like those kids, to move alone, he will learn to take the bus; I already starting at 10. And then my daughter think it’s just an issue of personal maturity, answers: - Anyway none likes me, since I’m not great problems, but an experience they will dark-skinned” (Albanian mother) gain little by little”. (Italian step-father of two Romanian children recently arrived in Italy). In some cases, especially with females, this attitude can be an advantage in having Nevertheless, there are also success at school confi rmations of downward assimilation trends, sometimes tied to class issues (lower “Our children are more fragile than foreigners: class parents not investing in education), they are used to make it out by themselves in sometimes to relational dynamics: actually, many cases, and they respect school institutions an interesting emerging issue is that Italian more” (Italian mother) pupils with learning or relational diffi culties tend to get along better with immigrant “Since I’ve been here, I had 4 excellent pupils, probably being both excluded by Albanian schoolgirls. Besides their commitment “mainstream” children. and reliability, there’s a family behind, that believes in them and doesn’t allow carelessness, “My son’s best friend is from Senegal” (Italian since they show that what they have is luxury. mother of a bullied schoolgirl). I’ve in mind A*****, she’s relentless, she never stops, she is quiet and tenacious […] When her “My daughter get along well overall with mothers comes and talks to me, she says that she foreign girls” (Italian mother of a schoolgirl and her husband work night and day, and they with learning disorders). just ask their children to study […] A parent should be this way” (teacher) 6. Conclusions

On the other hand, social relations at CMB are actually disadvantaged within large too often have discriminatory features the school system, due to an institutional that undermines the effort to build positive setting unable to cope with diversity in relations at school: a structured manner. The cycle of falling into disadvantage starts with an insuffi cient “We teach respect, and they also put into safety net for newcomers, in which the practice this lesson here. But just outside the comprehensive education system turns to Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 13  be a (inconsistent) assimilationist machine, of friendship ties is a proxy of a possible with a selective and subaltern inclusion failure of mimetism, and the persistence of CMB and the blaming of those cut of stigmatization. out, defi ned as non-deserving risk groups The poor attention institutions (mainly: male pre-adolescents with a long and relevant stakeholders pay to long- migration history) (Ambrosini 2004). stayers perhaps don’t favour a downward This paves the way for demotivation and assimilation (data on at-risk behaviours are downward assimilation, thus reinforcing quite positive for ECE CMB), but likely negative stereotypes and blaming. a subaltern path, with dangerous clashing In this frame, ECE CMB have somehow and unmet expectations and weak upward an in-between condition: possibly favoured mobility chances. by an easier learning of the language and As a consequence, the weak integration cultural vicinity, their fi rst impact with process in Italy could also affect origin the education system seems easier, and countries: it is more likely that the attachment characterized (especially for the Albanians, balance between the two countries is and sometimes also for the Romanians) somehow undone and puzzled, since the by a “mimetic strategy” (Romania 2004) Italian mode of integration do not state that makes them “invisible”. This strategy clear rights and duties, and with back-effects tickles the implicit assimilationism of not so positive as they could be, since the Italian management of immigration, with upward mobility of new generations could the effect of underrating social problems of be seriously hindered, thus lacking resources new ECE CMB generations: the weakness to win their day in transnational arenas.

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SUPRA-, INTER AND INTRASOCIAL MOTIONS: PROLEGOMENA TO THE ONTOLOGICAL POVERTY OF SOCIETIES

Janos TOTH - Eötvös Lorand University, Hungary E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Notions of poverty and impoverishment are often fi lled with value-loaded connotations, and identifi ed with deprivation both as a state and as a process. In this paper, we would like to show that poverty reveals itself not only as lack or scarcity but also as a totality of positive practices, attributes and strategies on individual as well as on group level. The study employs the Christian understanding of poverty to argue that the surpluses are of different nature and are interconnected with various types of defi cits, constituting a complex network which equally affects material, moral, social, and spiritual dimensions. Our objective here is to outline certain aspects of a theory that aims at a new concept of “poverty” and “impoverishment”, which will enable us to include both the positive and negative individual and communal states and motions described in Christian tradition and the negative states and motions constituting the object of defi cit-centered theories of poverty. Keywords: poverty, impoverishment, religion, society, social motion

Introduction the domain of poverty through the selection and organization of different perceptions There is no research on poverty without in a given intellectual framework.1 The having preconceptions about the nature of unidentifi ed nature of such preconceptions the phenomenon constituting its object. is relevant not exclusively in metatheories However, only a fraction of theories serving but it may also make the adequacy of a as the basis for those researches link their given theory questionable in additional assertions on poverty to the preconceived researches, which results in a situation notions that determine the demarcation of where these theories can not provide a

1 ”(...) the theory itself creates—it socially constructs—the terrain. A theory entails imposing interpretations (defi nitions, categories, and understandings) on behavior. Once we have a theory in mind, we pose questions that take those defi nitions, categories, and understandings for granted” (quoted from: Wallis 2010: 103).

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 15-22 16  Supra, inter and intrasocial motions general answer to at least two of the most theories −which is central to our theme− basic questions, namely, “what is poverty” is an understanding of poverty as a lack and “who is poor?”. Some compendiums or defi cit, meaning that poverty is a state rightly claim that poverty exists as a concept, A’ of an (individual or group) entity, not as a fact, and must be understood as which is determined by insuffi ciency or such (Borgatta & Montgomerry 2000: shortages in dimension(s) relevant to 2209-10), which claim, although does the specifi c viewpoint of the theory. This not establish automatically the validity of state of lack is unfavorable compared to a statements that there are neither theories of state A of exactly the same characteristics poverty (Jordan 1996: 81) nor a sociology but not containing the aforementioned of poverty in the true sense (Roach & insuffi ciency or shortages. Here, it is not Roach 1972: 13), but instead reveals that possible to undertake a detailed analysis metatheoretical approaches towards the of these theories or their applications theories of poverty are not unfounded. but we may take it granted that such Accordingly, hereafter I will attempt to theories exist. We can also maintain that further research is needed to clarify exactly  present a specifi c underlying assumption which theories and applications could which is easily recognizable in major be included in this category, which I will economy- and society-focused theories refer to from now on as “defi cit-centered of poverty and stands behind their theories of poverty”. defi cit-centered concepts of poverty To signify phenomenons and entities  raise the question of to what extent as “poor” based on some perceptible deficit-centered approaches are insufficiency or shortages seems capable to identify phenomenons problematic not only from an economic, with satisfying accuracy as “poverty”, but also from social and anthropological or statuses as “poverty-stricken” point of view. Approaches to poverty  trace a possible approach which, by focusing on economic definitions going beyond defi cits, tries to include generally understand defi cit in terms of surpluses of different natures among income and different types of capital: the indicators of poverty, some of them The World Bank, for example, defi ned already identifi ed during the history of the absolute poverty line at $1 (from Christian thought 2008, $1.25 measured in 2005 prices) a  and finally, take some new aspects day, converted to local currencies using of poverty into consideration by the purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange inclusion of which the conceptualization rates (The World Bank 2008:1), while of impoverishment in some specific other approaches operate with the lack cases can reveal the dynamics between of such material needs of life as food, the modes of human symbiosis drinking water, home, clothing, means of production and medical supplies. Poverty as defi cit However, this type of approach neglects that in economics −if the total cost As indicated before, one of the of production and all the costs and detectable assumptions underlying many benefi ts arising from the consumption

2 Although in this paper we can not discuss the problem in detail, the full cost per full profi t ratio does not correspond to the business costs per business profi t ratio relevant to individual contractors and profi t oriented organizations. The former also deals with various types of externalities while the latter tends to ignore those. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 17  or possession of a group of goods2 are the extent that there are goods where the taken into consideration−not all kind restoration or compensation costs of their of incomes and goods have a positive negative biological effects originating economical value, or rather there are some from their possession, consumption, types of incomes and goods that on the or from a symbolic feeling of loss3 may whole have positive economical value but also carry a negative economical value, their costs and benefi ts belong to different independently of the fact that either the entities and not necessarily at the same state or the individual does not undertake, time. For example the restoration costs of or only partially undertake, the costs of the economic damages and disadvantages restoration or compensation. caused by marketing a disadvantageous Conversely, poverty can be insurance product or by contributing to conceptualized in the fi eld of economics the production of a product that causes not exclusively as a lack, but rather as severe environmental damages may the existence of something, although it signifi cantly exceed the income benefi ts still remains true that those values with of the insurance agent, employees, or which we can describe a poor and a non- shareholders in the industry where they poor entity will belong to the same scale, are produced. Moreover, in the income- even if closer to different ends of the based defi nition of the poverty line, only scale. Now from a social point of view, the income of the examined households poverty as an existence of something will are considered when summing up the not refer exclusively to quantitative, but expenses and commitments, whereas also to qualitative differences in social there are many additional items − like, organization: While a deficit-centered among many other things, interest concept of poverty is useful to identify payments on consumer debts and home and examine social classes occupying rental charges − that are easily dropped lower positions in a social structure, the from calculations (see Short 2005: 35-36, concept of poverty as the existence of Pressman and Scott 2010: 12). Hence something seems to be more adequate comes the absurd situation where a family for describing the relationship between with several children living in a rented fl at a particular social structure and modes and encumbered with credit card debt, of human existence excluded from that and a single man with an average income structure, thus forced to organize itself and living in his own house but without −even within the limits of a state or a debt may be classifi ed to the same income geographic region− differently from category, although the income available the societies in which they previously for spending after the essentials will differ participated. The potential relevance of signifi cantly in the two cases. For material this suggestion is based on the fact that the goods, the situation is quite similar in characteristics which make the difference

3 In classical economics Adam Smith showed through the famous example of the linen shirt and leather shoes that some things become valuable not only in their material reality or functionality, but also in the opinion-and judgement-producing capacities. “A creditable day-labourer”, Smith wrote, “would be ashamed to appear in public without a linen shirt, the want of which would be supposed to denote that disgraceful degree of poverty, which, it is presumed, nobody can well fall into without extreme bad conduct. Custom, in the same manner, has rendered leather shoes a necessary of life in England. The poorest creditable person, of either sex, would be ashamed to appear in public without them.” (Smith 2009:519). It is not unreasonable to argue that not only the lack of some goods, but also the possession or consumption of culture-dependent “inferior” goods can lead to a sense of shame and humiliation, stimulated by public reaction. 18  Supra, inter and intrasocial motions between these “alternative modes of or even greater than the secular world existence” and the societies which they view. Considering, by the same token were former members of are not the the connections that can be shown to variations or alterations of former social exists between religious traditions and norms or lifestyle strategies, adjusted local characteristics of poverty policy to the new situation: On the contrary, in Catholic, Protestant and Evangelic in these new modes of subsistence, the countries (Kahl 2005: 118-123), it can narrow sources available are used −in be argued that even in our days, the absence of external control mechanisms infl uence of the so-called “religious factor” or other impacts− not for reintegration, on the various concepts of poverty is not but in many cases to develop, maintain negligible. However, it can equally be and reproduce different types of concretes, assumed that this infl uence came from namely, institutions, identities, values certain historically selected elements of and norms, which are irreconcilable religious understanding of poverty which with and independent from those of the was found relevant to actual sociocultural society. This approach, accompanied by situations. This question will be examined the economic view of poverty (which is further in the next section, divided into the dominant model of modernity) leads two parts; the first being devoted to to the “culture of poverty” theory which an outline of different dimensions of we do not need to present here in details. the biblical meaning of “poor” using What we need to talk about, on the other passages from the Bible and traditional hand, is that the causes which leads to the exegetical commentaries; and the second exclusion of entities from a given social dealing with the means and possibilities to structure are not necessarily economic produce an intellectual surplus in the fi eld or social, but can be derived from the of poverty theories with the consideration characteristics of the entity in question, of elements not infl uencing the defi cit- hence there are poverty approaches centered view of poverty. focusing not only on economic or social, but also to anthropological dimensions. The dimensions of Christian poverty On the whole, although Sen’s capability approach and its criticisms are currently Bible translations based on the Greek a part of poverty discourses, which we texts translate two words as “poor”: penes can meet mainly in classical sociology and which means poor in a narrower sense economics. It is all the more interesting and ptokos which has a more complex that according to surveys, the perception meaning. Penes simply means a person that link poverty to deviant morality and who has to work to earn a living, while personal failure (which some 150 years ptokos, as we would like to point out in ago in the English Poor Law explained the the following, has many different, context- individual’s incapability to sustain himself based meanings. According to these and his family without external support contexts, the word could signify with scientifi c ambitions) still infl uences the social image of poverty in a large 1. Poor in the material sense of the word degree (Feagin 1972a, 1972b, Zucker and Weiner 1993, Harmon 2010: 2-10). a. Involuntary poverty: here, ptokos It is especially true in countries where signifi es a person who, independently (neo)protestant thought and new-born of their intentions, does not have evangelicalism have an impact comparable access, or has only very limited access Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 19 

to goods needed for satisfying basic because in the latter mode the negatively biological needs, hence needs to beg understood material lack is associated with for alms. a positive spiritual and moral surplus, b. Voluntary poverty: here, ptokos while in the the former case, both the lack signifi es the person who, from their and the surplus are positioned in negative own free will, limits their consumption value domains: The lack of spiritual goods to what is biologically necessary or and virtues are connected with “inferior”, does not signifi cantly exceed that level “miserable”, “godless” attributes, thoughts (subsistence from begging for alms is and lifestyle strategies, hence spiritual not peculiar here either). poverty describes a human state or condition which is typical of sinners, the At the same time, this type of poverty errant, and heretics. That approach to is defi ned not only by the extreme lack of spiritual poverty was described in one of material goods: Concerning the identity of the agraphas as follows: „Jesus saith − I the poor inside the Christian community, stood in the midst of the world, and in the the identifi cation of Christ with the poor is fl esh was I seen of them: and I found all more important. The poor are a sacramental men drunken, and none found I athirst presence of Christ for the Church, both among them. And My soul grieveth over mysterious and real, therefore, the state the sons of men, because they are blind in of a poor person carries a specifi c surplus their heart and see not [their wretchedness both for themself, for their neighbors and their] poverty.” (Griffi nhoofe 1903: and for the whole community. Behind 60) In addition, according to The Book voluntary poverty stands the longing for of Revelations: „Because thou sayest, I am living a life according to Christ’s teachings, rich, and increased with goods, and have need the practical realization of discernment, of nothing; and knowest not that thou art renouncement and humility. While both wretched, and miserable, and poor, and blind, voluntary and involuntary poverty give and naked.” (Rev 3.17) Unmistakably, here an opportunity to other people and to the poverty was not used simply to signify a community to respond with acts of charity defi cit, but was defi ned and valorized as and love by recognizing Christ in the poor. the existence of something (in the fi rst text as drunkedness and in the second case as a 2. Spiritual poverty specifi c attitude of men to material goods). Spiritual poverty in a general sense This bipolarity of spiritual poverty appears can be used to describe the nature of the in numerous exegetical commentaries,4 human condition as fallible and weak, and generally acts as an exclusive tendency needing the grace of God. In addition, in the Bible to propose inverse analogies in Christian literature it is also often used between antagonistic subjects: We can to show a bipolar phenomenon, whose get an example of this from the epistles of bipolarity is partially similar to the one John, where having the “love of the world” recognizable in material poverty, but also testifi es that the man in question does not differs from it in many respects. Similar have the “love of the Father” (1John 2.15), because in spiritual poverty, as in material and in the same way, having aberrant and poverty, the lack of something is attached godless thoughts and deeds testifi es for the to a defi nite surplus, and also different state of spiritual poverty.

4 see references in (Lampe 1961: 1206), esp. ’ptokeia’ D. And ’ptokos’ C. 5 cf. Matthew 19:30, 20:16, 18:14 Mark 10:31, 9:35, Luke 18:14, 9:48 20  Supra, inter and intrasocial motions

3. Poorness in spirit the unspeakable promises of the Spirit. This is However, inverse analogies exist the poor in spirit, whom the Lord pronounced not only between antagonistic subjects, blessed, this is he who hungers and thirsts but can also be defi ned as the relation after righteousness, this is he who is contrite between the manifestations of one in heart.” (Macarius the Egyptian: Hom. and the same subject as its different 29.7 in Mason 192: 222) dimensions.5 Accordingly, being poor in spirit differs from spiritual poverty in the 4. The poverty of Christ extent of referring neither to the lack of The basis of reference for the poverty something divine nor to having godless of Christ is kenosis, the self-emptying things and deeds, but it rather signifi es process of God where, in Christ, He the existence of a divine virtue, namely, became man for man’s salvation. The humility in people. Concerning the “poor meaning of Christ’s poverty in Christian in spirit” (ptokoi to pneumati), one of the tradition is that God became man so that most memorable passages in the Bible is man might become God (by imitation and certainly the fi rst Beatitude of the Sermon participation). The Apostle Paul said that on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor in “Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form spirit: for theirs is the Kingdom of heaven” of God, did not count equality with God a (Mt. 5:3) Exegetic commentaries of this thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, by passage make it obvious that poorness in taking the form of a servant, being born in the spirit comes not from some defi cit, but likeness of men.” (Phil. 2:6-7) and “though states the meaning of a concrete attribute he was rich, yet for your sake he became poor, (and that attribute’s practical outcome): so that you by his poverty might become rich.” (2Kor 8:9). “What is meant by ‘the poor in spirit?’ The The phrase “that you by his poverty humble and contrite in mind. For by ‘spirit’ might become rich” indicates that the type He hath here designated the soul, and the of poverty that Christ undertook, besides faculty of choice. That is, since many are being an aspect of equality with God, it humble not willingly, but compelled by stress of clearly indicates a defi cit as well, at the circumstances; letting these pass (for this were same time it is presented as a surplus: no matter of praise), He blesses them fi rst, who in the continuation of the previous by choice humble and contract themselves.” citation, we can read that “And being (St. John Chrysostom: Homilies on Mt. found in human form, he humbled himself by 15.2 in Schaff 1980: 92) becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross. Therefore God has highly „(...) a man being righteous and chosen of God exalted him and bestowed on him the name does not esteem himself to be anything, but that is above every name, so that at the name holds his soul in abasement and disregards, as of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven if he know nothing and had nothing, though and on earth and under the earth.” (Phil. he knows and has. This is a fixed thing, 2:8-9), hereby, it is not unreasonable to like a law of nature, in the mind of men.” say that according to the Bible, Christ’s (Macarius the Egyptian: Hom. 12.3 in poverty carries concrete (in the act of Mason 1921: 90) salvation) and potential (concerning the opportunities in the union with God) „For the faithful, truth-loving soul (...) surpluses for the created man. esteems itself, and its diligence and pains The above outlines of the meaning and labor all unworthy in comparison with of Christian poverty, although they were Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 21  not written with theological pretensions poverty as something positive (as having and do not intended to undertake the task something), or rather as a simultaneous of a detailed analysis of the connections and multidimensional network of defi cits between the dimensions they outline, and surpluses is able to approach the seem suitable to make the following phenomenon of poverty with a better statements about the Biblical meanings focus and greater relevance, being of poverty: either a useful supplement to, or a reasonable alternative of a defi cit-centered 1. Poverty in a Biblical context is approach. This alternative − which (generally speaking) a polysemantic obviously still needs to be developed concept, with different meanings further− includes a specifi c approach that relevant in different −material, moral understands poverty as having and using and spiritual− dimensions resources of different quality of being, 2. Poverty as a state can be characterized and impoverishment as moving in and with both having and lacking specifi c between differently organized economical, things, attributes and qualities social, and anthropological structures, a 3. Deficits and surpluses connected motion which gains the energy needed to poverty do not manifest from operating these resources. As independently from each other, a consequence of that, the category but are different ends of a bipolar of “poverty” and “impoverishment” phenomenon: compared to each equally embed the positive and negative other, a defi cit manifests as a parallel individual and communal states and of a given surplus and surpluses motions described in Christian tradition manifest as parallels of defi cits and those negatively understood states 4. These different poles can equally be and motions which constitute the object relevant just as well for the same as of defi cit-centered theories of poverty. for different entities In my opinion, questions fl owing from the above outlined integration cannot be Concerning the correspondence bypassed in the fi eld of social sciences, between the deficit-centered and the because it shows that expendable resources traditional Christian approach to poverty, can be different from the viewpoint of the it can be said that on the one hand, existence of societies and peoples, and the differences outweigh the common current situation, which tends to disregard elements, on the other hand, the some of these resources but makes hermeneutic potential of the conceptual others absolute is incompatible with the framework of Christianity is not only scientifi c description of “poor peoples”, different but also affects a signifi cantly “poor societies” and “poor economies”. larger domain than that of the defi cit- Instead of positioning poverty due to this centered approach. Recognition of the exclusivity automatically in negative value differences between religious and scientifi c domains, it seems more useful to focus hermeneutic potentials, independently on the question whether poverty and from scientifi c disciplines, often results impoverishment in the aforementioned in the renormativization of the religious sense have, on the whole, positive or approach − but our aims by contrasting negative effects on the individual and the two cannot be more different than collective modes of human existence. that: we merely tried to show that in This is equivalent to claiming that in this certain cases, the reconceptualization of regard, we can equally speak about positive 22  Supra, inter and intrasocial motions and negative poverty, maintaining that and not to be determined merely by the reference for this valorization of the according to its economical, social, moral phenomenon is necessarily ontological, or spiritual dimensions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Borgatta, E.F. and Montgomery, R.J.V. (2000) Promoting Christian Knowledge Encyclopedia of Sociology (2nd ed., Vol. 3), Pressman, Steven and Scott, Robert H. (2010) New York: Macmillan ‘Consumer debt and poverty measurement’, Feagin, J. R. (1972a) ‘Poverty: We still believe Focus Vol. 27, No. 1, Summer 2010, pp. that God helps those who help themselves’, 9-12. Psychology Today, 1972;1 pp. 101-129. Roach, Jack L. & Roach, Janet K. (1972) Poverty. Feagin, J. R. (1972b) ‘America’s welfare Selected Readings, London: Penguin Books stereotypes’, Social Science Quarterly, 52, The World Bank (2008) Poverty data: A supplement pp. 921-933. to World Development Indicators 2008, Griffi nhoofe, C.G. (1903) The unwritten sayings [Online], Available: http://siteresources. of Christ, Cambridge: Heffer worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/ Harmon, Mark D. (2010): When Mediated Resources/WDI08supplement1216.pdf, Poverty Stereotypes align with Public Opinion: [17 jul 2011] A Clear Predictor of Ideology and Party in the Short, Kathleen S. (2005): ‘Material and Financial U.S., Presentation to the Midwest Political Hardship and Income-Based Poverty Science Association, [Online], Available: Measures in the USA’, Journal of Social Policy http://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent. 34, 1, 21–38. cgi?article=1000&context=utk_jourpubs Smith, Adam (2009) An Inquiry into the Nature [22 sept 2011] and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, Digireads. Jordan, Bill (1996) A theory of poverty and social com Publishing, [Online], Available: http:// exclusion, Camebridge: Polity Press bks4.books.google.com.ag/books?id=rBiq Kahl, Sigrun (2005) ‘The Religious Roots of T86BGQEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=h Modern Poverty Policy: Catholic, Lutheran, u&rview=1#v=onepage&q&f=false [19 and Reformed Protestant Traditions jul 2011] Compared’, Archives Européennes de Sociologie Wallis, Steven E. (2010) ‘Toward a science of (European Journal of Sociology), Vol. metatheory’, Integral Review, Vol.6, No. 3, XLVI, 1, pp. 91-126. pp. 73-120. Lampe, G.W.H (1961) A Patristic Greek Lexicon, Zucker, Gail Sahar and Weiner, Bernard (1993) Oxford: Clarendon press ‘Conservatism and perceptions of poverty: Mason, A.J. (1921) Fifty spiritual homilies of St. An attributional analysis’, Journal of Applied Macarius the Egyptian, London: Society for Social Psychology, vol. 23/12, pp. 925-943. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 23 

THE ALBANIAN STUDENTS’ STANCES AND PERCEPTIONS REGARDING THE CHOICE OF PROFESSION

Simeon NIKOLIDAKIS - University of Pelonnese, Greece E-mail: [email protected] Fotini ANASTASOPOULOU - University of Pelonnese, Greece

ABSTRACT

During the past years, the Albanian students experiencing intensely the social reality and co-estimating the labor market needs, both in Greece and Albania, tend to choose Technical Vocational Schools that offer them a faster and smoother absorption by the labor market. The sex is a major element in the choice of profession. Our research team, after a research conducted in the schools both of Attica and the rest of the country concluded that male students choose primarily the technical education, not being affected by their parents’ professions but with the hope for a better absorption in the labor market. The viewpoint that they choose a profession based on the needs of their country so that they will be able to practice it in case of return there is interesting. Finding a job within the Greek society is for them a crucial element of study. The majority of the boys do not wish to follow the Tertiary Education. Instead, they choose to work considering it as something more practical and with a safer future. On the other hand, the girls aim at their entrance in the Tertiary Education. The focal point of their interest is the faculties of Human Studies such as Philology, Pedagogics, the Law School and Psychology. These choices are directly interwoven with the family environment, the continuously re-adjusted position of woman within the Albanian family and the patterns of choosing a profession accepted by the social background. We indicatively cite the perpetuation of the notion about “male” and “female” professions which follow the female students’ course of choice. Within the same framework, the few male students that choose Tertiary education prefer, respectively, the faculties of science, technology and fi nance, guided towards professions with a good professional setting up both in Greece and their country. In our research, we categorized the students attending the Secondary education and through questionnaires and interviews we examined their stances and perceptions towards Tertiary and Technological education. Through the interviews we searched out their family and social motives affecting their choice, while the interviews conducted by the students helped us perceive the structure of the Albanian family and the motives that induced them towards this choice. Keywords: Albanian students, Technical Vocational Schools, labor market, sex, professions

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 23-31 24  The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession

1. Introduction have got a better education during the past years by attending the Tertiary education The choice of studies in Tertiary and exact sciences. One can notice The same education and furthermore the choice of situation in politics. The number of women profession in modern society is the outcome participating in the centers of political of various factors that are related both to decisions is limited. Although it is not a the individual’s talents and interests and to matter of our project, we should mention sex, family and social reality. The present that the positive discrimination policies research concentrates on the Albanian applied have not yielded something proving immigrant choices in relation to education this way that the stereotypes are more and their professional course according to powerful (Kalerande & Karafoti, 2004). Our the sex. However, we should also take under observation lead us to the conclusion that consideration the social conditions, the every time that we refer to the choices of the stereotypes as well as the phenomenon of female Albanian immigrants we should take immigration since they all affect decisively under consideration the interrelated forms the individual’s professional course. of social inequality, especially the inequality The sex plays a particularly signifi cant in terms of sex, nationality and social class. role in the choice of profession since Therefore, their immigrant status and the professional stereotypes for both sexes exist professional choices are related and defi ne nowadays. The distinction between male and life choices. The stereotypes concerning female jobs has not completely vanished and the sex are much more intense when the it is based on the diversity of the two sexes Albanian community is under question in terms of their nature and abilities. Males because it is about traditional societies with are more advantageous against females as intense sexist traits. far as the muscular strength is concerned, The term immigration, in terms of whereas females are more capable in taking the Greek situation, refers mainly to the care, educating and bringing up individuals. Albanian immigrants who consist over This perception has lead to the generation of 50% of the immigrants¹. During the ‘90s, professional inequalities which are currently in particular, the Albanian immigrant undergoing a decrease within the developed population tends to increase, a fact which societies, however, lying there as remnants to directly demands the reinforcement of affect young people concerning the choice intercultural education which until then had of their profession (Kassotakis, [admin.], been on a preparatory stage as well as the 2004: 178-182). more general tendency of the Greek society The issue of roles according to the on issues of immigrant assimilation. sex seems to be reproduced within the What is interesting about the researchers labor areas with women not being able to is that even from the first years many undertake positions of business strategy, Albanian communities and associations2 designing and organization, even if they throughout Greece have been developing.

1 Statistics coming from census. 2 We indicatively state the associations of Elefsina and Aspropyrgos which take action in Western Attica. Indicatively: Ζάχου, Χ. & Καλεράντε, Ε. (2010), «Διαγενεακές Απεικονίσεις της Αλβανίδας Μετανάστριας : Μια Φαινομενολογική Προσέγγιση», στο: Τσιμπιρίδου, Φ. (επιμ.) Mειονοτικές και Μεταναστευτικές Εμπειρίες: Βιώνοντας την «Κουλτούρα του Κράτους», Σειρά ΚΕΜΟ, Αθήνα: Κριτική, 193-227. Ζάχου, Χ. & Καλεράντε, Ε. (2010), «Οι Αλβανικοί Σύλλογοι στην Ελλάδα: Εθνοτικές Ταυτίσεις και Κοινωνικο-πολιτισμικοί Μετασχηματισμοί», στο Παύλου, Μ. Και Σκουλαρίκη, Α. (επιμ.) Μετανάστες και Μειονότητες: Λόγος και Πολιτική, Σειρά ΚΕΜΟ, Αθήνα : Βιβλιόραμα, 457-493. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 25 

This population group basically wishes to (Govaris, 2004: 85). Within the school be incorporated into the Greek society and, community the Albanian immigrants acquire thus, it is intensely noticed a tendency for the knowledge and theoretical background, assimilation of the immigrant children from through the procedure of incorporation, in the Greek reality. order to overcome the needs of the school At this point, it worth mentioning the examination system. female immigration given the fact that the The issue of the immigrant education woman plays a crucial role in the child’s starts from the first years of their development, cultivation and is directly incorporation. It is observed that the related to his/her education. During the parents more generally tend to boost their previous years female immigration was children to attend Greek schools, to learn addressed as the result of the male one, that the language and to try to rise, through is women and children were mentioned as Tertiary education, up in the Greek society. dependent members. As a result women and It is remarkable that many of the Albanian children were following the man that is we students do not speak Albanian and regard are talking about a “dependent immigration” the Greek language as their mother tongue (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: 149-152). but without any intention from their side to Even though the female immigrant has reject their Albanian nationality. The issue of come into the labor market, she still their children’s education is related to their remains responsible for the household and successful course of their immigration. It is the children upraising. Thus, she legally interpreted through the goals they set for remains dependent on her husband and progress, success and social mobility. The her position is downgraded within the Albanian immigrants coming in Greece family (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: 152- have mainly a low educational capital, 153). Our observation does not ignore the something which is related not only to the differentiations that may exist within the divergence existing between the Greek and family due to the educational and social the Albanian culture but to the divergence capital of its members that seem to affect from the dominant school culture. It is the woman’s position in the family. But, therefore natural that their educational it is generally observed that the positions goals are directly linked to their professional undertaken by them within the professional evolution in relation to the labor market. areas as a household assistant, elderly nurse We observe that they should connect the and baby-sitter are related to the roles they two levels that of their education and that hold in her family environment. of their professional success. For most of them, their professional training is a one-way 2 Immigrant education and the greek street. At this point, we should point out that reality the issue of their professional incorporation is connected to their acceptance and their Within a society as much as like the broader incorporation into the Greek society Greek one, multiculturalism is regarded as a since unemployment does not only create given social reality and intercultural education fi nancial issues but also leads to exclusion is the means to create cultures symmetric and marginalization, a fact that the Albanian interaction conditions (Govaris, 2004: family tries to avoid. 110). The procedure of interculturalism Learning and using a common language is defi ned as a situation and procedure of by all the citizens refers to the political conscience based on the re-meditative notion principle of equality and to the right to form and experience of the cultural pluralism a common will (Gotovos, 2003: 178-180). 26  The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession

Thus, within the school the theoretical and managed to enter an Upper or perception that the immigrant student who Technological Education Institution attends from an early age a general or an (Tertiary Education). We used the method intercultural school has proportionately the of questionnaires and the individualized same probabilities to enter Tertiary education interviews for cases that diverged from with a student of Greek citizenship. But the sample. Besides, we looked for the researches indicate that despite this theoretical percentage of Albanian immigrants in placement, in practice, in professional training Universities and Technological institutions5 there is a multitude of immigrant students in and we categorized them based on the sex contrast to the general senior high schools and faculty so that, through the Case where the number of immigrants attending Study of the particular parts, we analyze them is limited. the immigrants’ choices and reinforce the It is remarkable that in Primary speculations of our research. The Albanian education, according to a research by Ath. immigrants children show a special Gotovos and G. Markou,3 there are many interest because a large percentage, as we foreign students (8,6%) whereas this will analyze afterwards, of the immigrant percentage is dramatically decrease in the children choosing the General Senior junior high school (6,9%) and the senior High School finally manage to enter high school (3,2%). Tertiary education. This is a phenomenon going through Signifi cant research studies about the the time4 and we reach the conclusion that immigrants have been made in Greece school drop-out, especially by the weak throughout the past years. However, students is a consolidated tactics given the the phenomenon of lack of statistics fact that they are boosted to search for a job is a crucial problem since the study of or they thoughtlessly follow their parents’ the groups is particularly diffi cult. The profession. It is often the result of the immigrant population does not comprise teachers’ behavior usually using stereotype a homogenous corpus and there are no characterizations and humiliating comments. figures about the accurate number of They do not offer any assistance and immigrants in Greece, since many of them encourage them to drop out school, because entered the country without the necessary they stereotypically believe that the students documents (Emke – Poulopoulou, 2007: of the particular group have no chance to 40-41). successfully continue the learning procedure We studied 80 immigrants and (Evangelou & Kantzou, 2005: 37-39). through semi-constructed questionnaires and interviews we looked for their family 3. Research data background, their educational capital, their labor and family status. Our sample 3.1 Selection of sample consists of 28 women and 52 men, In our research we concentrated on between 18 and 24 years old attending immigrant students having attended Upper educational institutions. the General Senior High School

3 A. Gotovos & G. Markou (2003). “Repatriated and foreign students in Greek education” Volume A’, General description. Athens: Institute of Homogenous and Intercultural Education. 4 Indicatively: Nikolaou G. (2000), Incorporation and education of foreign students in Elementary School, Athens: Ellinika Grammata 5 We should thank the President and the Administration staff of the Technological Educational Institution of Kalamata for the provision of the results. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 27 

3.2 The impact of family of the choice of Statistics analysis professio Throughout the whole sample, Out of the sum of the sample and as parents have particular professions in it has derived from the questionnaires, Greece even if they have attended Tertiary apart from the sex we categorized education back in their country. Men the sample according to their studies. engage themselves with professions Thus, we distinguished the faculties of “building” whereas women in their of Tertiary education in upper and majority work as household assistants, technological educational institutions. The nurses or deal with their own household. categorization of faculties of the above Previous researches6 have dealt with mentioned institutions was realized on the issues of immigrant education in their basis of the mode of fi lling the application country and from these it comes out that form with the relevant faculties that the over 15% of the immigrants working in students state when they fill in their professions of the primary production preferences for faculties to enter Tertiary have a degree in Tertiary education. education after the fi nal exams and they Therefore, the data analysis makes us are separated into fi ve fi elds. observe the more general tendency of In particular, the fi rst fi eld (scientifi c males towards technological professions field of humanistic, legal and social where the professional settling down sciences) includes university faculties seems to be faster. On the very opposite, such as Foreign Language and Literature females prefer humanistic professions faculties, Greek Philology, Law School, consistent with the perception about the Psychology, Sociology and Music. It also woman’s position in the Albanian family.6 includes faculties of the technological Women basically prefer professions such educational institutions such as Library as nursery, primary or high school teacher, science, Social work and psychologist, lawyer, baby nurse, speech Baby nursing. The second scientifi c fi eld therapist consistent with the mother ( scientifi c fi eld of exact sciences) includes role model. It is believed that they can university studies such as Mathematics, be combined to the family and help the Physics, Chemistry, Informatics, Biology development and growing up of children.7 as well as technological educational

6 Gretta, 21 years old, student of Philology:” the choice of my profession is partially conscious […]. The family played a signifi cant role […] I am a woman […] I could not choose a “male” profession […] and I think about the family, I should be a very good role model for my children”. Elton, 19 years old, student of informatics at a technological institution: “I have engaged myself in computers since an early age because I liked them […] My parents supported my choice because they believe that I will easily fi nd a job […] I always liked to deal with works done with hands just like my father […] I would not like my wife to do the same job […] there are professions that suit men more”. Eddy, 23 years old, student of a university faculty of economics: “I found it diffi cult to enter my faculty […] I do not really like it but I believe that it will suit me […] my parents wanted that very much […]I preferred the philological subjects”. 7 Gretta, 21 years old, student of Philology: “my profession will assist me in making my own family […] I am going to have free time in the afternoons […] I will be able to help my children study […] it is not sure if my husband will have the time to engage himself ”. Elton, 19 years old, student of informatics at a technological institution: “I would like my wife to engage herself with the children […] if she asked me, I would advise her to become a nursery school or an elementary school teacher […] these professions suit a woman […] I could never exercise such a profession. 28  The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession institutions with faculties such as Vegetable It is remarkable that the percentages of and Animal Production, Fish science entering the two other scientific fields and Greenhouse cultivations. The third (those of health and technological sciences) scientific field (scientific field of health were zero. sciences) includes faculties of Medical Our next step was to examine the sciences, Pharmaceuticals and Biology. choices made by men having entered the The technological institutions of this fi eld Upper Tertiary Education. The results deal with paramedical professions such as showed that 10% (2 men) decided to Dietology, Speech Therapy, Obstetrics, attend faculties with scientific fields of Aesthetics and Nursing. The fourth scientifi c humanistic, legal and social sciences. field (scientific field of technological Also, another 10% of men preferred the sciences) includes faculties related to scientifi c fi eld of exact sciences whereas Informatics, Technology, Mechanics and 20% chose the scientifi c fi eld of economics Applied Sciences as well as Architecture. and administration. The rest 60% (12 men) In terms of a technological institution level preferred the scientifi c fi eld of technological there are faculties such as Electronics, Ship sciences with a zero percentage of those building, Automation and Construction following the scientific field of health Works. In the fi fth scientifi c fi eld (sciences sciences. At this point, we observe that the of economics and administration) there are fi eld of technological sciences, which had a departments of Marketing, International zero percentage among women, is the top and European Relationships, Accounting, preference among the majority of the men Economics and Administration. Within the of the sample. On the other hand, the fi eld technological institutions we fi nd the same of health sciences presents a zero percentage faculties under a different framework of in both categories. institutionalized professional rights. After that, we examined the percentages Our sample includes 50 men and 30 of women that entered Technological women. 20 men out of 50 (a percentage of Educational Institutions and the 5 scientifi c 40%) attend Upper Educational Institutions fi elds. The research showed that out of whereas 30 of them (a percentage of 60%) the total of 10 women of this category 7 have entered Technological Educational of them (a percentage of 70%) entered Institutions. 18 women of the sample (a faculties of the scientifi c fi eld of health percentage of 60%) have entered Upper sciences, only 1 of them (a percentage 10%) Educational Institutions (U.E.I.) and 30% chose the scientifi c fi eld of economic and of them (12 women) attend Technological administration whereas the remaining 2 Educational Institutions. ones (a percentage of 20%) preferred the Following this general distinction, we scientifi c fi eld of technological sciences. No proceeded to the students ranking according woman of the sample preferred the other to the scientifi c fi eld in which their faculties two scientifi c fi elds (those of exact sciences belong. The results of the research showed and humanistic, legal and social sciences). that the 14 out of the 20 women that have We correspondingly examined the men entered U.E.I. (a percentage of 70%) chose entrance percentages into technological the scientifi c fi elds of humanistic, legal and educational institutions. Three men out of social sciences, 2 out of 20 (a percentage 30 of this category in total (a percentage of 10%) chose the scientifi c fi eld of exact of 10%) preferred the scientifi c fi eld of sciences and the remaining 4 (a percentage exact sciences, 6 of them (a percentage of of 20%) preferred the scientifi c fi eld of 20%) chose the scientifi c fi eld of health economics and administration sciences. sciences, the remaining 20% entered Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 29  faculties of the scientifi c fi eld of economics General Senior High School is considered and administration whereas 50% preferred to be the school of the native population. schools of the scientifi c fi eld of technological Thus, one more distinction line within sciences. A zero percentage regarding education is formed, with studies of two entrance in faculties of the scientifi c fi eld different velocities for both the greatest of humanistic, legal and social sciences was number of natives and the greatest presented, a phenomenon which was also number of immigrants. noticed in the women category. The issue of choices, as far as studies are concerned, seems to reproduce the Conclusions traditional stereotypes in terms of sex; these stereotypes are reproduced within In our research, we found out that the Albanian family and are related, it is diffi cult for both male and female in a broader sense, to the structures immigrant students to justify their and functions of the Greek culture. professional choices. It perhaps seems In particular, the issue of professional as a resistance against a system that occupation of women in sectors of services indirectly suppresses them on the basis under a clerk - relationship, discourages that legislation does not address them the Albanian family to choose those studies as equal citizens as it does with the that would jeopardize the professional natives. The acquired higher educational roles of their children. When choosing level, especially, makes them realize to a professional roles, studies that guide the greater degree the forms of inequality professional settlement in relation to the and the limited functions of the welfare public sector are excluded for both sexes. state which seems to press heavily on At the same time, and always in relation their dreams and expectations within the to the sex, studies which do not go with Greek society. The fact that they are also the reproduced role models in relation to affected by their families to undertake their role are excluded for women. professional roles makes them connect At this point, we would like to education to profession. This issue is comment that even if there are stereotypes connected to the necessity of reinforcing within the Albanian immigrant community their immigrant family as well as their regarding the sex, in Greece they are simultaneous acceptance, through labor, reinforced within a Greek society which, by the Greek society. even though it tries to present a model of It is not at all accidental that the a modern society attuned to the Western immigrants choose vocational schools culture, to the European and International and especially those immigrants that come policy of rights, reproduces inequalities from a family with a low educational within its structures, both in terms of sex capital. The choice of the vocational and of the “others”, the immigrants. school expresses, as it happens in the It is important to notice that in the Greek family as well, the limited goals vocational schools of Secondary education within a school of limited demands with a notion has been formed in which the a simultaneous learning of an art which vocational school is regarded as a school facilitates the immediate access into the for native failures where the Greeks labor market, since technical works are attending them come from lower social considered to be linked to a limited range classes and lower educational capital. of knowledge but, on the contrary, they Correspondingly, for the largest number need an increased number of skills. The of immigrants the vocational school 30  The albanian students’ stances & perceptions regarding the choice of profession is their school; they feel different and education with vocational education and get socialized within the environment labor market. of peer immigrants. For those people, To top it all, a point that we should their success in the examination for the highlight is that the policy of rights both Tertiary education and their entrance towards the immigrants and the equality into an upper technological institution in terms of sex should be reinforced is considered a success and changes, because it has not been fruitful. Moreover, theoretically, the immigrant status of the an issue of democracy is under question family through the capacity of the student since citizens are addressed under different in the upper technological education. The criteria and the experienced forms of education model in Secondary education, discriminations that penetrate the social, even if it is not chosen by the natives, in economic and political environments, combination to their entrance in Tertiary defi ne the individual’s life by limiting vocational education is the typical way his / her right in self-realization and the for the immigrants to combine upper projection of preferences and desires.

REFERENCES Γκόβαρης, Χ.(2001). Εισαγωγή στην Εκπαίδευση: το νέο περιβάλλον. Βασικές Διαπολιτισμική Εκπαίδευση. Αθήνα: αρχές. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα Ατραπός Έμκε - Πουλοπούλου, Η. (2007). Η Γκότοβος, Α.(2002). Εκπαίδευση και μεταναστευτική πρόκληση. Αθήνα: ετερότητα. Αθήνα: Μεταίχμιο Παπαζήσης Ζάχου, Χ. & Καλεράντε, Ε. (2010), Ευαγγέλου.- Κάντζου, Ν. (2005). «Διαγενεακές Απεικονίσεις της Πολυπολιτισμικότητα και εκπαιδευτικός Αλβανίδας Μετανάστριας : Μια ρατσισμός. Αθήνα: Δίπτυχο Φαινομενολογική Προσέγγιση», στο: Ευαγγέλου, Ο. (2007). Διαπολιτισμικά Αναλυτικά Τσιμπιρίδου, Φ. (επιμ.) Mειονοτικές και Προγράμματα. Αθήνα: Τυπωθήτω Μεταναστευτικές Εμπειρίες: Βιώνοντας Ζωγράφου, Α. (2003).Διαπολιτισμική Αγωγή την «Κουλτούρα του Κράτους», Σειρά στην Ευρώπη και την Ελλάδα. Αθήνα: ΚΕΜΟ, Αθήνα: Κριτική, 193-227. Τυπωθήτω Ζάχου, Χ. & Καλεράντε, Ε. (2010), «Οι Παλαιολόγου, Ν. & Ευαγγέλου, Ο. Αλβανικοί Σύλλογοι στην Ελλάδα: (2003). Διαπολιτισμική Παιδαγωγική: Εθνοτικές Ταυτίσεις και Κοινωνικο- Εκπαιδευτικές, Διδακτικές και Ψυχολογικές πολιτισμικοί Μετασχηματισμοί», στο Προσεγγίσεις. Αθήνα: Ατραπός Παύλου, Μ. Και Σκουλαρίκη, Α. (επιμ.) Κυρίδης, Α. & Ανδρέου, Α. [επιμ.] (2005). Μετανάστες και Μειονότητες: Λόγος Όψεις της ετερότητας. Αθήνα: και Πολιτική, Σειρά ΚΕΜΟ, Αθήνα: GUTENBERG Βιβλιόραμα, 457-493. Παύλου, Μ. & Χριστόπουλος, Δ. [επιμ.] Κανακίδου,Ε. & Παπαγιάννη,Β.(1998). (2004). Η Ελλάδα της μετανάστευσης: Διαπολιτισμική Αγωγή. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Κοινωνική συμμετοχή, δικαιώματα και Γράμματα ιδιότητα του πολίτη. Αθήνα: Κριτική Νικολάου, Γ.(2000). Ένταξη και εκπαίδευση Γκόβαρης, Χ. & Θεοδωροπούλου, Ε. & των αλλοδαπών μαθητών στο Δημοτικό Κοντάκος, Α. (2007). Η παιδαγωγική Σχολείο. Αθήνα : Ελληνικά Γράμματα πρόκληση της πολυπολιτισμικότητας. Νικολάου, Γ.(2005). Διαπολιτισμική Ζητήματα θεωρίας και πράξης της Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 31 

Διαπολιτισμικής Παιδαγωγικής. Αθήνα: Έμκε- Πουλοπούλου, Η.(1999). Έλληνες Ατραπός ηλικιωμένοι πολίτες, παρελθόν, παρόν Κασσωτάκης, Μ. [επιμ.] (2003). Συμβουλευτική και μέλλον. Αθήνα: Έλλην και επαγγελματικός προσανατολισμός. Πετρινιώτη, Ξ. (1993). Η μετανάστευση προς Αθήνα: Τυπωθήτω την Ελλάδα. Αθήνα: Οδυσσέας Αμίτσης, Γ. & Λαζαρίδη, Γ. [επιμ.] (2001α). Συμεωνίδου, Χ. (2006). Οικογένεια και Νομικές και κοινωνικοπολιτικές γονιμότητα στην Ελλάδα. Αθήνα- διαστάσεις της μετανάστευσης στην Κομοτηνή: Α. Σάκκουλας. Ελλάδα. Αθήνα: Παπαζήσης Συμεωνίδου, Χ. & Μαγδαληνός, Μ. (2005). Anthias F. (1995). «Έθνος , γυναίκα και Πολιτικές για την οικογένεια στις χώρες ρατσισμός» στο: Εθνικισμός, Ρατσισμός, της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης. Αθήνα- Κοινωνικό Φύλο. Θεσσαλονίκη: Κομοτηνή: Σάκκουλας Παρατηρητής Φραγκουδάκη, Α. (1998). «Ρατσισμός Θεοδωρόπουλος Χ. & Συκιώτου, Α. [επιμ.] και εκπαίδευση» στο: Μετανάστες, (1994). Τα δικαιώματα των μεταναστών Ρατσισμός και Ξενοφοβία. Αθήνα: εργατών. Αθήνα: Εστία Σάκκουλας.

PSYCHOLOGY SERVICE EFFICIENCY IN EDUCATING CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Edo SHERIFI - University of Tirana Department of Psychology & Pedagogy E- mail: edo_sherifi @yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION

This paper treats the functional necessity of the psychologist profession as a potential factor in reducing stress and depression levels which lead to aggressive behavior in people and induce social confl icts. This paper provides the fi rst steps of school psychology service operation in the world and in Albania. In particular, it examines the role and effi ciency of school psychologist as a monitoring and manager of problematic behaviors of children and adolescents at school. The study underlines the need of psychological services in social institutions. It emphasizes the idea that the effi ciency of psychological services will improve if the decision-making bodies shall take the legislative initiative, completed by the bylaws, for the approval of the “Psychologist’s Legal Status”, as the profession is more than necessary in a democratic society. The research conducted on “School Psychology Service” in such schools as “Sami Frashëri”, “Petro Nini”, “Asim Vokshi”, “Osman Myderizi”, and “Sabaudin Gabrani”, became a motive for initiating this paper. This work defi nes the thought that it is time that the school psychology service was institutionalized as a permanent occupation, as an integral part of the organigram of the teaching staff in all schools in the country, both in urban and rural areas. The effi ciency of psychological assistance is also refl ected in the collaboration of the academic staff, parents, school administration, student’s senate, business community and adolescents themselves with the school psychologist. Harmonization of these factors has positively infl uenced the improvement of educational instruction indicators of these schools. The effi ciency of psychological service in these schools is also observed in the reduction of bulling cases against children and adolescents at schools. The paper also examines the following issue: Why has psychological service not found the necessary extension in all the public and private institutions? Keywords: education, psychological service, collaboration, bowling, effective, behaviors.

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 33-42 34  Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents

I. Beginnings of school psychology and Science, through a two-year pilot service in the world. Emergence and project, applied psychology service at the extension of psychological service in compulsory and pre-university education. the Albanian reality In some institutions of Tirana the fi rst 140 psychologists have been appointed. School psychology service has Without doubt, this is a limited number its origins in the late 19th and early compared to the needs of society, but it 20th century. In 1892, Witmer opened deserves praise as it is in its early steps. the first psychological clinic for the children. Psychology knowledge was Psychologist as a profession attempted to be used for the fi rst time for a practical application in the treatment of Another major problem to be educational problems. In the 20th century, examined is the fact that the profession Educational Psychology was represented of psychologist is not yet considered as a by a group of authors, among whom Lev specialized profession. The psychologist, Vigotski, who published his masterpiece as a professional, can treat and help “Thought and Speech” and was praised people with behavioral and cognition by his contemporaries as the “Mozart disorders. He/she is professionally capable of Educational Psychology.” J. Brunner, to make persons with problems adapt published his “Education Process” which to memory, thoughts, emotional and emphasizes the idea that “In order to learn personal problems. He/she can guide and acquire you should conceptualize, clients towards communication and social categorize”, etc. interaction and achieve the phenomenon In Albania, the Faculty of Social of social facilitation. To make state Sciences of the University of Tirana was institutions and public opinion aware of established in 1992 upon decision of the necessity of psychological services the Ministry of Education and Science. in social life, the press and electronic In 1995 the branch of Psychology was media play a crucial role. The association established in this Faculty. From that of psychologists for the operation and moment up to September 2010, 1202 assurance of the psychologist’s legal students were registered, part-time system status, should undertake the necessary and master and doctorate programs legal initiatives to collaborate with line excluded. The fi gures are even higher as the ministries, the Faculty of Social Sciences branch of psychology is being developed and other decision-making institutions. in other public and private universities. But the psychologist has a duty to The academic staff of the psychology enhance professional performance in branch at the Faculty of Social Sciences social life. Professionally he can become is qualified or graduated in the most a psychological support to calm troubled prestigious universities of the world. souls and troubled minds. It is necessary Over the years, the branch of psychology that even the community accepts the and its sub-branches are gradually being psychologist’s role as promoter of a social performed. The curricula, textbooks and climate which is not stressful and which lectures have been updated and the most does not cause confl ict, because it often modern methods are applied in teaching. stigmatizes his role and contribution to In 2004, the Ministry of Education society. The psychologists’ army, which

* Note: Jerome Bruner: «Procesi of education».(I960).Harvard.University Press. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 35  is increasing every year, should always that he cooperates with head-teachers, promote the ever-increasing professional to reassess the relationships between values to be “imposed” to the social teachers and diffi cult students. A school community with a high professional psychologist by recognizing psychosocial performance and polite service. characteristics of students offers to teachers Performance of its multi dimensional a new vision for treating adolescents as personality would increase the impact of collaborators and partners in educational the psychological service at community activities in and out of school. He should level. Psychology service in government collaborate with different teachers to institutions requires more recognition by minimize conflict within the class by the decision-making bodies to accept its managing with his expertise the social necessity and extension in the entire life climate deterioration in the learning of the country. I emphasize this, because process. School psychologists, in their it is time to alter the public psychology counseling sessions with adolescents service into a private one in order to be with problematic behavior, should help consolidated as a crucial service to the teenagers to discharge negative emotions individual’s mental health. Let this be the by freeing them from their stressful appeal of a psychologist to all public and emotional condition. Cooperation with private stakeholders that the psychological parents is a school counselor dimension of service in our country be given the role his profession. It is his duty to contribute that the societies with higher standards of in enhancing the role of parents and all civilization and social culture have given community stakeholders to support the to it. These requirements make psychology school community. Collaboration with the service a necessity in the entire life of student’s senate to protect their rights is Albania. another direction of the work of school psychologists. The Role of the School Psychologist Role harmonization of the above factors by the school psychologist will School as the temple of knowledge is strengthen relations between them and will included in a thorough process for a more enhance the school educational process comprehensive reformation of unified effi ciency. This process is organized in teaching standards with the education accordance with the cognitive level of system of the European knowledge society. students, from pre-school to the higher Traditional teaching has been teacher- levels of the education system. Western centered, it is now more and more being experiences show that in a school with replaced by interactive teaching, which about 2000 students, it is more than is student-centered, by using teaching necessary to have a functional group methods and activities that encourage of psychologists (social psychologist, learning and develop critical thinking counseling psychologist and school and by involving high levels of cognitive psychologist). School psychology service processes. In this comprehensive reform is necessary not only for the management process, the school psychologist is of a of students’ psychosocial problems primary role. It is his duty to cooperate but also for the creation of a social with the School Directorate to build up climate of cooperation between students, strategies of socio-educational programs teaching staff and school community in order to minimize the problematic support. A psychologist is necessary not behaviors of students. It is necessary only to help teens recover from their 36  Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents

Cooperation of stakeholders with the school psychology service to support education of adolescents problematic behaviors, but also to shape Problematic behaviors of teenagers in their individuality and orientate them with some of the Albania’s capital schools were regards to the profession or career choice. among those important motives which The psychologist enables this mission inspired this study. As a result of failures based on a test of students’ psychological in school expectations, of experimentation skills. The psychology service may and with drugs, tobacco and alcohol, of feeling should function in the entire educational depressed; of demotivation to study, of lack system, and should be extended in other of awareness of their skills, of coping with areas in addition to the urban ones. relationship problems with friends, concerns Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 37  about their sexuality, confl ict relationships Frashëri”, “Petro Nini” and “Asim Vokshi”, with teachers, aggravated family relations, and two 9-year schools: “Osman Myderizi”, poor time management, anxiety, stress, and “Sabaudin Gabrani”. Through these depression, sorrow for social and family questionnaires addressed to the pupils and reasons such as parents’ divorce or loss of teenagers of these schools, it was possible close family relatives – all this wide range to gather fi rst hand and very interesting of teenagers problematic behaviors needs information for the position of school treatment from an expert in this fi eld that psychologist and his/her tasks. Analysis is the school psychologist. It is of interest of such collected information shows to know the techniques and therapies some achievements as well as a range of used by school psychologists to facilitate problems to be solved raised by the school development processes that characterize psychology service in Albanian schools. teenagers by assisting his maturity and The questionnaire addressed to the school overcoming the social crisis to be self- psychologists consisted of 20 questions fulfi lled. It is important that the school and aimed at getting a direct view of these psychologist arranges psychological service psychology service specialists with regards based on individual documentation for any to their role in the school community, the teenager whom he/she advises. Counseling techniques they use to assess students’ sessions should not be spontaneous but academic skills, behavioral problems of organized and displayed in special “Files” teenagers at school, the psychologist’s per each client as well as in individual relationship with the staff, the department, folders. Empathy and confi dentiality are parents and school senate. Semi-structured two principles that are respected within interviews were applied to the teachers the professional psychologist status. For of these schools, parents of pupils and the purposes of this study, information was adolescents from 14 to18 years old. They gathered from several instruments such as: brought their real experiences with regards 500 questionnaires addressed to teenagers to cooperation with the school psychologist in 3 high schools in Tirana, namely “Sami by pointing out the motivational role of the

The role of school psychologist as a coordinator of social relations at school 38  Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents

The role of school psychology service to facilitate the learning process and achieve defi ned expectations psychologist in many diffi cult and stressful in collaboration with teenagers. They situations for adolescents in the educational ignore their relations and cooperation process. between them and psychologists aiming At the same time students are critic only complete dependency from school about the prejudiced attitudes of some directorates without any partnership teachers with regards to their school between them. psychology service. In their interviews, The routine work of school parents have given different opinions. psychologists is: counseling, psycho- The answers are pro and against the role educational assessment, psychological of psychologist to support establishing assistance and social assistance, and the identity of adolescents and minimize individual counseling. All information behavioral problems. Whereas in their sources are permeated by a positive message interviews, teachers show some doses of that psychology service (in chosen schools) nihilism and skepticism about the role of is integrated every year into the school school psychologists as counselors not community as one of the factors that only to teenagers but also to the staff motivate adolescents to have a positive regarding specifi c professional techniques attitude about teaching. An important used in relationships with adolescents. In task of school psychologists is to design their interviews, representatives of school tests for assessing the teaching load, directorates unanimously accept the their relationships with each other, with positive infl uence of the psychology service their teachers and their parents. Another in minimizing problematic behaviors important task of school psychologists of teenagers and therefore encouraging is the development of tests to assess the and motivating them to achieve higher orientation of graduates in choosing academic results. However, in their a future profession according to their interviews they have a tendency to limit psycho-social abilities. A new concern in the psychologist’s role at school only schools is bulling. Bulling (behaving like Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 39 

Prejudice hinders the professional work of psychologists and weakens their relationship with teenagers the strongest one) affects students’ sense character. Bulling is now known to have of security. Bulling is very widespread and long-term detrimental effects to the victim, perhaps the less reported security problem but also to the perpetrator. Bulling is often at schools. Contrary to the popular belief, misunderstood as a narrow range of tacit bulling occurs more often in school antisocial behaviors which has conquered premises than on the way to school or the elementary school yards. Bulling can even outside it. Bulling was thought of happen in every class, from the fi rst to as a harmless behavior that affects youth’s the ninth grade. It is a fact that police

The impact of school psychologists in bulling cases at schools 40  Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents have taken more responsibility for the development, etc; periodically assess security of students by even helping achievements in the educational process, school directors, but this does not happen training of children through self-service in every school. Normal functioning programs and activities to integrate them of psychology service at schools and and records them in his fi le; at the end of strengthening cooperation with supportive each year assesses progress in: behavior, stakeholders of students and teenagers, it is autonomy, motority, orientation in what minimizes bulling cases. space and time, sensitive development, speech and communication, learning, Effi ciency of psychosocial service in activities in workshops and personality social care institutions development trends and records them in his fi le; intervenes in special psychic The psychologist is the main fi gure cases of children and determines causes that determines the intelligence level of and methods of treatment; based on his the mental age of disabled persons. It assessments the psychologist determines assesses the mental development level the degree of development of the child of children with respect to the fine and the real possibility to be integrated global motoric, emotional and clinical and designs complementary social service status of the child, language, behavior, programs for his future rehabilitation; senses, and data on height, weight, assesses in particular children with neurological and neuro-motoric situation. disabilities when they start to become The psychologist plays a key role in aware of notions of life, death, and time defi ning and implementing its program so that they may start analyzing and for the child’s mental development: judging activities; determines rules and comprehension, concentration, emotional relationships for the care center staff, level, expressive skills, reasoning and child, parent, and community. judgment level. Furthermore, in cooperation with the social worker, Why has the psychology service not therapists, physiotherapist, orthophonist found the necessary support and and care-takers, he/she defines and extension? The importance of a designs development programs for the multidisciplinary team PAK rehabilitation. The psychologist lays down the load a client can handle It might be the lack of the necessary in various disciplines and activities to be psychological culture. Perhaps for conducted in accordance with his mental tradition’s sake, the psychological service level development; determines therapeutic is delivered as an addendum to other sessions, psycho-motor training, or professions, and therefore it is offered by programs for assimilation of pre-initial everybody and by nobody. It happens often elements in order to achieve autonomy that people who lack the right information and self-service. In cooperation with identify the psychology service with the other experts, the psychologist suggests psychiatry service. Indeed, these two types methods and equipments that will be of services serve to the individual’s mental used and also integrated activities that health, but they are not the same thing. will be performed; prepares a progress Each of them is a separate profession. fi le for each child covering the emotional As far as mental health treatment is situation of the child, social behavior, concerned, syllogistic teams should be language, communication, sensory established in order to perform a specifi c Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 41  professional assistance for each profession.  Operation of the psychology service in Clinic psychologists assess emotional these schools motivates students and and mental problems. They treat clients teenagers to have a positive attitude who have behavioral disorders by using towards teaching and a cooperative psychological techniques and therapy. A relation with all stakeholders who psychologist’s instrument is language. achieve high academic expectations. Whereas, psychiatrists are medical doctors  This paper defi nes the belief that the specialized in the treatment of neuro- time has come for the school psychology physiological disorders! As such, in order service to be institutionalized as a to cure a patient’s mental health, they turn permanent occupation, as part of the to drug use. Coordination of activities organigram of pedagogic personnel among psychologists and psychiatrists is and to be integrated in all schools at the best method to achieve success. At the national level. psychiatric hospital, we learned that there  Effi ciency of psychological support is are about ten years that the full operation also refl ected in the collaboration of of a multidisciplinary team consisting of academic staff, parents’ community, a psychiatrist, clinic psychologist, social school administration, student’s senate, worker and nurse, is required. But still business community and adolescents there is no definitive solution for all themselves with the psychologist. hospitals. Psychiatrists should also handle  Effi ciency of the psychology service is the clinic psychologist’s role and the social also noted in the reduction of bulling worker’s role. Therefore, the psychiatric cases against children and adolescents service cannot achieve proper results to at schools. improve mental health of the client. Such clinics may serve to manage problematic Recommendations behaviors of persons who are stressed or who stress other people, friends and  The profession of a psychologist should relatives, in order to minimize family and function as a specialized occupation. social confl icts. Decision-making institutions need to adopt the “Psychologist’s Legal Status”; Conclusions  In terms of social state, psychology service deserves the support of state  Application of psychology service structures for its expansion from every in several education institutions in neighborhood clinic ward in cities to Tirana constitutes an innovation for higher institutions, alternated even education at national level. It marks with licensed private clinics; another step forward in our education  Psychology service in all social, system’s approach to the European health and education institutions is a system of knowledge society. necessity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Berliner, D. (2006). Educational psychology: Bruner: Jerome: «Procesi of Education». (I960). Handbook of Educational Psychology Harvard. Universty. Press.” Benjamin, Ludy (2005). “Annual Review of linial Carl. Gustav. Jung. (2004.) “Fan Noli”. Psychology”. (Psikologjia e se pavetedijshmes). 42  Psychology service effi ciency in educating children and adolescents

Carl. G. Jung. (2007.) “Fan Noli”. “The (1996.) “Psikologjia” Development of Personality” Seligman “M. Rashid. T. & Parks, A. (2006). Charles G. Morris, Albert. A. Maisto. (2008.) “Positive Psychotherapy”. “Psychology” Sulstarova Anila. Viti i botimit (2004) “Teoritë Davide. Funder. (2007). “The Personality of e Personalitetit (Dispensë)”. Puzzle”. Jex, S. M., & Britt, T. W. (2008). Organizational Musai. B. (DE) 1999 “Psikologjia e Edukimit”. Psychology. Hoboke, Neè Jersey: John “Zhvillimi, të nxënët, mësimdhënia” Wiley & Sons, In. Orhani Zenel. Shtëpia botuese “Pegi” (2005.) Zimmerman, B. J., & Shunk, D. H. (Eds.) “Psikologjia konjitive” (2003). Eduational psychology: A century Rapti. E: (2005) “Pegi” “Psikologjia Shkollore”. of contributions. Mahwah, NJ, US: Pettijohn. F. Terr; Shtëpia e botimit; “LILO” Erlbaumb. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 43 

CORRUPTION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: ALBANIA AND EU-27

Eglantina HYSA - Epoka University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

After 1990, Albania has passed from a centralized economy to a liberal one. Liberalization has brought both positive and negative effects to the politics, economy and other social aspects. There are two main components that measure a country’s progress toward success. Firstly, the economic growth is the most used and discussed indicator of the progress. During the last two decades the economists have been more interested in the economic development, consisting of the aggregate of health, education level and income rather than economic growth. Secondly, the corruption level is found to be a signifi cant component of progress. Different researches have founded out a negative relationship between corruption level and countries’ progress. This study focuses on the relationship between corruption level and human development. The calculations are performed for both, Albania and European Union member countries, and a comparison of the degree of this relationship will take place. The analysis is extended in the regression of corruption level and the components of human development such as health, education and income by using the data for years 2002-2010. The main result of this study is that the relationship between corruption and human development is found to be much stronger in the Albanian case than in the EU countries. Keywords: corruption level, human development, quality of life, regression analysis

“[Corruption is] the gangrene of democracy, the AIDS of democracy. (Miguel Angel Burreli Rivas, Foreign Minister of Venezuela)

“Economic development is sustainable if, relative to its population, a society’s productive base does not shrink.” (Dasgupta, P. 2008)

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 43-51 44  Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27

I. Introduction is face to face with this evident problem. Even if Albania has more than 20 years in Albania, located in Western Balkan, democracy, this country is still suffering near Euro area, is a country in transition. In from this disease. According to Corruption 1990, with the fall of communist system the Perception Index (CPI), assumed to be the economic structure passed from a centralized most objective measurement of corruption, economy to a liberal one. The generation of in year 2010, Albania is ranked in the 87th a high infl ation rate parallel to the price and place in a list of 178 countries. trade liberalization seeks out macroeconomics In order to test the relationship between stabilization. But macroeconomic stabilization corruption and human development, is not the only requirement for the economic corruption perception index3 and three trend of a country. components of HDI are used. Since some Today’s “the trendiest objective”1 of a of the components are found to have strong country, such as Albania, is to follow the correlation between each other, the regression trends of a “successful group of countries”,2 analysis is concentrated in the relationship such as European Union. This trend does not of CPI and HDI (the aggregate of life have to do with just the economic growth expectancy index, educational index and but also with the development of the country income index). This study uses data during itself, because the hidden pillar of economic 2002-2010 period for both Albania and growth is certainly the development of that European Union countries for the regression country, components of which are health, analysis since for the case of Albania the CPI education and living standards. data of previous years are not available. “Integration should promote The theoretical framework of the human convergence among participating countries development and corruption relationship will independent of their income level (developed take place in the second part of the study. The or developing countries). The same idea third part will focus on the regression analysis is also supported for the discussion of of this relationship and the comparison of international (to create an integrated national Albanian performance toward the European economy), multinational (to create an Union members’ performance. To sum up, integrated regional economy) or worldwide a short conclusion will take place. integration (to create an integrated world).” (Machlup F. 1976, p.74). II. Human Development and Apart from the target of high developed Corruption Relationship economy, countries have to combat with difficult issues such as corruption. Corruption is generally defi ned as the Corruption is called a diffi cult issue to deal abuse of political offi ce or public position with since it has to do with all the society of trust for private gain, is not unique to levels. A country which has changed its modern systems of government (Goldsmith, political system, as in the case of Albania, 1999). A more explicit way of defining

1 The developing countries try to implement in general the systems that the developed countries apply because they struggle in order to reach them and as EU is thought to be successful group of countries, the other countries try to follow its way without taking into account the country specifi c conditions or without being critical to any EU policy. 2 Generally the success of EU is taken for grand but not later than the fi nancial crisis of 2008 showed that some of EU countries were in trouble. 3 This study has used CPI since this index has had larger attention and infl uence comparing to the other corruption indexes. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 45  corruption is the corruption pyramid which There are different methods and has been designed by Sanjeev Sabhlog, in sources calculating the corruption index 2009in his book titled “Breaking free of such as: the Corruption Perception Nehru”. He divides the corruption in three Index (CPI) calculated by Transparency categories; visible corruption, hidden deep International (TI), International Country corruption, and hidden policy corruption. Risk Guide’s (ICRG) corruption index calculated by Political Risk Services (PRS), Figure 1: Corruption pyramid and the corruption index that is constructed by Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (2003). In this study, the corruption perception index has been taken into consideration and Visible

corruption Day-to-day has been used to calculate its correlation Transactional Prioritisational to human development. CPI is based on Politicians, senior a “poll of polls,” indicating impressions bureaucrats dipping of business people, the local population of Hidden into public funds. national security risks relevant countries, and risk analysts who deep corruption from corrupt security forces. have been surveyed. CPI is range between 0

Policy negiect by politicians and and 10. A country having 10 as the overall

Hidden bureaucrats as a result of focus on “making money”. evaluation indicates a highly clean country policy corruption and 0 indicates a highly corrupted country. According to this scoring, the higher the Source: “Breaking free of Nehru”, Sabhlog, 2009 CPI (the cleaner the country), the higher the human development index (HDI). Most of the literatures regarding In the late 1980s, the central focus corruption (Akçay, 2006; Blackburn of economists was the income growth. and Sarmah, 2007; Chakraborty, 2003; In the beginning of 1990s, the focus Qizilbash, 2001) have noted that the shifted toward the quality of life and the corruption level has an inverse relationship development strategies were oriented with the human development. According from production to welfare improvement. to Akçay, corruption impedes growth, Seen that Albania is a potential candidate reduces the spending on health and country for EU accession, it is important education. Lower growth means less GDP to analyze the aspects of the relationship per capita, which have negative effects on existing between corruption and human living standards, life expectancy and human development progress. This study will capital accumulation. Both these factors precisely consist on the analysis of the decrease the human development level. correlation between corruption and three

Figure 2: Corruption and Development

Less GDP Low level of Less growth per capita standard of living Low level Corruption Less spending on health Low level of of human life expectancy development Less spending on education Low human capital accumulation Source: “Corruption and Human Development”, Akçay, 2006 46  Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27

Figure 3: Components of Human Development Index

Human Development Index

Health Education Livingstandards Three dimensions

Life expectancyat birth Meanof years schoolingExpectedof yearsschooling Gross incomenationalcapita per Four indicators

Source: HDRO main development indicators such as method of measuring development is health, education and living standards. the combination of indicators such as There are different views that defi ne life expectancy, educational attainment Economic Development. In the World and income into a composite human Development Report, the World Bank development index (HDI). The main presents the economic development as aim of HDI is to combine the social “Development is often taken to mean rising and economic development in a single incomes. A still common view equates statistical data of which 0 indicates the development with growth, though there minimum level and 1 the maximum level. has been a shift in emphasis since the 1970s The concept of development has been to a focus on the distribution of incomes.” widely discussed regarding the focus on just In Human Development Report, the national income or in other social factors United Nations present another alternative such as health, education. “A nation’s view such as “The essence of this view is progress with respect to its material wealth that human development--what people is not independent of its progress in other can actually do and be--is the overriding spheres…economic growth promotes purpose of economic development.” democratic development; education is This study is focused on the analysis good for health; and health is good for of corruption-economic development education” (Fielding D. 2000, p.6) linkage of Albania and the European Union HDI is composed by three members taking as defi nition the second components, Life Expectancy Index, approach of economic development, and Education Attainment Index and Adjusted mostly basing on human development. Income Index. Each of them is computed Human development refers to a according to the general formula: sustainable increase in living standards. It implies increased per capita income, Actual value - Minimum value Index=------i i better education and health as well Maximum valuei - Minimum valuei as environmental protection. There have been different measurements in Where the fixed minimum and order to rank the countries according maximum values have been established to their development level. The last for each of the indicators: Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 47 

 Life expectancy at birth: 25 and 85 adult literacy rate of age 15 and above, years; results to be 99, 1 (UNESCO, 2010).  Adult literacy: 0% and 100%; This shows to be a good indicator when  Combined enrolment ratio: 0% and compared to other countries with the 100%; same income level.  Real GDP per capita (PPP$): PPP$100 The third index, income index, is and PPP$40000. more complex and is based on the utility of income varying elasticity. GDP per Life expectancy index is calculated by capita of year 2008 in US$ is calculated using the direct formula presented above. to be 7.737 (HDRO, 2010). In the Albanian case, the first index is Finally, the HDI is the sum of the founded to be 0.900.4 averages of the three indexes explained The educational attainment index above and Albania is ranked in the 64th is built as a linear combination of adult place from 169 countries with a total of literacy and combined primary, secondary 0.719. and tertiary enrollment ratios with weights 2/3 and 1/3, respectively:

2 1 Educational Attainment = /3 Adult literacy + /3 Combined Enrollement

“[Education] can add to the value III. Regression analysis of production in economy and also to the income of the person who has been As stated in the previous studies, educated. higher levels of corruption are associated But even with the same level of with lower levels of human development, income, a person may benefit from health, education and income. This education – in reading, communicating, study also expects the same relationship arguing, in being able to choose in a between the variables for both Albania more informed way, in being taken more and EU member countries. Table 1 gives seriously by others and so on.”(Sen A. a general idea regarding the correlation 1999, p.294). between Corruption perception index, The Albanian education attainment human development index and other three index is 0.689. However, the Albanian components of HDI. Given the strong education attainment index based only on correlation between all the independent

Tabela 1: Correlation Matrix: Albania and European Union Countries (2002-2010) AL EU-27 CPI LEI EAI AII HDI CPI LEI EAI AII HDI

CPI 1 CPI 1 LEI 0.784829 1 LEI 0.493052 1 EAI 0.818711 0.996041 1 EAI 0.540679 0.995844 1 AII 0.903161 0.966616 0.982758 1 AII 0.842927 0.800796 0.824931 1 HDI 0.846295 0.993547 0.997821 0.988999 1 HDI 0.637922 0.975594 0.982784 0.900496 1

4 Referring the data to the UNDP offi cial website 48  Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27

Figure 4: Scatterplot of HDI and CPI for Albania and EU countries (2002-2010)

Scatterplot of HDI and CPI (Al/EU-27)

EU-27 AL Human Development Index

Corruption Perception Index variables in the Albanian case and also in the At the same time it is of great European Union countries multicollinearity importance the analyses of all the variables’ is of concern. trend which has been drawn in the graphs The scatterplot of human development below. In the Albanian case, the human index and the corruption perception development and all its’ components have index shows briefly the picture of this shown increasing trends except the CPI relationship for years 2002-2010. On the which decreased during 2004-2005 and one hand, Albania is found away from EU 2008-2009. Human development, life countries with respect to this relationship. expectancy and education index have an On the other hand, even if Albanian HDI increasing trend in the European Union and CPI are lower than HDI and CPI of whereas income index has a volatile EU countries; Albania is doing positive trend. From 2007 to 2009 the trend of steps toward the enhancement of these education index has decreased. After indicators. According to these results, 2008 the corruption perception index has we can estimate that if EU is assumed to signifi cantly decreased. stay at the actual position and Albania Next, the research demonstrates the improves with the same rates, Albania will regression equations and the results of need approximately 25 years to reach the this multiple equation. This equation is average of EU member countries in HDI- used for both, Albanian and EU member CPI relationship. countries data. LEI, EAI and AII are

Graph 1: Variables Trend for Albania and EU-27 (2002-2010) Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 49 

expected to be statistically significant high correlation between variables. For and have positive coeffi cients; an increase that, a second equation has been studied. in these independent variables should decrease corruption, and as a consequence CPIi = a0 + a1HDIi + ei (2) increase the CPI. Since HDI is the aggregate of the three

CPIi = a0 + a1LEIi + a2EAIi + a3IIi + ei (1) components used in the fi rst equation, the human development index has been used as This regression tries to explain the an independent variable. HDI is founded to relation between corruption perception be signifi cant for both, Albania and EU and index (CPI) and three independent also the coeffi cient is positive. While in the variables such as life expectancy index Albanian case the model explains around (LEI), education attainment index (EAI) 72%, in the EU case it explains only 41%, and adjusted income index (AII). The which means that human development has fi rst two components are founded to be a higher relationship with corruption level insignifi cant for both AL and EU whereas in Albania compared to the EU member the third component, adjusted income countries. (Appendix-Table3) index is founded to be signifi cant in both The percentage of corruption explained cases and the coeffi cient sign meets our by the human development in Albania expectations indicating a positive sign. is in fact very high in comparison to the (Appendix - Table2) EU member countries, but we have to As shown in the regression equation underline the fact that the data used for above, some of the variables are founded this regression analysis was very limited. to be insignifi cant, probably because of the In a more extending time lag maybe other 50  Corruption and Human Development: Albania and EU-27 results would show up. However, it can be rate stability, currency volatility, etc. said for sure that Albania is too far from This study explored the relationship “its target group countries”, EU countries, between corruption and human based on its low level of the human development in Albania and the group development and high level of corruption. of countries within EU. Research results reveal that there is a statistically signifi cant IV. Summary and Conclusions negative relationship between corruption indexes and human development. Empirical studies have shown that Empirical evidence of the study, comparing corruption is responsible for low economic Albania with the EU member countries, development, discourages investments suggests that more corrupted countries on education and health, triggers high tend to have lower levels of human income inequality and poverty, high child development. In the Albanian case, the and infant mortality rates. In addition, relationship between corruption and corruption is revealed to be an obstacle for human development is found to be much foreign and domestic investment, infl ation stronger than in the EU countries.

Appendix

Table. 2 OLS Regression of Corruption Perception on 3 Components of Human Development Model - AL Model - EU-27

Life Expectancy Index Coeffi cient: 1.0261 -0.4995 P-value: 0.4136 0.2434 (0.89) (-1.32)

Educational Attainment Index Coeffi cient: -12.2079 1.3487 P-value: 0.1253 0.3233 (-1.84) (1.09)

Adjusted Income Index Coeffi cient: 0.0015* 0.0001** P-value: 0.0055 0.0277 (4.67) (3.07)

R2 0.9607 0.8410

F 40.7519 8.8145

N 9 9 Note: *Signifi cant at the 1% level **Signifi cant at the 5% level Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 51 

Table. 3 OLS Regression of Corruption Perception on Human Development Model - AL Model - EU-27

Human Development Index Coeffi cient: 26.6798* 6.5237** P-value: 0.004 0.0645 (4.20) (2.19)

R2 0.7162 0.4069

F 17.6666 4.8033

N 9 9 Note: *Signifi cant at the 5% level **Signifi cant at the 10% level

REFERENCES

Akçay, S. (2006). Corruption and human Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Mastruzzi, M. development. Cato Journal, 26(1), 29–46. (2003). Governance matters III: Governance Blackburn, K. and Sarmah, R. (2007), “Corruption, indicators for 1996-2002. Development and Demography”, Economics Machlup, F. (1976). “A History of Thought on of Governance. Economic Integration”, F. Machlup (ed.) Chakraborty, Lekha S. (2003). “Public Economic Integration Worldwide, Regional, Expenditure and Human Development: Sectoral, The MacMillan Press Lmt., pp.74. An Empirical Investigation,” Paper prepared Qizilbash, M. (2001). Vague Language and for the Wider International Conference on Precise Measurements: The Case of Poverty, Inequality, Poverty and Human Well-Being, Discussion Paper No. 20001-5, School of Helsinki, May 30-31. Economic and Social Studies, University of Dasgupta, P. (2008). Nature in Economics. East Anglia, UK. Environmental and Resource Economics Sabhlok, S. (2008). Breaking Free of Nehru, 39:1-7 Anthem Press. Fielding, D. (2002). Health and Wealth: A Sen, Amartya K. (1999). Development As Freedom, Structural Model of Social and Economic Oxford: Oxford University Press. Development, Review of Development United Nations Development Programme, Economics, 6, 393-414. Human Development Report (New York: Goldsmith, Arthur A. (1999). “Slapping the Oxford University Press, 1990,1991,1993). Grasping Hand: Correlates of Political World Bank, World Development Report 1990: Corruption in Emerging Markets,” American Poverty (New York: Oxford University Journal of Economic and Sociology, 58(4): Press, 1990). 865-863.

REPATRIATION OF ALBANIANS: REDESIGNING A STUDENT ACCULTURATION POLICY

Evagjelia KALERANTE / ΕΥΑΓΓΕΛΙΑ ΚΑΛΕΡΑΝΤΕ - University of West Macedonia, Greece E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Greek economic crises shroud the future of Albanian immigrants with obscurity and unpredictability. Up until the economic crises, Albanian had been integrated into the Greek educational system, having a considerable presence at university level, a process interrupted, curbing the education- based aspirations of the Albanian family for social mobility and status-quo oriented vocational success that was to transcend the fi rst generation immigrants’ limitations. Our research looks into their transition to Albanian society. More specifi cally, a dual model of education is described: a. the Greek educational system and b. the Albanian educational system. It is a civil rights oriented educational policy, respectful of the human condition and the complexity of the post modern society member, transferable between countries, as a rule. We scrutinize the educational structure policy to be developed in each country, as well as the detailed basic curriculum to be followed, along with the extra curricular activities practiced in the two countries. Keywords: economic crises, Albanian immigrants, transition, educational system,

1. Financial crisis in Greece: a their uncertain future in a country under readjustment policy in education new policies and fi nancial dependence by an international system which limits the The financial crisis in Greece has possibilities to formulate an opposing generated new standards (Freeman & discourse. The fi nancial situation, as it Soete, 1997). Which are connected to is formed with the concentration to the uncertainty (Sennett, 1999) and insecurity paying off the debts, cancels in the fi rst (Harvey, 2005; Harvey, 2006) so that the place any form of welfare policy. The certainty developed in the period before welfare state seems to collapse (Bauman, the financial crisis for possibilities of 2007) that is it is not able to fulfi ll its development and progress is refuted and social obligations towards citizens. As a citizens, both native and immigrants, feel consequence, the political and social rights

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 53-61 54  Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy are shrank on this level, that is the policy question is interpreted as a decrease of of rights is being weakened and especially costs for education and for the issue of the immigration policy (Triantafyllidou our concern as a decrease of provisions & Veikou, 2002) which, during the past towards the immigrants. Therefore, decade, has shown a stable course towards since the educational provisions towards the perception of isonomy of both native immigrants are shrunk by the state and, and immigrant citizens and the creation simultaneously, families with unemployed of “structures, opportunities” within an members have to confront financial educational, political and social fi eld. problems, we observe that the aim of The educational system is readjusted immigrating or residing in the country of based on the new economic situation that reception is cancelled since the connection is it downsizes the provisions towards ‘education – success – progress’ does not students and the procedure of diffusing exist any longer. knowledge, research and re-distribution of During the previous years the Greek rights through education is substantially educational system provided immigrants enfeebled. Up today, the Greek educational the potential to educate and reinforce system has been open meaning that it themselves so that they would be able to created opportunities, even for the lower attend Tertiary Education. The political strata with an imperfect linguistic code possibility to benefit from welfare through the prolonged attendance of the policies in all levels given to immigrants educational system for at least nine years, was linked to the implementation of a to improve their knowledge and become democratic progressive policy which, familiarized with the educational culture gradually, was incorporating elements of and especially with the upper social class a European immigration policy in which culture, by obtaining skills and knowledge the immigrant was specifi ed under the to utilize on a professional level and in capacity of a citizen. This way, nationalism professional fi elds. The same model has policies, which stopped the emerging of been in force even for the immigrants racism among the total of natives, were (with a particular reference to Albanian typically refuted. immigrants) who are fully represented in The educational system, as it has education since their immigration policy been formulated after the financial is related mainly to their family transition arrangements, seems to be a close one, in the country of reception and who have being limited only to the upper social the disadvantage of a poor knowledge of strata which are able to reinforce their the Greek linguistic code and are placed children’s education by providing them off the dominant Greek culture. knowledge in cognitive fields which In brief, the immediate changes are not covered in education but are which have occurred in the educational regarded as necessary for their professional system are: a) schools merging, meaning incorporation. We observe that the upper a larger number of students in the social strata in Greece have access to a classrooms, b) abolition of the immigrant variety of choices improving this way incorporation classes, c) abolition of the education provided in public schools tutorial substructures and d) the decrease either addressing private schools or of teaching aids and educational force. tutorial classes. Immigrants are unable The total of such measures is related to follow the same course; they are to the broader program of downsizing fi nancially enfeebled with their income expenditures which for the case in undergoing a shrink. Even those ones Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 55  that can preserve their working positions come back to their family incorporations, address their children’s education as not thus reducing risk. This plan of coming a matter in question, as it happened the back, although it is interpreted by them past years, because they are concentrated both as a rational attitude and emotional on the present period and their immediate choice, it does not seem to be so painless survival. Moreover, the future in the sense for their children who are requested to of an educational course or social mobility distinguish, understand and interpret seems to be far off their concern because different social environments in which they are unable to support it. On the to develop reception and acceptance contrary, the number of Albanian families strategies. returning to the country of their origin seems to increase, perhaps to secure their 2. Suggested re-confi nement strategies savings and to create those conditions of the Greek educational system within that will help them re-incorporate in the a policy of rights towards immigrants country of origin. This choice creates a signifi cant problem to their children being Within this fi nancial arrangements already embodied in some educational policy (Bauman, 2007), the Greek grade. It is observed that their children educational system is invited to examine are not familiarized with the Albanian its performance not only in fi nancial terms culture; Albania is “another” country and but in relation to the policy of immigrant children are requested to get incorporated rights (Maroukis, 2005). In other words, in the Albanian society and the Albanian it is about a policy which will take under educational system. consideration the broader functions and To recapitulate, we observe that aims of the educational system (Bourdieu, the coercive adjustments in the Greek 1974). If the one area is the alignment educational system by placing in front of with the more general plan of confronting the costs decrease have worked against the debt needs of Greece, an issue related the Albanian immigrants residing in to the downsize of costs in all the fi elds, Greece since they realize that not only including education, the other area to their financial income tends to shrink investigate is how the educational system or their residing in Greece leads them will satisfy its social goals since education towards a sub-proletarization population, constitutes a part of the social rights. but even that education can not longer So, what is the education we are talking work towards the improvement of about when there is a cancellation of the the economical, social and political re-distributive policy of rights which was place of their children. Therefore, the realized through education; that is when arrangements that have been made in the the policy to reinforce the lower strata and educational system through the loss of immigrants with programs about learning supportive structures towards the lower the linguistic code and familiarizing with strata and immigrants cancel their plan the school culture is refuted? Such issues to succeed in the country of reception are connected to the projection into the or in other possible reception countries. future, a future linked to success, progress On the contrary, it escalates insecurity and prosperity (Zachou & Kalerante, and uncertainty so that returning to 2010), especially of those immigrants the country of their origin seems to be who have made an investment by entering a one way course towards a protective a procedure of social, political and social environment in the sense that they economical readjustments (OECD, 2010). 56  Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy

The educational system is invited or even if they remain in the country of to estimate the consequences of the reception to preserve some Albanian fi nancial adjustments (Lundvall & Nielsen, citizen data on their identifi cation card. 1999) and to create fl exible structures to The fi rst case of returning to the country reinforce the education of immigrants of origin is connected to the second one taking under consideration the situation of the selective residing since the common formulated by the immigrants’ need to element is to form Albanian “studies” as a return to the country of reception, in necessity. In particular, we suggest learning this case, Albania. The issue about the the Albanian language in the Greek Albanian students, as being incorporated schools in the sense that the Albanian in the educational grades, is that when students have the possibility to learn they return to Albania they can proceed their language as a syntactical structure with their studies and adapt to a different and content in the form dominating the environment. The coming back to the Albanian education. Additionally, they country of origin means coming back can be taught history and literature so to the culture of the country of origin that they come in contact with the culture which is unknown or partially known and civilization of their country. These to the children attending Greek schools. subjects, as part of a free choice, could During the past years, the Albanian family, be attended at will by Greek students, in order to reinforce its incorporation too, in order to increase Greek students’ (Berry, Phinney, Sam & Vedder, 2006) into professional opportunities in Albania and, the Greek society, followed an adaptation at the same time, to develop feelings of model supported through learning the solidarity and acceptance through the Greek language and culture at the same substantial acquaintance with the other, time. The issue of success and progress his/her culture and value. mainly focused on the fast incorporation The program we suggest on the basis into the Greek society so that it is accepted of cross-curricular and interdisciplinary by natives and racism is limited. Thus, approach (Levine & Havighurst, 1992) Albanian immigrant offspring either learn could be combined with the cognitive units no Albanian at all or their knowledge of taught in the typical syllabus. What we the language is little. Simultaneously, actually suggest is the enrichment of the even though the Albanian family itself Greek syllabus which, if, during the past uses the Albanian language among years, was illustrated as a necessity for the private or personal conversations, they formulation of an inter-cultural education, avoid using this language when talking this argumentation is currently supported to their children. The fi nancial change by ethics in education that incorporates and the simultaneous coercive Albanians’ the needs of an immigrant population to response to return to the country of origin return to the country of origin. should be taken under consideration by The point is how, during a period the Greek educational system. The fact of fi nancial arrangements about the costs that in the following years the number of limitation, a model of theoretical costs Albanians coming back to Greece will be increase would be realized. The model increased (Gropas & Triantafyllidou, 2007), we suggest is based on the opening of creates the moral and political obligation the educational structures towards the of Greece to facilitate the Albanian Albanian community as well as its political immigrants re-incorporation, according and cultural structures of its function. In to their wish, to the country of origin particular, the Embassy educational sector, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 57  the associations of Albanian immigrants to point out how these liquid situations as well as other cultural and educational in economy go through the educational institutions that can afford the means so system which should be open and fl exible that the costs do not weigh the Ministry so that it can redefi ne its aims and readjust of Education which will exclusively its program. undertake the programs evaluation as well as matters of teaching content and 3. Re-formulation of the Albanian functional arrangement. educational policy To recapitulate, we observe that the educational system passing through The fi nancial situation as it is formed a severe coincidence for the Albanian in Greece has an immediate impact on the immigrants should at least reinforce them systems functional structures existing in regarding the increasing perspective of Albania. Especially, the Albanian policy transition to the country of origin, by should take under consideration the formulating the conditions to learn their Albanian immigrants transfer from Greece language and culture that are unknown, to the country of origin, Albania. A fi rst insuffi cient or incomplete in order to be depiction of the situation has been formed able to support the re-incorporation of and should be the concern of the Albanian the Albanian students who have been policy that these individuals will re- attending the Greek educational system incorporate into the Albanian society, its into the Albanian education system. social, political and economic structures. Finally, the implementation of a The issue we are preoccupied with welfare policy even in the middle of is how the educational system will re- this fi nancial coincidence must stop the incorporate the Albanian students coming victimization of the Albanian students from different educational grades into the (Kalerante, Fotopoulos, 2010), who are Albanian system. In other words, the issue actually immigrants that will return either is how the conditions will be formed so to the Albanian educational system or to that the repatriated Albanian families and professional places in Albania. their children will redefi ne their future and At this point, we would like to schematize a model of adaptation into the emphasize that the common element for Albanian society. the lower social strata of both natives and Especially, the Albanian children immigrants is that they will experience returning to Albania, as we have already situations of intense insecurity and mentioned, either speak no Albanian at uncertainty and perhaps the destinations all or know an imperfect and insuffi cient for their children will be beyond the structure of the Albanian language which country of origin leading to new notions is a temperate, oral, communicative about countries of reception within discourse. Therefore, they do not know globalized systems. Therefore, the Greek the Albanian code that would facilitate the educational system is invited to reinforce incorporation into the educational grades the educational model which is based of the Albanian system. The fact that they on an internationalistic model in which were not taught the Albanian language in the English language and technology the Greek educational system and that the familiarization are a one way track in efforts of teaching by informal educational an educational and professional course institutions, mainly Albanian associations, among international destinations. This were limited and fragmentary seems to last observation gives us the opportunity create a big problem for the repatriated 58  Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy immigrant Albanian students. The fact with the cognitive subjects. that they do not know the language of In the fi rst area, theoretically, the their country of origin generates primarily students of a class have common aims the problem of incorporating into the that depict as a common perspective their Albanian society and they perhaps confront harmonic co-existence and their success in some sort of racism as the “others” within the processing of their school obligations. it. They are invited to get socialized quickly The issue is linked to a value model in attitudes, values and behaviors in order (Frith, 1980) which implies a framework to be visible and acceptable by the social of behavior and various social defi nitions system. At this point we would like to formulated through reproduction and highlight that beyond the incorporation forms of social inequality. The immigrant into the educational system there is also the student is involved within this nexus of incorporation into the social system (Frith, inequalities being addressed as the non - 1980), into the citizen society, the everyday “recognizable” and as an Albanian he is routine life of the Albanian society. addressed as the “other”. We mainly focus on these students’ The second area of relations with incorporation into the educational system. the teachers is analyzed mainly in the The insuffi cient or imperfect knowledge vehicle of knowledge and the vehicle of the linguistic code means incorporation of authority as it is interpreted by the problems into the student environment, student himself. Therefore, the immigrant the peer society (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough student comes in contact to a structured & Halsey, 2006). Moreover, we should not system of relations which he is invited to ignore the psychological or social terms, decode and to accept thoughtlessly so that the issue of incorporating individuals the unhindered diffusion of knowledge into the social domains in which they are is facilitated and he makes himself a obligatorily incorporated. The student participant of the cognitive content and must be adapted both to the macro simultaneously to interpret the acceptable environment, the social one, and to or delinquent behavior so that he avoids the micro environments in which he is punishments or penalties as a result of incorporated as a child or teenager and the social control being exercised within as a student. The issue of incorporation the educational environment (Campel & as a child or teenager is connected to the Manicom, 1995). recognition of his personality by people of In the third area, the contact with the similar age with whom he associates with cognitive subjects is not defi ned only by the and within the social framework he should different concentration on the cognitive be incorporated. Here, he is aligned with fi elds and the level of their cognitive or not the system of values, through sequential profi cient understanding but mainly on testing procedures so that he is lead to a how these weaknesses are defi ned within situation of his acceptance connected to the evaluation system existing in the the satisfaction received as individual and Albanian educational system, that is the a social personality (Littlewood, 1999). grading that fi nally defi nes the individual’s The issue of incorporation as a student success or failure in the educational system contains his adaptation on different social and the professional fi elds. In social terms, areas as they work within the educational the individual is invited to meet the needs environment (Rose, 2007) and are analyzed of the examination systems linked to his in a) relations with fellow students, b) progress and his success within a society relations with the teachers and c) relations which, for the Albanian immigrant, is a Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 59  society where he is continuously measured formulated. These groups of people will or which he continuously tries to conquer. either transit directly to the country of Therefore, the Albanian educational origin or, later on, to any professional or system is invited to take under educational level (Foray & Steinmueller, consideration these three areas and 2003; Frith, 1980) they will decide to to readjust its structures in order to choose between Greece and Albania. A correspond to the needs of this population common element for both systems is seeking its adaptation in the country of that they should look more closely into origin (Psimmenos & Kasimati, 2003). The the teaching systems of technology and model suggested is based on a system of English language in order to increase the supplementary education of the Albanian possibilities of the student population to language and culture so that the student supplement their education or to engage is familiarized with the system of his themselves in professional terms in other country. The educational system has the countries (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough & potential to organize the provision of Halsey, 2006). condensed knowledge with simultaneous As we have already mentioned, the thorough examination on cultural issues. Greek educational system should give These structures must be utilized by emphasis on the provision of teaching the Albanian educational system in the Albanian language as well, something order to give perspective and content that consists a strong request within the to the Albanian immigrant education framework of intercultural education, but being incorporated into the Albanian nowadays, it seems to be a necessity. It educational system. At the same time, we is a request incorporated into a broader estimate that the cognitive fi eld obtained political ethics in which the Albanian in the country of reception, Greece, should immigrant being repatriated should not be abandoned. The systematic teaching have the means to incorporate from the of the Greek language and culture as well as beginning in the country of his origin. the cognitive fi eld will be useful since the At the same time, learning the Albanian students will feel that there is a continuation language by the natives will blunt racism and interconnection of the two systems and will increase the possibilities for (Modell, 1993), the Albanian and the collaboration between the two countries Greek ones. The relationships with Greece on different levels. should not be split apart since the student The Albanian educational system should feel balance and stability through should prepare an educational system the reinforced possibility of transition from based on the Albanian language for the one educational system to the other the repatriated students who should or of transition from professional areas become aware of the structure and (Dolby & Dimitriadis, 2004) in Albania to content of the Albanian language as a corresponding ones in Greece. communication and culture code. The challenge actually lies within this necessity 4. Conclusion of the supplementary education so that the students will be able to adapt themselves We observe that the period of the and under the best possible conditions to fi nancial crisis imposes the collaboration the Albanian environment. between the Greek and the Albanian On the basis of these changes, a system so that flexible forms of the broader collaboration fi eld is formulated Albanian immigrant adaptation will be in the sense that the notions of citizen 60  Repatriation of Albanians: Redesigning a Student acculturation Policy and policy of rights exist beyond the by the existent curriculum during their boundaries of the nation-states (Modell, careers as students. Bi-level reforms 1993) and are incorporated into the ought to take place in the Albanian individuals’ right to become members educational system, especially in regards of a society (Alston & Robinson, 2005), with familiarization with Greek culture: form their preferences, defi ne their future a) Returning elementary and secondary and feel creative (Deci, 1980). The Greek level students ought to continue honing educational system calls for its reforms their Greek language skills so that they may and restructuring so as to especially serve move back to either continue studies or get Albanian immigrants, but also natives jobs in changing times, as an expression of who undergo nationalistic influences transnationalism (Beck, 2005b).

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Exclusion in Europe: Problems and Paradigms. control pathways: organizational culture and pp. 1-21. Aldershot: Ashgate work values of Greek welfare officers”, Lundvall, B.A & Nielsen P. (1999) «Competition Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 29 and transformation in the learning (2) 337-371. economy», Revue d’ Economie Industrielle, Rose, N. (2007). The Politics of Life Itself: vol. 88, pp. 67-88. Biomedicine, Power and Subjectivity in Maroukis, Th. (2005). “Albanian migrants in the Twenty-First Century. Princeton, NJ Athens and the emergence of a transborder &Oxford: Princeton University Press public sphere” in Chiodi, L. (ed) (2005), Sennett, R. (1999). “Growth and Failure. The The Borders of the Policy. Migration and New Political Economy and its Culture”. In security across the EU and the Balkans, Istituto Mike Featherstone- Scott Lash (eds). Spaces per l’ Europa Centro-Orientale e Balcanica of Culture. City-Nation-World. London: Sage (IECOB). Ravenna: Longo Editore Triantafyllidou, A. & Veikou, M. (2002). Maroukis, T. (2005). “Albanian migrants in Athens “The Hierarchy of Greekness. Ethnic and and the emergence of a transborder public National Identity Considerations in Greek sphere. Ravenna: Longo Editor Immigration Policy”, Ethnicities. 2(2), Modell, A. H. (1993). The Private Self. Cambridge 189-208 Mass: Harvard University Press Zachou, C. & Kalerante, E. (2010) “’Becoming a Modood, T (2007). Multiculturalism: A Civic Citizen’: Albanian Women’s Civic Education Idea. Cambridge: Polity Press and Political Engagement in Greece”, in OECD (2010). Reviews of Migrant Education Abraham, M. Chow, E. N., Maratou- – Closing the Gap for Immigrant Students: Alipranti, L. Tastsoglou, E. (eds) Contours Policies, Practice and Performance. Paris of Citizenship: Women in a Global/Local World, Psimmenos, I.& Kasimati, K. (2003). “Immigration Burlington: Ashgate, 77-95.

SOME CRITICAL THEMES REGARDING THE INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION OF ALBANIANS

Lekë SOKOLI - University “Marin Barleti”, Tirana-Albania Albanian Institute of Sociology E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The phenomenon of migration has been at the core of economic and social changes of Albania during last two decades. No other Center or East European Country has been affected to such extent by migration in such a short period of time. That’s why Albania as considered a kind of Laboratory for studying the migratory phenomenon in new Europe and global world, and specially an excellent laboratory for the studying of the dynamic and mutually interdependent relationship between migration and development. Trying to understand the international migration of Albanians and its meaning, the author treats some Critical Themes of migration, speaking generally. First Critical Theme is concerned with the size of Albanian migration: from one third (people born in Albania living abroad) to half (Albanian that have experienced migration, during the same period of time). Second, Albania is still a net migratory country and another Critical Theme is concerned with migrants, as contributors on Albanian economy. Albanian experience shows the positive and negative aspects of migration on originated countries and, regarding remittances, not only their “potential benefi ts”, but also the “potential costs”. The third Critical Theme is concerning with the conclusion that the international mobility of people is a controversial issue with attitudes ranging from openness and tolerance toward immigrants in good economic times, to reluctance and even xenophobia and resentment, particularly during times of economic slowdowns, unemployment, and fi nancial insecurity such as the one we live in now after the fi nancial crash of 2008-09. Another Critical Theme is concerning with the asymmetrical development of the world in the time of globalization. The nature of the current wave of globalization is such that international mobility of goods (commodities) and capital (money) across countries is much freer than the international mobility of people. This can be called the “people’s paradox of globalization”. Another Critical Theme regarded the illegal migration, is concerned with the confl ict between Economic Logic and the Law. Another Critical Theme is concerned with the correlation between migration and development in the net migration countries, such as Albania. The case of Albania shows that

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 63-75 64  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians there is a great difference between changing and progress. Albanian migration has been the key factor of an “extroversion” economy, meaning that internal consumption greatly exceeds the capacity of national production. The last Critical Theme is concerned with how we are measuring the progress. Albanian case shows the differences between the GDP growth and social progress. The author refers, thanks fi rst to migration, the fast globalization of Albanian society and new concepts, such as: transnationalization, “globalizing communitarianism beyond borders”, multiculturalism, “Hybridization” of Albania etc. So, Migration is defi ning the features of Albanian society and it’s Future. Keywords: migration, social laboratory, critical themes, remittances, transnationalization, globalizing communitarianism, multiculturalism, “Hybridization” of Albania etc.

Albania as Laboratory for studying the and underdevelopment, Albania is an excellent migratory phenomenon and not only laboratory for the study of the dynamic and mutually interdependent relationship Being very representative the migration between migration and development. of Albanians after ‘1990-s is much studied, not only from Albanian scholars but Albanian migration is studied from also from the social scholars of different different approaches. On of them is that countries, such as US and UK, Italy and of Julie Vullnetari, according to her, the Greece, Switzerland, France, Germany and development of Albania itself and its so many other countries. For example, the migratory policies, during last two decades last issue of the Journal “Perpjekja” (No. of past-communist transition have had 26-27, January 2011) approaches Albanian this trajectory: “From communist ‘gulag’ migration from diverse perspectives. Just in to Balkan ‘ghetto’ (Vullnetari, 2011). She the preface of this issue is written: writes:

The issue approaches Albanian migration The fall of the Berlin Wall which symbolised from diverse perspectives, analyzing the collapse of the socialist system in Central sociological, cultural and political and Eastern Europe, was viewed with phenomena relevant to an unprecedented concern by some policy-makers in Western (post-socialist) migration of almost half of Europe who envisaged potential ‘fl ooding’ the Albanian population between 1990 and of their affl uent countries with immigrants. 2010. It focuses on the main geographic Yet, this fear did not materialise and post- destinations of the Albanian migration: communist East-West migration was rather Italy, Greece, USA, and Western Europe etc. moderate. The exception was Albania, whose emigration displayed features of an One of the contributors of this issue exodus – at least in the early 1990s – in terms is Russell King, from University of Sussex, of its ratio to the country’s population, its UK. His article is titled: Albania as a concentration over a short period of time, Laboratory for the Study of Migration and the typology of these moves. and Development (King, 2011), where the author explains: From these sources we have (1) “migration of almost half of the Albanian This paper argues that, because of its recent population between 1990 and 2010” and, and intense experience of migration set (2), in all ex-socialist countries of Central against a background of transition, poverty and Eastern Europe, the exception Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 65  was just Albania, whose emigration time like Albania. From this point of view, displayed features of an exodus in terms Albanian’s experience of irregular migration of its ratio to the country’s population, is “a kind of laboratory for studying the new its concentration over a short period migratory process” (Rusell King, 2003, De of time, and the typology of these Zwager et al, 2005). moves (Vullnetari, 2011). The exodus So, regarding migration Albania is of this signifi cant share of the Albanian a Sui genres case in the Central and East population since 1990 is considered as Europe (ex-communist part of Europe). one of Europe’s newest and most dramatic mass immigrations (King et al. 2006). Understanding the international But how many Albanians have migration of Albanians emigrated, since 1990: one forth (UNDP, 2006), one third (Sokoli & Hroni, 2006) In different studies on Albanian or half (Perpjekja, 2011)? It’s very diffi cult migration we can fi nd different explanations, to give an exact number of the Albanian including right and wrong approaches migrants during the last two decades. and conclusions, understandings and That’s because the Albanian migration misunderstandings as well. Why so many was irregular (illegal) and very chaotic. Albanians have migrated in this short time, Anyhow is very easy to joke with statistics quite different from the other countries? or, speaking in the language of Huff [1954, We must exclude the ethnic diversity (1985)] it’s easy to lie with statistics, such factor. It is known that multiethnic states can as with the statistics of Albanian migration. also be fragile, especially in face of internal But we have tested some regions of upheaval or external threat. Sometimes Albania just to explore the relationship societies with long history of ethnic tolerance between household welfare and irregular and integration can rapidly become engulfed migration risk. The results were really in ethnic conflicts – hostilities between surprised. For example, in the families different ethnic groups or communities. of Roma Community (i.e. the poorest This has recently been the case in the Albanians) of two Albanian districts, former Yugoslavia, a region renowned for named Levan-Fier and Morava-Berat, more its rich multiethnic heritage. The Balkans than 50 per cent of the people were abroad: has long been the crossroads of Europe. 42.4 per cent from Levan-Fier and 60.8 per Centuries of migration and the rule of cent from Morave-Berat (Sokoli & Hroni, successive empires have produced a diverse, 2006).1 In these families the remittances are intermixed population. The conflicts in naturally the major factor that distinguishes former Yugoslavia have involved attempts “poor” or “non-poor” households. Because at ethnic cleaning, the creation of ethnically of migration these families are likely to homogenous area through the mass expulsion produce almost nothing. So, sociological of other ethnic population. Croatia, for surveys prove the greatest dimensions example, has become an independent of irregular immigration of Albanians. ‘mono-ethnic’ state; the war which broke It’s clear that No other Center or East out in Bosnia in 1992 involved the ethnic European Country has been so affected cleaning; the war in Kosovo in 1999 was by migration, in such a short period of prompted by charges that Serbian forces were

1 In some studies about Albanian migratory phenomenon (such as, World Ban Assessments) is valuated, for example, that the poorest Albanians can not immigrate because of the cost of the process. Our survey shows that this conclusion is not correct. 66  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians ethnically cleaning the Kosovar Albanian illegal migration (Giddens, 2004: 259). (Muslim) population from the province (in Albanian migration has been first and both cases of Bosnia and Kosovo, ethnic foremost irregular, or illegal migration. confl ict becomed international). Western The basic question: what are the forces states intervened both diplomatically and behind this massive “peaceful” migration military to protect the human rights of of Albanians? It’s known that many early ethnic groups. Political repression, ethic theories about migration focused on so- cleaning, armed war, genocide - describes called push and pull factors.2 More recently the systematic elimination of one ethnic ‘push and pull factors’ have been criticized group at the hands of another – always have for offering only a simplistic explanation produced international migration. Balkans of a complex process. Instead scholars of diary is the most recent example (Giddens, migration are looking at migration patterns 2004; Rupnik, 2004). as ‘systems’ which are produced through But this is not the case of Albania, interactions between macro-level and micro- which is the most homogenous Balkan level processes.3 country regarding the ethnicity. The case Economic historians have shown that of Albania is different in comparison to “the main variation in inequality (differences) Bosnia, Kosovo etc. In Albania there’s no in the past 150 years has been among countries arm confl icts, genocide, persecution, ethnic rather than within countries. Therefore a problems, political repression, human main concern of current globalization is the rights violation and so on. contrasting in income levels, living standards, The migration of Albanians can and economic potential across nations. These be defined as a “peaceful” migration. international disparities create powerful To describe the main global population incentives for international migration.4 movement, al least since 1945, scholars The development of the world is very have identifi ed four models of this kind asymmetric and international movement of migration, which are: the classic model of people is inevitable. of migration – applies to countries such The asymmetry is even within as Canada, United States or Australia; the countries, such as Albania. So, the colonial model of migration – pursued proportion richest/poorest of Albanian by countries such as France and United families is 2.1 times higher than the average Kingdom, tends to favor immigrants from of other East European (ex-communist) former colonies over those from other countries (Sokoli, 2011). Here we have countries; the guest workers model – the another reason for Albanian higher level immigration in temporary bases, to fulfi ll of migration. The above mentioned demands within the labour market of reasons of international migration can countries such as Germany, Switzerland, give satisfied explanation of Albanian Belgium etc.; the irregular migration or exodus of last two decades. So, I’ll try to

2 ‘Push factors’ referred to dynamics within a country of origin which forced people to emigrate, such as war, famine, and political oppression or population pressures. ‘Pull factors’, by contrast, were those features of destination countries which attracted emigrants. 3 Macro-level factors refer to issues such as political situation in the country, and different changes (not personal ones); micro-level factors refer to the migrant himself (his resources, knowledge, understandings, interests etc.). 4 Comparing the fi ve countries with the highest level of incomes (Chatar, Luxemburg, Norway, Singapore and Brunei), with the fi ve countries with the lowest level of incomes (Congo, Zimbabwe, Burundi, Liberia and Eritrea), result that the income of fi ve fi rst countries are 145 higher than the incomes of fi ve last countries (Sokoli, 2011). Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 67  go in another direction. That’s because Marx (see, 1975: 226), says that the I am convinced that understanding the dictatorship of the proletariat is a necessary Albanian international migration means phase to move to the disappearance of class understanding Albania itself and Albanian distinctions generally, to the disappearance post-communist transition. of all the relationships in production5 upon Albanian migration of last two which are based these class distinctions, the decades and after is concerned with all disappearance of all social relations that the developments of Albania, including correspond to these relations in production, communist and post-communist time. All the overthrow of all ideas emanating from the development of Albania during the these social relations. communist regime (1945-1990) is based So the democratic transition on Marxist theory of transformation from interrupted another transition: the capitalist to communist society. Marx writes communist one. And, rreferring to Marx’s scheme, and judging the depth of … between capitalist and communist the transformations applied in Albania society lies the period of the revolutionary - compared with other countries of transformation of the one into the other. Eastern Europe - and the transformations Corresponding to this is also a political performed comparably to other types of transition period in which the state can be social transitions, we can say that: nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship First, of all types of transitions, the post of the proletariat. communist transition is the most representative

Scheme I: Communist transition, according to Marx

(Communist transition = Socialism = dictatorship of proletariat) Capitalism Communism

Scheme II: The features of Communist Transition (Karl Marks)

Communist transition = a …to disappear all the relations on production necessary transitive phase… upon which are based these class distinctions (First: owner relations)

to disappear all social relations that correspond to these relations of production...

…to go to the disappearance of …to overthrow of all ideas that class distinctions in general correspond these social relations

5 With relationships in production, Marks understood, fi rst of all, relations of ownership over the means of production. 68  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians one. This is regarded to the quantity and nowhere else, alienated to the state. But the depth of the transformations performed. state has lost these functions, immediately, Second, the starting point of post- in a very short time, let’s say, in one year. communist transitions was different in Albanian citizen, totally alienated from the different countries. This depending on state, felt suddenly abandoned. The main three factors: the level of development (1) question was just the survival, at any cost. the degree of application of Marx’s formula The migration was just the “life-boat” (the - cited above, (2) and different levels of boat of Noès”). previous reforms (3). Fifth, Albanian communism remains Third, it is confi rmed that only ten up to the end a “heavy communism”, quite years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, different from the “light communism” of the characterization of East European other countries, such as the so-called the Countries as “post-communist,” clearly “communism of gulash” in Hungary, after lost every sense (Rupnik, 2002: 129-137). the revolution of 1956. This means that The common denominator of Hungary, Albania had some additional objective Albania, the Czech Republic, Belarus or diffi culties for a successful transition, against Kazakhstan shows almost nothing. most other former communist countries.7 Forth, of all former communist Sixth, in addition to this “plus objective countries, Albania represents a special diffi culties” Albania had some “subjective case, first of all, because in no other additional difficulties”, for a successful country Marx’s formula (quoted above) transition versus the majority of East is implemented so faithfully, or blindly, European Countries. That’s because, using than in Albania. All other countries have with the words of the famous Zbigniew corrected the system, at least after ‘1960s.6 Brzezinski the behavior or engaging of Albania, on the contrary, following the the Albanian leaders towards a pluralist strategy “neither East nor West” went democracy has been and still is problematic.8 paradoxically in the road of the greater The above arguments lead us to the ‘communistization’: Albania of 1989 was a generalization: if the post-communist more communist country than in 1945 or transition is more representative; the in 1960. First, Albania was and remained Albanian post-communist transition is the the country with the highest level of the most representative one. So, the Albanian concentration of means of production in transition is a kind of laboratory for the study state hands. In Albania, as nowhere else, of transitional processes, received generally. the state became the only owner and the Seventh, the migration of Albanians only employer. The Albanian people were, as in such a great quantity was possible

6 It is widely accepted that after World War II, totalitarianism longest and most savage prevailed in Albania, Romania and Bulgaria” (Rupnik, 2002). Albania was the most unreformed, even compared with this to other former communist countries. 7 This is not a metaphor. Albania based its economic development in the heavy industry, as well as in large cooperatives and agriculture farms. Almost all inhabitants of the city of Elbasan, for example, earned their own living from the the Metallurgical Combine, at that time with more than 14 thousand workers, so too much for a small country, such as Albania. In these conditions the process of transformations towards the market economy was and is still very diffi cult. 8 In his article “The Great Transformation” Zbigniew Brzezinski (1993) has foreseen the historical calendar of former communist countries of Central and East Europe. He listed these countries in four groups according to the expected rate of development of democracy. In Brzezinski’s ‘classifi cation’ Albania was one of the fourth groups (the fourth), because “the behavior or engaging of the leaders of these countries towards a pluralist democracy is problematic.” Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 69  thanks to some other geographical and social (such above mentioned) have turned from factors. Albania is a European country, being, historically, net emigration countries near to Greece and Italy. So it was possible to net recipient countries. to pass the border… Another social Albania is still a net migration country. factor is concerned with the traditional But less attention is focused on studing the connections of Albanians of Albania with impact of migration on the countries of the Albanians of Diaspora. Except the well origin, such as the Albania. Almost all the known Jewish’s experience, the Albanians studies are focused on economic impact, represent the next case of spreading all over referring to remittances. the world. The number of Albanians living But, there are some Critical Themes abroad is valuated to be 3-4 times more to highlight the international migration, than the Albanians of Albania itself.9 Now regarding Albanian experience: almost every Albanian, migrant or not is in First one is concerned with the size a dilemma: to live in Albania or in another of migrants: from one third (Albanians country. That’s motivated not only from the living abroad) to half (Albanian that have fi nancial capital (economic perspective), experienced migration, during the same but also from the social capital (sociologic period of time). Is this connected with any perspective) as well. “natural” feature of Albanians? The authors have written, anyhow, about “Albanians – as Some Critical Themes of migration great recessives”. The concept “recessives” & some Conclusions referring the is used to characterize Albanians as people Albanian migratory Experience almost genetically tended to go abroad, to move from their homeland. This approach, The attention of the scholars is or conclusion, is not correct. concentrated fi rst of all in the study of The Albanian Migration is an old and the impact of immigration on recipient new phenomenon. But, during the history, countries, so in the countries of destination. there have been some waves of migration From the late 19th century to the mid 20th of the Albanians. The fi rst one happened century, the international migration was an during the ‘40s of 14th century, under important engine for economic growth in a very severe occupation of the emperor such destination countries as the United Stephan Dusan (Stefan Dushani). Many States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Albanians were forced to migrate, fi rst of and New Zealand – the so-called New all in Greece. Their successors (arvanitas World countries. Most of the immigrants of Greece) have preserved the Albanian came from Europe (Ireland, Italy, Spain, language until today (Frasheri, 2008: Poland, and Scandinavia, and from Asian 79). The second wave of Albanian exodus nations. In the early 21st century, the was during the 15th century, at the end geographical landscape of origin and of Albanian resistance against Ottoman destination countries for international Empire under Skanderbeg. Again their migration has changed fundamentally. successors (arberesh of Italy, and not only) Many European and such Asian countries have preserved the Albanian language until

9 The Albanians populate not only Albania, but even another Balkan country (Kosovo), they constitute a qualifi ed minority in FYROM, are distributed to all the other Balkan countries and have migrated to more than 35 other countries in all continents. It is said, not without basis, that there are more Albanians in Turkey than in Albania; there are more Albanians - together - in Greece and Italy than in Albania, there are Albanian Diasporas in USA, Canada and so on... 70  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians today and many Albanian traditions (Tirta, always very strong.10 1999: 1998). The third wave of Albanian From this short ‘picture’ we can migration was that of first half of 20th draw two conclusions: First, the history century, around the First World War. of Albania can not help us to explain the But in every case, the migration of Albanian exodus of last twenty years. Albanians has been a forced migration. Second, the Albanian migrants have Later, in the second half of 20th century conserved the main features of national (up to 1990) Albania was totally (self) identity. And we can explain the Albanian isolated by the rest of the world. Crossing exodus of 1991 and after only based on the border was considered “treachery the specifi c developments of this country against the fatherland”, and so the most concluding that what happened in Albania, serious crime. During the history the myth under the similar conditions, may happen of homeland through Albanians has been in every country of the world.

Table: Potential benefi ts and costs of remittances for receiving countries Potential benefi ts Potential costs

Ease foreign exchange constraints Ease pressure on governments to implement reforms and help fi nance external defi cits and reduce external imbalances (moral hazard)

Permit imports of capital goods Are spent on consumer goods, which increases and raw materials for industrial demand, increases infl ation and pushes up wage development levels

Are potential source of savings Reduce savings of recipient families and thus and investments for capital negatively impact growth and development (moral formation and development hazard)

Facilitate investment in children’s Reduce labor effort of recipient families and thus education and human capital negatively impact growth and development (moral formation hazard)

Are net addition to families’ Replace other sources of income, thereby increasing income sources; raise the living dependency, eroding good work habits, and standard of recipients heightening potential negative effects of return immigration (moral hazard)

Reduce income inequality Increase income inequality

Reduce poverty Promote the development of money laundering

Source: De Zwarg et al. 2005. Competing remittances, Tirana: IOM, pp. 37-38

10 In a large volume of Maxims of the Albanian people, with about 14 thousand maxims, published by the Albanian Academy of Science in 1883, the fi rst ones are: “my fi eld, my tomb”, “the most diffi cult obstacle to pass in the life of a man is the doorstep of the house/the threshold of the house” and so on. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 71 

The second Critical Theme of size, due to a recession in the immigration migration, regarding Albanian experience, is countries for example could devastate concerned with migrants, as contributors to the Albanian economy. And they fi nance the Albanian economy. Albanian experience mainly imports (the “boomerang effect”) shows the positive and negative aspects of (De Zwader et al, 2006). migration on originated countries and, Another Critical Theme of migration regarding remittances, their “potential (the third one), regarding Albanian benefits” and “potential costs”. There experience, is the impact of economic global are two opposing views on the issue of crises on migratory issues. As observed in remittances’ impacts on immigrant sending similar countries,11 the short-term impact of countries. One considers that remittances the economic global crisis in Albania covers do not promote growth but on the al least three main areas: the fi rst impact contrary, they create dependency of sending concerns the decrease for remittances;12 countries on migration and decrease the second impact is the possibility that the likelihood of an improved economy. part of the migrant stock might return in The next one considers the potential of Albania; the third area of impact is the remittance inflows to support growth decease in the fl ow of migration, mainly and development. The table presents the because of high unemployment rates in views of the economic benefi ts and costs of host countries (Gedeshi, 2010). remittances to a receiving country. The forth Critical Theme of The impact of remittance fl ows on migration, regarding Albanian experience, poverty reduction is not studied empirically. is concerning with the conclusion that But according to the Living Standard the international mobility of people is a Measuring Survey (LSMS) 2002, across all controversial issue with attitudes ranging households, remittances from immigrants from openness and tolerance toward presented 13 per cent of the household immigrants in good economic times, income while for households that received to reluctance and even xenophobia and remittances they presented 47 per cent of resentment, particularly during times of the household income. A key question economic slowdowns, unemployment, and concerning remittances is whether they fi nancial insecurity such as the one we live affect the labor supply of household in now after the fi nancial crash of 2008-09. members that do not immigrate. As regards The fi fth Critical Themes of migration, Albania (Fuga, 2004) draws attention on regarding Albanian experience and not this impact of remittance for the country??. only, is concerning with the asymmetrical Analyzing the impact of remittances on development of the world in the time of farming activity of rural households in globalization. The nature of the current wave Albania, they fi nd that the provision of of globalization is such that international remittances signifi cantly hindered farm mobility of goods (commodities) and effi ciency, because of reduced labor effort. capital (money) across countries is much Clearly more qualitative and quantitative freer than the international mobility of research has to be conducted. There is people. Trade and capital-market regimes still a high dependence of Albania on are more open than immigration regime. remittances. A sudden decline in their The asymmetric treatment of people’s

11 Rua, T. A., Migration, Remittances and Development in Times of Crisis, UNFPA, Peru, 2010. 12 The surveys clearly show that the number of Households sending remittances has decreased with 11 percent (Gedeshi, 2010). 72  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians mobility in globalization opens the 19 August 2011). That’s because the only doors to various interpretations. In 1867 point of reference for the development in Karl Marx wrote, somewhat ironically, Albania has been and still is the growth of in the opening chapter of Capital about GDP. In fact, the average growth of GDP “commodity fetishism”. His metaphor in the last six years has been about 5 per refers to social relationships that in capitalist cent. In this growth there is a great impact societies apparently are transformed into of Albanian migration. objective relationships with commodities But, the GDP of Albania is still very or money rather than relationships with modest. With this cadency Albania can people who produce those goods. Another reach the average GDP of EU countries asymmetries is between “knowledge (supposing no growth of it) in about 50 workers” (or talented elites) and manual years. What is more, the GDP growth workers. This asymmetries can be called is not an indicator of social progress. the “people’s paradox of globalization” Economist Simon Kuznets was one of (Solimano, 2010). the architects of the US national account Another Critical Theme is concerned system. But, in his report presented in with the dilemmas post by migration. One 1934, he categorically stated: of them is regarded the illegal migration, with the confl ict between Economic Logic The welfare of a nation can scarcely be and the Law. However, economic maturity inferred from a measurement on national is now coexisting with slow or stagnant income (Cit, Marks, 2011). population growth, low fertility rates, and an aging population. In some advanced More than twenty years later, in March economies, the population is shrinking. 1958, speaking about the US measurement Thus, immigration provides much needed system, John Kennedy said: workers, professionals. Another one regards the confl ict between economic Even if we act to erase material poverty, there logic and the immigrant’s rights. is another greater task; it is to confront the The seventh Critical Theme is poverty of satisfaction – purpose and dignity concerned to the correlation between – that affl icts us all. migration and development in the net migration countries, such as Albania. And after referring to a very high First this is connected with our concept of US GDP (at that time, Gross National progress. The case of Albania shows that Product) he continued: there is a great difference between changing and progress. Albanian migration has been … but the Gross National Product counts the key factor of an “extroversion” economy, air pollution and cigarette advertising, the meaning that internal consumption greatly ambulance to clear our highways of carnage. exceeds the capacity of national production. It counts special locks for our doors and The eighth Critical Thems is concerned the jails for the people who break them. It with how we are measuring the progress. counts the destruction of the redwood and Albanian case shows the differences the loss of our natural wonder in chaotic between the GDP growth and social sprawl… Yet the Gross National Production progress. The present Albanian prime does not allow for the health of our children, minister, for example, declared some days the quality of their education or the joy of ago: “Germany and Albania are the more their play. It does not include the beauty of developed countries of Europe…” (Shqip, our poetry or the strength of our marriages, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 73 

the intelligence of our public debate or the “I carry two words within me / but integrity of our public offi cials. It measures neither one hole / they’re constantly neither our wit nor our courage, neither bleeding / the border runs / right across our wisdom nor our learning, neither our my tongue…”14 compassion nor our devotion to our country. Anyhow, the challenges concerned It measures everything in short, except that with migration are quite different from which makes life worthwhile. the traditional ones. Whereas in the past most emigrants abandoned all symbolic Albanian experience as well as the ties of their place of origin and become experiences of other countries shows that citizens that took the local culture, spoke Kennedy’s words still ring true… The the local language, today more and more (re)valuation of the measuring system migrants retain signifi cant, continuing ties is a point of debate between economists with the countries of origin (Abadan-Unat, and sociologists. 2003). With the support of electronic In Albania, during the communist rule revolution, internet, and the other means (1944-1990), has not been any transparency of communication the migration has about the material well-being of the people. severed the ties between time and space, Those data are considered “state secrets”. going to be part of a so-called “globalizing Twenty years after the communist collapse, communitarianism beyond borders”. almost the only reference of the Albanian The intensifi cation of Diaspora-home15 progress is still the growth of GDP (Telo, relations leads to the globalization of 1998).13 The offi cial poverty line is not Albanian domestic politics may be as what has calculated in national level… From the been called the “long distance nationalism” growth of GDP to the social well-being (what was a characteristic of Kosovar – this must be the present debate through Abanians before their independence). scholars, sociologists and economists, fi rst. While discussing the changing nature of The ninth Critical Theme, regarding relations between migrants and their new Albanian migration, is concerned to the home country, we have A new discourse globalization of Albanian society, first about migration and multiculturalism; thanks to migration. All the traditions are “Hybridization” of Albania – focusing on in discussion, even the national identity. increasing the number of Albanians leaving The “transnationalization” of our societies in transnational communities; Globalization requires further analysis. But there is a “state of Albanian society, and Albanian issues, of inbetweenness” of Albanian migrants including politics… John Stuart Mill, in too. This is best expressed by a poem of his time, has written about the impact of Zafer Senocak called “Doppelmann” (cit. “placing human beings in contact persons Abadan-Unat, 2003): dissimilar to themselves” considering as

13 On this debated question, Parkins (2006: 19) writes: “The growth of GDP may result even when it profi ts only one person, such as an individual who owns a utility company, and even if the majority of the population is burdened with debts. The rich get richer and the poor grow poorer. Yet, from a statistical standpoint, this is recorded as economic progress”. All the projects of including the developing countries in the “global empire” of so-called ‘corporatocracy”, speaking in Parkins language, were conditioned by a ‘spectacular growth’ of GDP in those countries. But the countries are not developed…. 14 Tibi Bassam, in the book “Europe without identity” considers the formation of communitarianism as particularly negative… 15 Arjun Appadurai, speaks about creating a “Diaspora spaces”, including ethnoscape – persons of different origin living together; technospace – referring the new technologies that create new interdependence between people; fi nancescape and mediascape (cit. Abadan-Unat, 2003: 6-7). 74  Some Critical Themes regarding the International Migration of Albanians

“one of the primary sources of progress”. up to 1991: every movement inside Albania The tenth and the last Critical was commanded by the state. Theme, regarding Albanian migration, But I was an international migrant, is concerned to the changing of social being at the same time a sociologist, one of relations and Albanian society, in general, the fi rst scholars of sociology in the history thanks to migration, fi rst. I would like to of my country (under the communist regime, illustrate this changing referring to a sole so up to 1990, sociology was unplowed). case, taken as a case study. I spend several years in Greece and It’s the case of an Albanian, a PhD Italy, being part of the fi rst wave of Albanian scholar, who has ‘travelled” from a typical migration after the collapse of communist traditional Albanian family to a global regime, of that biblical Albanian migration family, perhaps in the real sense of this of 1991-1992. I experienced what a typical word. Here is what he confessed: migrant used to experience. No more not “I am not an expert of international less! I worked in more than 25 ‘professions’, migration. But I have been an Albanian doing two or three jobs at the same time. migrant for many years just in Greece and Than I turned back in Albania, but… Italy, where are situated more than 80 per 20 years later; Koh Samui, Thailand cent of Albanian migrants. I have exactly 2011: The Library Hotel. My family is shared my active life in two regimes: about 20 changed in a ‘global’ family. My sun got years in communist time (1971-1991) and married with a ‘cross-national’ Korean- 20 years (1991-2001) in the post-communist Canadian girl. The ceremony was organized epoch. In the first phase I used to be a in an island of Thailand. It was a non mechanical engineer more than everything traditional marriage. The participants were else and, in the second phase, I used to be from more than 20 countries. My sun was sociologist, more than everything else. So I a global student, different schools, different can confess something from my experience, countries, and different cultures. Now he is covered with a thin theoretical approach. a global citizen, travelling a lot and working It’s not easy to imagine the traditional in different countries. My daughters the Albanian society and its dramatic change. I same: one is engaged and is going to be was born in a typical traditional region of married with a ‘cross-national’ Persian- Albania, with the magic name Dukagjin. American boy, the next one the same… It’s hardly imagining a long line of men So, Albanian society is changing and women with tears in their eyes, when rapidly thanks - fi rst - to migration. And I fi rst moved from. A nine years old boy Albania is sight that serves as cautionary from their kin was ‘migrating’. In fact I was example to other countries, as a kind going to Shkodra (Scutari), the nearest city of Social Laboratory for studying the and the capital of the district. But this was migratory phenomenon in new Europe considered migration. This picture remind and global world.

REFERENCES

Abadan-Unat, Nermin. 2003. “Moving towards mëdhenj (Albanians, these great recessives). European transnationalism: A Turkish Tirana: Korbi. View”, Migration and labor in Europe, De Soto, Hermine, Peter Gordon, Ilir Gedeshi Istanbul: MURCIR & NIWL. & Zamira Sinoimeri. Poverty in Albania. Barjaba, Kosta. 2003. Shqiptarët, këta ikës të Tirana: The World Bank. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 75 

De Zwager, Nicolaas, Ilir Gëdeshi, Etleva Marx, Karl & Frederick Engels, and V.I. Lenin. Gjermeni & Christos Nikas. 2005. 1984. on the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, Competing for Remittances. Tirana: IOM. Moscow, USSR: Progress Publishers. Germeni, E. 2000. Performance of Albanian Parkins, John. 2006. Confessions of an Economic Hit imimmigrants in Greek labour market. Man, New York: A Pluma Book. Leuven: KU Leuven. Rupnik, Jacques. 2004. Balkans diary, Pristine: Gëdeshi, Ilir. 2010. Global Crisis and Migration; Kosovo Action for Civil Initiative. monitoring a key transmission channel to Sokoli, Lekë & Ilir Gëdeshi. 2006. Trafi kimi, rasti the Albanian economy, Tirana: UNDP & i Shqipërisë (Human Traffi cking, the Case IOM. of Albania): Tirana: Albanian Institute of Giddens, Anthony. 2004. Sociology, 4th edition, Sociology. London: Polity Press. Sokoli, Lekë. 2010. The equivoques of transition Goldin, Ian; Geoffery Cameron and Meera (Ekuivoket e tranzicionit), Gjeopolitika Balarajn. 2011. Exceptional people; How (Geopolitics), nr. 5, 2010, pp. 78-98. migration shaped our world and defi ne our _____. 2011. “Social differentiations and poverty: future, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Albania in East European context”, Studime Huff, Darrell. 1985. How to lie with Statistics. sociale (Social studies), Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 78-89. London: Pelikan Books Solimano, Andrés. 2010. International Migration INSTAT (Albanian Institute of Statistics). in the Age of Crisis and Globalization; 2002. The population of Albania in 2001. Historical and Recent Experiences, Main result of the Population and Housing Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Census. Tirana, Albania. Tela, Ilia. 1998. Well-eing and the poverty line King, Russal, Nicola Mai & Stephanie (mireqenia dhe minimumi jetik), Tirana: Schwandner-Sievers. 2006. The New Albanian Demographs Association. Albanian Immigration: Sussex Academic Tirta, Mark. 1999. Migration of Albanians Press. (Albanian ethnography, no. 18)/Migrime të King, R, N. Mai & M. Dalipaj. 2003. Exploding shqiptarëve (Etnografi a shqiptare, nr. 18), the immigration myth. Analysis and Tiranë: Shkenca. recommendations for the European Union, Vullnetari, Julie. 2011. “From communist ‘gulag’ the UK and Albania, London: The Fabian to Balkan ‘ghetto’: Albania and its migratory Society and Oxfam. policies”, in Perpjekja, No. 26-27. King, Russell. 2011. “Albania as a Laboratory for Whitaker, K. S. 1996. “Explaining Cases of the Study of Migration and Development”, Principal burnout”. Journal of Educational in Perpjekja, No. 26-27. Administration 34, 1: 60-71. Marks, Nic. 2011. The Happiness Manifesto; How White, G. 1981. Party and professionals: The nations and people can nature well-being, political Role of Teachers in Contemporary London: Nef. China. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

SAFE, JUST, AND SMART: HOME EDUCATION AS AN ESSENTIAL OPTION FOR FAMILIES IN ALBANIA AND AROUND THE WORLD

Timothy HAGEN - Epoka University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Education is a self-evident necessity for all children. Children need to learn the technical skills to be productive and the moral and social skills to live an ethical life in community. The reformer Martin Luther (1524; 1529; 1530) issued an early call for mandatory schooling to equip students with the skills needed for an informed, competent society that valued the critical pursuit of truth. Yet lived history shows that mandatory educational systems have been misused to indoctrinate children. A solution that decentralizes educational power and upholds the ideal of a liberal education should address this problem. Research and philosophy show that an educational system that gives more choice to parents is safe, just, and smart. Specifi cally, home education, that is, parent-directed education, provides a check to the power of government, accords with natural law, and provides superior academic results. Home education should therefore be permitted in Albania and worldwide. Keywords: Compulsory, liberal, home, school, education, Albania

An Interesting Contradiction trained—by parental choice or force of arms—to govern or serve in the civil The rationale for mandating education service or military (Daniel 1:3-4; Painter for all children is obvious: Children need 1889). Yet it was with the advent of the to learn the skills and virtues to be moral, Reformation in Europe that the idea productive citizens who contribute to that all children should be given a formal a peaceful, just, and prosperous society. education was introduced. When Martin The idea that some people need a good Luther discovered that the religious leaders education so that they can govern a nation of his day had strayed far from the original well is not new; since ancient times a teachings of the Bible, he called on parents select group of young people have been and political and religious leaders to ensure

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 77-84 78  Safe, just, and smart that all children had a formal education, A Proposed Solution especially in the ancient biblical languages, so that there would always be people able Long before the dictatorships of the to teach and correct on the basis of primary twentieth century, John Stuart Mill (1859) source documents and a knowledge of saw the natural tendency of humans to human history and thought (1524; 1529). use schools as a means of indoctrination. Such an education, now known as a classical His proposed solution was this: “If the or liberal-arts education, is designed not government would make up its mind to only to help people seek spiritual truth, but require for every child a good education, also to help them make wise decisions for it might save itself the trouble of providing secular government and in all other areas one” (chap. 5, par. 13). Mill recognized that of life (1524; 1530).1 parents have the obligation to educate their Luther’s call for mandatory education children and that the role of government is took some time to be implemented. not to indoctrinate children, but to ensure According to Benavot, Resnik, and that they have an education. He proposed Coralles (2006, 10-1), it wasn’t until that the government subsidize or provide the eighteenth century that compulsory free education for children unable to afford education for all children was implemented it and monitor all children’s educational in some German states. This movement progress through annual exams. To avoid then spread throughout Europe to North indoctrination, these exams should cover America and globally in the ensuing years. “facts and positive science exclusively” Both the de-colonization movement (ibid., par. 14). Any exams on controversial and the rise of communism in the last fields such as politics were not to test century helped introduce compulsory students’ opinions, but only student’s mass education outside of Europe and in knowledge of existing opinions held by the Albania, as newly-independent or newly- various authors or sides of an issue. revolutionized countries tried to create Albania has, to a large extent, adopted a productive workforce and a unified Mill’s proposed framework. Indoctrination national identity through education is prohibited in public schools, education (ibid., 9; Misja, Teta, and Kallulli is compulsory, and parents have a choice 1986). This historical development led of public or private schools. However, to an interesting contradiction. While another, even more effective option for compulsory education, as envisioned preventing government indoctrination is by Luther, may have been intended to to allow home education. The purpose of equip children with the skills to engage this paper is to argue for the inclusion of in a critical pursuit of truth, the result, home education as an option in Albania especially under theocratic, communist, because home education is safe, just, and and other dictatorial regimes, was that smart. Homeschooling is safe because compulsory education became a vehicle of it reduces the potential for the abuse of mass indoctrination,2 not critical inquiry. the power vested in a more centralized

1 For example, this Reformation idea of critiquing authorities on the basis of reason and primary sources very likely contributed to the scientifi c revolution in Europe, in which people felt the need to test all claims to truth on the basis of reason, observation, and if possible, experimentation. 2 Some may note that Luther practiced indoctrination himself; this is true. But the very doctrine he taught also contained the line, “Love your neighbor as yourself ” (Matthew 22:39b). Thus Luther had to grant to others the freedoms of inquiry, conscience, and communication that he exercised himself. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 79  educational system, it is just because it Benavot, Resnik, and Corrales (2006) accords with self-evident parental rights, further note that “Mass schooling was part of and it is smart because it often enables a movement to weaken family socialization students to do better academically. Yet and home-based instruction” (10). While homeschools, like institutional schools, it is likely that those who wish to control can be misused to teach ideas that oppose education work out of sincere motives, the the rights of others to crucially pursue ideas taught may not be true, and if not truth. Thus the structural solution that true, then they could cause horrifi c harm Mill proposes must be augmented with a to the listeners who adopt them. Thus the content solution, namely, that all forms of power of special interest groups to control education, including public, private, and the educational system must be diminished home education, intentionally promote by decentralizing the power to decide the critical pursuit for truth and the matters of ideology and opinion. respect of fundamental human rights and Albania currently does prohibit any freedoms. ideological indoctrination in schools. However, two problems still remain: First, Home Education as Safe lived experience suggests that it is very diffi cult for any textbook writer, curriculum Education is a powerful tool. This designer, or teacher to be completely very power makes it a tempting target objective. Second, even if education for those who want to shape the minds is secular now, the very structure of a of children and in doing so, to shape the centralized, mass educational system will future of a nation. Walter Lippmann (1928) make it a tempting target for those who summarizes the confl ict that a centralized wish to use the power of such a system to educational system sparks in a nation: advance their doctrines. Private schools are an alternative to state May I remind you, then, that the struggles schools and thus are part of the solution to for the control of the schools are among the problem of concentrated educational the bitterest political struggles which now power. However, private schools take time divide the nations?... It is inevitable that and money to open and are still under is should be so. Whenever two or more extensive government scrutiny.3 groups within a state differ in religion, or in Home education provides an even language and in nationality, the immediate more decentralized alternative to state concern of each group is to use the schools education. Whereas opening a new private to preserve its own faith and tradition. school could be very expensive, home For it is in the school that a child is drawn education can be carried out at reasonable towards or drawn away from the religion cost,4 thus enabling those who disagree and the patriotism of its parents. (qtd. in with government-controlled instruction Zimmerman 2002, 1-2). to more easily fi nd an alternative. Home

3 This scrutiny is justifi ed because private schools need to be held accountable so that they don’t promote violence or civil confl ict and so that they meet health, safety, and curriculum requirements. Yet this power could be misused. 4 Ray (2010) found that 65% of homeschoolers spent less than $800 on educational materials per student per year. However, the opportunity cost of one parent having to give up a job in order to teach the children can be a signifi cant barrier to homeschooling, especially in situations where an average salary is not enough to support a family. 80  Safe, just, and smart education is safe in the sense that it education shall be made generally decentralizes the power to indoctrinate available and higher education shall be and allows for a wider spectrum of ideas equally accessible to all on the basis of to be taught. This in turn fosters the merit. critical pursuit of truth, as with more ideas . . . taught in society, the contradictory nature 3. Parents have a prior right to choose the of some ideas will compel people to test kind of education that shall be given them for truth. to their children.

Home Education as Just Thus, if the Declaration gives us a good idea of some of the “eternal principles” that A decentralized system of education constitute natural law, then home education that includes home education is not only is just because it enables parents to exercise safe, but it is also just because it is fair and their “right to choose the kind of education because it expresses natural law. that shall be given to their children.” If one group demands the right to teach their ideas, fairness demands that others Home Education as Smart be able to do the same. Instead of giving a majority or minority group the exclusive Home education may be theoretically right to control schools, a decentralized safer and more just than a centralized, system that allows private schools and home institutional system of education, but some education enables a parent to teach his or her may question the practical applicability child, if the parent wishes. of it. Horace Mann (1845) argued that Furthermore, home education is just although parents have the love necessary because it is an expression of natural law. to give a child a good education, many of Cicero gives an early defi nition of natural law: them lack the knowledge to do so (186). This, then, as it appears to me, has been While that may have been the case in 1845, the decision of the wisest philosophers— it is no longer the case now. Ironically, this that law was neither a thing to be contrived may partly result from the very success of by the genius of man, nor established by compulsory mass education worldwide, any decree of the people, but a certain which has elevated adult literacy levels past eternal principle, which governs the entire 80% (Richmond, Robinson, and Sachs- universe, wisely commanding what is right Israel 2008, 23). As most countries in the and prohibiting what is wrong. world have educational materials already The Universal Declaration of Human published in local languages in order to Rights (Declaration), adopted by the implement mass education, almost any United Nations in 1948 can be taken as literate parent can use those materials and/ an attempt to express an understanding or the internet to locate additional research of some of these “eternal principles” and resources so as to have the knowledge in writing. The Declaration addresses needed to teach his or her children. education in Article 26: Research has found that on average, home-educated children achieve above 1. Everyone has the right to education. national averages in the USA and Canada Education shall be free, at least in (Rudner 1999; Ray 2000 and 2010; the elementary and fundamental Martin-Chang, Gould, and Meuse 2011). stages. Elementary education shall be While Rudner’s and Ray’s studies did not compulsory. Technical and professional include comparisons of demographically Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 81  similar populations, some studies achieve The Necessity of a Liberal Education more compelling results by conducting assessments of similar students in Some infl uential thinkers, such as the public- and home-education settings. In judges of the European Court of Human comparing similar children with ADHD Rights (2006), seem to fear that home from public schools and home schools, education may deprive students of the Duvall, Delquadri, and Ward (2004), skills needed for democracy. While Van found that those educated at home Pelt, Allison, and Allison’s (2009) study did better, despite the fact that their suggests that this is not a statistically valid parents only had high school degrees. concern, the concern may remain. Yet as Martin-Chang, Gould, and Meuse (2011) noted earlier, not only home schooling, but administered tests to similarly-aged public- also public education has the potential to be and home-educated children from the same misused as an instrument of indoctrination, geographic region, controlled for parental as the history of communist nations and education and income, and found that dictatorships of the last century indicates. home-educated children outperformed their In reality, it is impossible to avoid public-school counterparts. Interestingly, all indoctrination in schools. The idea home-educated children from structured that no doctrines should be taught is learning environments, that is, ones with itself a doctrine. Likewise, the idea that planned objectives and lessons, achieved people should be free to seek, test, and above comparable public-school peers, adopt those doctrines they find most true but children from unstructured home is also a doctrine. However, this latter environments performed below the level idea is one that is designed to facilitate of their public-school peers (ibid.). This the pursuit of truth. Instead of claiming supports the idea also put forward by absolute truth, this doctrine provides others (Ray 2000, Winstanley 2009) a framework in which individuals and that the individualized attention that societies can seek truth. home-educated children receive allows A liberal education is designed to them to flourish. expose children to the vast range of Furthermore, while some may human thought, art, and claims to truth question whether home-educated throughout history. The great variety of children will be socially “smart,” that ideas and claims in such a study should is, socially competent, Van Pelt, Allison, give students a taste of the range of human and Allison (2009) found that Canadian ideas, give them a vocabulary with which homeschoolers who had entered adulthood to discuss important ideas, and give tended to participate more frequently in them models of how great thinkers have organized group activities, were more critiqued other ideas or developed new likely to vote, and were more likely to ones. Robert Hutchins of the University work in health, social sciences, and arts of Chicago (1952, 48) termed this virtual than their average peers. discussion between the great thinkers and Thus not only does home education writers throughout history the “Great have a theoretical purpose of being an Conversation.” Hutchins further describes expression of natural law and forestalling the civilization that values this Great the danger of indoctrination through Conversation as seeking the “Civilization public schools, but it also serves the of the Dialogue” that esteems inquiry, practical purpose of increasing student logic, and the exchange and testing of ideas. achievement. Again, if the Universal Declaration 82  Safe, just, and smart of Human Rights can be taken as a good Furthermore, if a parent really wants what approximation of natural law and as the is best for a child, he or she will have to product of the Great Conversation, then teach the child the skills of critical inquiry in Article 26 contains an acceptable summary pursuit of truth in order to equip the child of the goals of a liberal education: to handle the many different and confl icting Education shall be directed to the full messages in society. development of the human personality For those parents disinclined to give and to the strengthening of respect for a liberal education, a requirement that human rights and fundamental freedoms. any parent who wishes to home educate It shall promote understanding, tolerance outline the planned curriculum for the and friendship among all nations, racial year and highlight how Article 26 of the or religious groups, and shall further the Universal Declaration of Human Rights activities of the United Nations for the will be implemented will help remind maintenance of peace. (par. 2) and encourage parents to provide a liberal Teaching students the rights education that values human rights. Mill’s described in the Declaration can be done proposed, unbiased annual exams could in public, private, and home schools. also be used to ensure that parents fulfi ll In order to lessen the danger of parents their obligation to provide an appropriate or institutional teachers imposing their education. Such exams could encourage doctrines on students, the curriculum a liberal education by testing students on for each year, whether in a home, public, the range of ideas in Great Conversation, or private school, should state how the so long as students are not required to goals of Article 26, Paragraph 2 of the subscribe to those ideas.5 Declaration will be promoted. Finally, home education, by producing graduates who are deeply knowledgeable Home Education as a Liberal Education in the philosophy and worldviews of their parents and of the intellectual Allowing home education in a society history of humanity, should foster a fosters the pursuit of truth. In having to broader spectrum of viewpoints and thus select a curriculum, parents must practice contribute to a more lively debate in the the skills of researching, evaluating, and search of truth, and, statistically speaking, selecting or developing a philosophy of a higher chance of fi nding the same. education and a curriculum. The parents, having practiced these skills, are better able Conclusion to teach them to their children. Likewise, when a parent chooses to home school a Martin Luther’s goals of promoting child, the parent shows by example that it good governance, critical thinking, and is appropriate to act on what one believes accountability through an education that is best, even in opposition to the majority emphasized knowledge of human thought, or to those in authority—so long as one language, and historical primary sources are does not infringe on the rights of others, wholly appropriate. However, his suggested including a child’s right to an education. means of achieving this goal—compulsory

5 This range of ideas must be representative and include the idea that humans have a right to freely and critically pursue truth. Taylor (1992) notes that true stories can be selected in such as way as to predispose the audience to certain opinions, something that we must be cautious about in education, especially in mandatory exams. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 83  public education for all children—while In addition to the structural reform beneficial in many ways, has at times of education that Mill suggested, a been misused by those who would wish commitment must be made to uphold to stifle independent thought and force the Universal Declaration of Human their doctrines on children. Albania’s Rights and give a liberal education in educational system under communism order to introduce children to the Great illustrates how such an educational system Conversation of human thought and can be misused. The current system that history, a conversation that, as a whole, prohibits indoctrination in public schools teaches an open and critical pursuit of and permits private schools to function is truth. Home education should, by its very an improvement. A further improvement nature, foster critical inquiry; a mandate would be to allow home education. Not only that it uphold the goals of the Declaration does home education minimize the power will help ensure this. of special interest groups to indoctrinate all Thus home education should be children, but it also accords with natural law allowed in Albania because it is smart, it and shows impressive academic benefi ts. is just, and it fosters the pursuit of truth.

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NATIONAL IDENTITY AND RELIGIONS IN ALBANIA

Nertila HAXHIA (LJARJA) - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

Romeo GURAKUQI - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

This paper intends to give a historical panorama of religious pluralism in Albania and the scale of its infl uence in the formation of the Albanian National identity, at the same time it intends to give some analysis for the perspective. In this paper, the following issues will be briefl y elaborated: 1. The religious composition of post-Ottoman Albania; 2. Platform of Albanian National Renaissance; 3. The contribution on Cultural Movement during the Renaissance and Independence by Catholic Albanians; 4. The state and religions in the newly constituted Albanian state of 1920s; 5. The Communist take-over of Albania at the end of 1944 produced serious consequences for the religious communities; 6. Status of Religious Freedom in the post-communist Albania. The Albanians, deprived from the same religious base, were constrained to use the argument of the same ethnic origin, common customs and linguistic unity to realize nation unity, the achievement of independence and the construction of a laic state. It is only by beliefs in these common features that it was possible to have a contemporary Albanian Identity. Generally speaking, the Albanians of the 21st century are by a majority unifi ed in the protection of such pillars of their national identity, but at the same time they are not isolated from the rest of the world and from the existing challenges. The manipulation of the religious differences from extremism is one of the most diffi cult challenges which are faced by Albanians of the present day. From careful treatment of such a challenge the preservation of the future of the Albanian National Identity and the process of the European integration of that country depends on it.

The Albanians, deprived from the common customs and linguistic unity to same religious base, were constrained to realize nation unity, the achievement of use the argument of the same ethnic origin, independence and the construction of a laic

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 85-98 86  National Identity and Religions in Albania state. It is only by beliefs in these common Orthodox Christians living in the south features that it was possible to have a of the country and 12 per cent Roman contemporary Albanian Identity. Generally Catholics dwelling in the north. However, speaking, the Albanians of the 21st century these percentages do not reflect the are by a majority unifi ed in the protection distinction between Sunnis and Bektashis of such pillars of their national identity, among the Muslims. Considering the but at the same time they are not isolated profound differences between them, it from the rest of the world and from the would be more accurate to say that the existing challenges. The manipulation of population of post-Ottoman Albania the religious differences from extremism is comprised about 53 per cent Sunni one of the most diffi cult challenges which Muslims, 20 per cent Orthodox Christians, are faced by Albanians of the present day. 15 per cent Bektashis and 12 per cent From careful treatment of such a challenge Catholics. An analysis of the population’s the preservation of the future of the religious composition by ethnic sub- Albanian National Identity and the process groups reveals that in the north the Ghegs of the European integration of that country were predominantly Catholics and Sunni depends on it. Muslims, whereas in the south the two main religious affi liations of the Tosks were 1. The religious composition of Bektashism and Orthodox Christianity. post-Ottoman Albania and the Emerging from a fi ve-century Ottoman consequences of mass Islamisation of rule, at the down of Albanian Independence, the Albanian people Albanians no longer resembled a Christian nation. Moreover, the balance between the Ethnically, Albania is homogeneous; different religions was to the detriment of more than 95 per cent of the population is Christianity. Albanian Catholicism once made up of ethnic Albanians. The offi cially called the arbanska vera, was now confi ned recognized minorities are the Greeks, to about 12 percent of population. The concentrated in the south, Macedonians, Orthodox population was excessively tied Serbs and Montenegrins. In addition to to the Greek Church, which continued these minorities, there are Vlachs and to identify religion with nationality. The Roma. This ethnic uniformity is incarnated remaining majority, about two-thirds of into the two ethnic sub-groups to which the population, had converted to the new Albanians actually belong: the Geghs in religion that is Islam.1 the North and the Tosks in the south, the In the wake of the culture of the approximate line of demarcation between East, the new faith, Islam, had also them being the Shkumbini River which penetrated the mentality of the Albanian, fl ows through Elbasan. The Ghegs and the his songs and dances as well; it had left its Tosks differ from each other in linguistic, impressions on his customs and traditions, historical-cultural and socio-religious and had begun even to colour the heroic secondary characteristics. epic songs. This new religion of the The religious composition of post- Albanians according to its own principles, Ottoman Albania is often asserted to be as considered religion and nationality to be follows: 68-70 per cent Muslims (dispersed identical. If one opens the dictionaries throughout the country), 18 per cent of Arabic and Turkish, he will fi nd the

1 Morozzo della Rocca Roberto, Nazione e Religione in Albania 1920-1944, Il Mulino, Bologna 1990, gives a full panorama of the history of Albanian Nation and Religion. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 87  concepts of din (religion) and millet and from Orthodox Greeks. It is estimated (nationality) to be synonymous;2 they have by the Albanian sources that in Southern only begun to diverge from each other in Albania (so-called North Epirus) about contemporary Turkish dictionaries. Mass 30000 to 60000 inhabitants were of Greek conversion, involving almost two-thirds origin, according to Greek estimates, 228000 of the Albanian people, created a factor of inhabitants of Greek origin. On the other differentiation that had consequences for hand, likewise, the majority of the Orthodox, Albania, because it created a series of causes the Albanian Orthodox of Southern parts for discord among the Albanian people. of the country, has been oriented toward Part of Muslim Albanians, having Athens. Even those of Albanian ancestry (as the same rights as Ottoman citizens and Himara region population) were Hellenized hitching their destiny to the Ottomans, to such a degree that it was hard to draw a assumed some of the highest political and line of distinction between a Greek of South military posts in the empire administration. part of Albania and an Albanian of Orthodox “The lure of government service and incentive persuasion in that time. Furthermore, under of paying lower taxes counted much for a people the Turkish rule before establishment of often felt to have an instrumental attitude to an Albanian Orthodox Church all were religion”, said Tom Gallager.3 So, when the members of the Greek Orthodox Church. Christian peoples of the Balkans began This was not only in 19-th century, but also to move towards independence at the in the beginning of 20-th century and in beginning of the 18th century, Christianity some way it is prolonged even in the present for them was no longer tied to nationality.4 days.5 In the end of the First World War, The Southern part of Albania, as all during the development of Peace Conference parts of this country has also been subjected in Paris, the Albanian Orthodox leadership to Turkish rule. The major part of the denied the Greek assertions that there was population of this region, even a part of a Greek majority in the so-called Northern so-called South Epirus has been populated Epirus. In the fi les of National Archives in by the Albanians of both Muslim and London we have found a great amount of Orthodox religions (the Chameria region documents, mainly memorandums form the is compound by 70% Muslim Albanian Orthodox Albanians which all denied the and 30 % Christian Orthodox Albanians) Greek propaganda pretensions.6

2 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 25. He gives further explanations: In the Ottoman Empire, “each religious community was regarded as autonomous millet (nation) under a religious leader invested with civil powers. As well as the Orthodox millet, there were, by the 18th century, Gregorian Armenian, Catholic, Jewish and also Muslim millets... The Millet system... Implied no connotation of national identity, though in the later age of nationalism it was to be invested with that idea... It was simply a convenient administrative device which in fact worked extremely well... Provided taxes were paid, the Turks did not care what their subjects did with themselves. Local administration, trade and education were entirely their own affair”. 3 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 28. 4 Stadtmüller Georg, Islamizimi tek Shqiptaret (manuscript in the Albanian language translated by Zef Ahmeti) German version in: Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteeuropas, 1955, Bd. 3 pp. 404-429, München 1955 5 Huey Luis Kostanick, The geopolitics of the Balkans; George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Assays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963 pp: 44, 142. 6 See: Public Record Offi ce (PRO), Foreign Offi ce (FO).371.3570; 3571; 3572 and FO.608.28; FO.608.29; FO.608.30; FO.608. 38; FO.608. 47. 88  National Identity and Religions in Albania

2. Platform of Albanian National considerably changed his religion after the Renaissance liberation from the ottoman occupation would not so easily and passionately From the beginning, national welcome European civilization, because ideologists of Albanian National the Ottoman occupation had shaped a Movement have propagated a kind of ‘civil different mentality, had imposed different religion’ which was epitomized in Pashko customs and a different law system act. Vasa’s famous and infl uential nationalist Thus, the Albanians, deprived for the poem O moj Shqypni (‘Oh poor Albania’): time being from the same religious base, Awaken, Albanians, wake from your slumber. were constrained to use the argument of Let us all, as brothers, swear an oath not to the same ethnic origin, common customs, mind church or mosque. The faith of the linguistic unity to realize nation unity Albanians is Albaniasm.7 When it became and the achievement of independence. clear that the Ottomans could not protect Only belief on these common features their interests, the Albanians began to made it possible to hope that those assert their own national claims so as would still work as internal propulsive not to be overwhelmed by neighbourly instigators of the political life. Albanian competitors. Faik Konica, one of the elites needed to defi ne the Albanian nation most influential Albanian intellectuals and establish its capacity and right to rediscovered and popularized the exploits exist. The indigenous culture, particularly of Skanderbeg (the Albanian King of 15th Albanian ‘folklore’ and language, became century, who held out against the Turks the basis of constructing a distinct of the same period), especially promoting national identity and pride, and a distinct Skanderbeg’s emblem, the black double territorial defi nition. The romanticized headed eagle on a red background which attributes and heroic ideals of national later became the national fl ag.8 In the character were taken from a reservoir case of Albania, the Cultural Renaissance of folk and Kanun culture and all those preceded in long time terms the processes served to establish an ethno-cultural of national unity, the foundation of the continuity based on the assumption that state and at the same time the economic “in essence the preservation of customary and political post-ottoman formation. law was one of the most important The Representatives of the Albanian elements in helping the Albanian people Renaissance and the great Albanian to maintain their individuality under statesmen understood that a Christian Ottoman domination.9 nation could really remain behind because Towards the turn of the century, of the Ottoman domination, nevertheless, Albanian national literature had begun released from Turks; it was quite possible to appear in Italy amongst the Italo- to be easily and briefl y reintegrated in the Albanians, the Arberesh. They actively European Civilization from which it was strove to publicize, throughout Italy and disjoined. Meanwhile, a person who has Europe, the aims of the Albanian national

7 Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism writings, at Albanian Identities Myth and History, editors Stephanie Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst&Company, London 2002 pp. 61. 8 Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995 pp. 46. 9 Schwander-Sievers Stephanie, Albanians, Albanianism and the Strategic Subversion of Stereotypes, at “The Balkans and the West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004 page 116-117. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 89  movement through their most important of the Albanian Nation of 20th century, journal Fjamuri Arberit (which in the from the Franciscan Fathers Convent in Italian-Albanian language means The Flag Shkodra, tried to explain to the Albanians of the Albanians) The Italo-Albanians the differences which exist between a found the most trustful supporter in the civilization and another one, between a fi gure of Elena Gjika, (nicknamed Dora culture and another one, understanding D’Istria, a Romanian princes of Albanian the fact that culture is a product of descent. She published a study of Albanian human spirit. Father Fishta also concretely nationality on the basis of folk songs. determined the distinctions which exist In her studies she pointed out that “the between the Asian cultural system and the Albanians, although divided by religion, Western European Culture. formed one nation and had the right to enjoy The Albanians, seeing themselves freedom and progress’.10 partitioned by the Treaty of Saint To an articulate group of Albanians, Stephen at 1878, came to their senses who were at fi rst encouraged by Abd ul- and organized the League of Prizren at the Hamid “being an Albanian” came fi rst, end of the 19th century. But the politicians and the religion they professed was now of Europe, having considered them to be a secondary matter, a purely private affair. Turks, and having decided to banish the The American scholar, George G. Arnakis Turks from Europe would not think of has underlined exactly that: “for the fi rst doing anything for them. This danger time in Balkan history, it was language, and opened the eyes of the Albanians to start not religion, that was to become the vehicle their movement based on national unity of national aspirations.”11 Another scholar and ethnic appertaining. The League of of the Albanian studies, Ger Duijzings, Prizren leaders didn’t confuse the Albanian wrote that, “Albanian nationalism forms... cause with the Ottoman one and therefore an exception to this common Balkan pattern stood apart and did not mix themselves up of overlapping ethnic and religious identities with the Turks. The immediate objective and religiously inspired nationalism”.12 of the new nationalist movement was Noel Malcolm is considering this feature to prevent Montenegro, Serbia and of Albanianism “the myth of indifference Bulgaria from annexing parts of Albanian to religion.13 Shortly before the Congress territory by virtue of the Treaty of San of Berlin, Albanian national leadership, Stefano. In a meeting held at Prizren, the Orthodox, Catholic and Muslim, began nationalist leaders declared: “we make to speak in terms of nationalism over and no distinction between creeds. We are all above the loyalties of religion. Albanians. They constituted themselves into Later on, Father Gjergj Fishta, one of an “Albanian League” and they appealed the most famous scholars and politicians to the Congress of Berlin to let all

10 Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995 pp. 47. 11 Arnakis George G, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963pp.141. 12 Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism writings, Albanian Identities Myth and History, editors Stephanie Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst&Company, London 2002 pp. 60. 13 Malcom Noel, Myth of Albanian National Identity-Some key elements, as expressed in the works of Albanian Writers in America in the early twentieth century, at “Albanian Identities-Myth and History edited by Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Hurst &Company, London 2002, pp. 73. 90  National Identity and Religions in Albania

Albanian speaking areas remain within Gurakuqi stood by the side of Ismail the Ottoman Empire. Both Montenegro Qemal Bey (1912) and Mons. Luigj and Greece received significantly less Bumçi stood aside the Albanian new Albanian territory than they would have Prime Minister Turhan Pasha Permeti gained without this organized protest of (1919-20), to demand the independence Albanian leadership.14 of the homeland; he did not calculate the percentages of the religions in Albania! 3. The contribute of Catholic When Monsignor Jak Serreqi wrote to Albanians on Cultural Movement the League of Nation that in Albania, during the Renaissance and Christians and Muslims are brothers and Independence want to live in the same state, he did not base his argument on percentages of the If we scrutinize the history of the religious compositions of the Albanian Albanian Cultural Movement during nation. Only after these prolonged efforts the Renaissance and Independence, of the Albanians leadership, was Albania or the history of diplomatic efforts to created, Albania that we have today. achieve the international recognition of What we would like to say is that the Albanian Question, and fi nally, if we neither twenty centuries of Christianity analyze rebellious efforts of the Albanian nor three centuries of Islamisation could against the Turkish occupation, one sever the Albanian ties with the great will easily reach the conclusion that the Indo-European family. Nevertheless, the Albanian Catholic Community has played nucleus of immigrants from Anatolia a decisive and irreplaceable role in the within Albanian territories or the inclusion achievement of National Independence. of the Albanian elements in the Ottoman On the other hand, I would like to stress administration, infl uenced in the delay of that the same parallel role has been played the independence process, obstructed the by the Muslim and Orthodox Albanian clarifi cation of the position towards the intelligentsia, mostly the ones educated progress, but did not stop it. in the West. What I would like to say is After five centuries of Ottoman that well educated Albanian intellectual occupation, though of a different religious leadership has been compact in following composition, Albania preserved the the national goals. national identity and the laic content of Albanian diplomatic representation in national ideology in its own Renaissance 1911-1913, especially at the Ambassadors Movement. Conference in London and after the First World War in the Conference of 4. The state and religions in the newly Paris in 1919, Filip Noga, Dom Nikoll constituted Albanian state of 1920s Kaçorri, Father Gjergj Fishta, Mons. Jak Serreqi, Mons. Luigj Bumçi, all from the In the newly constituted Albania, Albanian Catholic Community, managed meaning the Albanian state of 1920s, to get rid of the unfounded claim of two important factors appear in relation the neighbouring chauvinist circles that to the organization of the religious “some of the Albanians had fought against Communities. First, the new state opted them”. When Dom Nikollë Kaçorri, Luigj to have no proclaimed offi cial religion

14 Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to Milosevic, London and New York 2001, page 49. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 91  and proclaimed the Legal Status of fl edged and distinct religious Community Religious Communities (LSRC).15 with its own statutes and organization, Secondly, the civil code was adopted in despite remaining offi cially attached to 1928. In this context, three “national Sunni Muslim Community till 1945.18 churches”, independent from the state, Likewise, after fi ve centuries under but increasingly controlled by it, were the Turkish occupation, the majority of instituted: the Christian Orthodox Church, the Orthodox Church in Albania was which proclaimed itself autocephalous in oriented towards Athens. Even those of 1922,16 but was not recognized by the Albanian ancestry were Hellenized to Istanbul Patriarchate till 1937; the Sunni such degree that it was hard to draw a line Muslim Community, which declared itself distinction between e real ethnic Greek independent of the Ottoman Caliphate in people and an Albanian of Orthodox 1923;17 and the Bektashis, who were driven persuasion. This was so not only in the towards independence by the abolition closing years of nineteenth, but also in of the dervish orders in Turkey in 1925. the beginning of twentieth century. The Even we can say that Bektashism, was Albanian government in the interwar and is now a valuable link between the period did much to absorb all the Orthodox three religious groups. Uniquely, the of South Albania into the Albanian Albanian Catholic Church maintained Orthodox Church, and it also made clear close ties abroad, with Vatican. Where the that the Çams of the so-called South Epirus Muslims are concerned, two important region (they are 30% Albanian Christian developments should be noted: First, Orthodox and 70% Muslim Albanians) leadership of Sunni Muslim Community were not subject to the obligatory exchange from the end of the 1920’s was provided of populations between Greece and Turkey, by reformers, and secondly, the Bektashian because these people were not Turks but Order acquired de facto the status of a full- “Albanians of Muslim faith”.19

15 PRO.FO.371.8532 pp.84 Legal Status of Religious Communities. It was sanctioned that: religions, may organize themselves as religious communities independent of one another. The several religious or denominational communities may maintain relations with the great religious centers outside Albania on spiritual and dogmatic question only. The higher clergy…must be: Albanian subjects; must know the Albanian language; must be in possession of civil and political rights; must be of Albanian race or members of a family which has been established in Albania for three generations….Clergy belonging to Albanian districts in which the Albanian language is not spoken are excepted from the provisions of this paragraph. The state reserves the right to supervise the administration of (religious communities) estates and of annual incomes in accordance with the special law of associations… 16 See: PRO.FO.371.7328, pp. 87 doc. No C 506/506/90, Acting Consul Heath-Smith to Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, Durrazzo, January 2, 1922. In this report: discusses conditions essential for creating autocephalous Orthodox Church and degree of Albanian support, patriarchal activity, anti- patriarchal activity, teaching of Greek in Orthodox schools and the moderate attitude adopted from the Albanian government of that time in that process of organization of Albanian National Orthodox Church; PRO.FO.8531 pg 43(44), League of Nations, Commission of Enquiry in Albania, Report of Activities from December 19th, 1922 to February 1st, 1923: The question of the formation of an Independent Orthodox Albanian Church. 17 PRO.FO.371.8535 pp.77 The statute of the Albanian Mussulman Community. 18 Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in Post-Communist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/Suha Taji- Farouki (editors), Muslim Identity and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, London in association with the Islamic Council, London 1997, pp.118-119. 19 George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the development of Balkan Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan life and politics since the eighteenth century, edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of California Press, 1963 pp. 142. 92  National Identity and Religions in Albania

5. The Communist take-over of communism. The forced isolation of the Albania at the end of 1944 produced Hoxha years had greatly shocked the serious consequences for the religious fundaments of national pride, which communities was based on the religious tolerance and fraternity and at the same time The Communist take-over of discreted the patriotic slogans used by Albania at the end of 1944 produced the communist dictatorship to justify its serious consequences for the religious power. communities. Following the military Moreover, this was also a sign that victory and liberation, the Communists Hoxha’s dictatorship system and his launched an assault against the religious inheritance was not exclusively Stalinism. bodies. The new regime chose to weaken It was a perfect tradition of backstairs gradually the religious bodies, subordinate intrigue and political wheeler-dealing. them to the state, use them as long as By May 1967 religious institutions they could further its program and then had been forced to relinquish all 2,169 destroy them. That would require 20 churches, mosques, cloisters, and shrines bloody years.20 in Albania, many of which were converted A dogmatic Stalinist, Enver Hoxha into cultural centers for young people. As considered religion a divisive force the literary monthly “Nendori” reported and undertook an active campaign the event, the youth had thus “created the against religious institutions, despite the fi rst atheist nation in the world.”21 virtual absence of religious intolerance in The clergy were publicly vilified Albanian society. The Agrarian Reform and humiliated, their vestments taken Law of August 1945, for example, and desecrated. Many Muslim mullahs nationalized most property of religious and Orthodox priests buckled under and institutions, including the estates of renounced their “parasitic” past. More monasteries, orders, and dioceses. Many than 200 clerics of various faiths were clergy and believers were tried, tortured, imprisoned, others were forced to seek and executed. During the first years work in either industry or agriculture, and of dictatorship system, the destiny of some were executed or starved to death. the nation rested on the hands of a Many clerics from all religious persuasions, former tinsmith, Koci Xoxe, former especially from Catholics, were sent to jail Minister of Internal Affairs, who had or killed, land and goods belonging to emerged from the fi lthy shanty towns the communities were confi scated, many of the most Hellenophile section of religious schools were closed, and the the Orthodox population; an initiate liberty of press was suppressed.22 Under of left-wing freemasonry of France; these conditions it was only at home and and some segments of non-Albanian in secrecy that the religious traditions, origin or former employees of ottoman Muslim as well as Christian, could be administration who at that time embraced preserved and transmitted.

20 Jacques Edwin E., The Albanians, An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present, McFarland, North Carolina & London, 1995 pp.447 21 Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). Ph.D. Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp.154-156. 22 Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp. 157-161. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 93 

The cloister of the Franciscan order in of education, the Albanian Catholics had Shkodër was set on fi re, which resulted in always aroused some people’s jealousy”. the death of four elderly monks. Thus, the communist regime, under Hoxha’s brutal antireligious campaign the order of his fanatic leader Enver succeeded in eradicating formal worship, Hoxha, exterminated from the ranks but some Albanians continued to practice of the Catholic intelligentsia not only their faith clandestinely, risking severe those it considered active enemies, but punishment. Individuals caught with also those who were reckoned simply to Bibles, icons, or other religious objects be “potential enemies”. Together with faced long prison sentences. Parents were the Catholic clergy nearly all former afraid to pass on their faith, for fear that intelligentsia which had studied in the their children would tell others.23 Offi cials West was either marginalized or eliminated tried to entrap practicing Christians and through imprisonment.25 Besides, their Muslims during religious fasts, such as extermination obliterated Albania’s Lent and Ramadan by distributing dairy chances of turning its eyes towards products and other forbidden foods in Europe. In the historical sense, it might school and at work, and then publicly be said that their extermination had heavy denouncing those who refused the food. consequences for the actual situation of Clergy who conducted secret services were the Catholic community. Since 1992, the incarcerated. improvement of the Catholic position Specially, the persecution of the has not been a goal of any political Albanian Catholics was a genuine genocide governmental party, although there were that bears no comparison with any assault some signs of changing it in the period on any other compact section of the 1992-1996. The Catholic community population in Albania.24 Historically, the today still continues to be out of any patriotism of the Albanian Catholics and satisfactory representation at highest their contribution to culture and politics ranks of the Albanian administration, the were unquestioned until the day the diplomatic service, and generally out of an communists took power and started to equal treatment which is characteristic of persecute them in a maniacal fashion. The a real and pluralist democratic society. I reasons for this attitude are clear today. would like to stress that such an attitude Prof Giusepe Valentini a well-known constitutes a huge deficiency for the Italian albanologist, who spent many integration capacity of Albania in the years in Albania before 1944, points out European Union, but unfortunately is that their natural outlook was toward not yet publicly underlined in the Western the West and that their philosophical, chancelleries. theological and legal cast of mind was Albania’s government under the entirely opposite to that of communists. leadership of Ramiz Alia, in the end “Being cultured and with a very high level of 1990’ became more sensitive to the

23 Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and the Communist regime in Albania (1944-1990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane, 2009, pp. 167-169. 24 For a more detailed information about the persecution of Catholic Church and Catholic Community in Albania see: Edwin E. Jacques, The Albanians, An Ethnic History from Prehistoric Times to the Present, McFarland, North Carolina & London, 1995 pp.450-456. 25 Lubonja Fatos, Albania after Isolation: The Transformation of Public Perceptions of the West, at “The Balkans and the West, Constructing the European Other, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Hampshire 2004 page 128. 94  National Identity and Religions in Albania barrage of criticism from the international religious groups have the right to hold community and started to adopt a bank accounts and to own property and relatively tolerant stance toward religious buildings. Offi cial holidays include religious practice, referring to it as “a personal and holydays from all four predominant faiths. family matter.” According to official figures, there are 14 religious schools in the country, 6. Status of Religious Freedom in the with approximately 2,600 total students. post-communist Albania The Ministry of Education has the right to approve the curriculum of religious Since the end of 1990, following schools to ensure their compliance with the collapse of the Communist Regime, national education standards, and the religions have reappeared in Albania, thus State Committee on Cults oversees drawing the attention of many observers implementation. There are also 68 in the neighboring countries as well as in vocational training centers administered more distant ones, and attracting numerous by religious communities. missionaries of various persuasions. After Government policy and practice fifty years of Communist rule (during contributed to the generally free practice twenty four of which religion could not of religion. The Government is secular. The be practiced openly), signifi cant numbers Ministry of Education asserts that public are either atheist or, while retaining their schools in the country are secular and that faith, do not attend places of worship. the law prohibits ideological and religious Only people over sixty and certain families indoctrination. Religion is not taught have kept the tradition alive. Consequently in public schools. While there is no law the young – a very high percentage of the restricting the demonstration of religious population- are now targeted by all the affi liation in public schools, there have been religious missions. So, the percentages instances when students were not allowed given in the fi rst part of this paper are not to do so in practice. valid for the Albanian situation after 1990, The generally amicable relationship in the sense that we have not an update of among religions in society contributed to the religious percentages for nowadays. religious freedom. Society is largely secular. Most Albanians remain secular and do not Intermarriage among members of different practice their religion. religions is extremely common. Religious The Albanian Constitution of 1998 communities take pride in the tolerance and provides for freedom of religion, and understanding that prevails among them. the Government generally respects this right in practice. According to the 1998 7. Some perspectives Constitution, there is no offi cial religion and all religions are equal; however, the After five centuries of Ottoman predominant religious communities (Sunni occupation, though of a different religious Muslim, Bektashi, Orthodox, and Roman composition, Albania preserved national Catholic) enjoy a greater degree of offi cial identity and laic content of national recognition (e.g., national holidays) and ideology in its own Renaissance Movement. social status based on their historical Albania has a laic state and the religions presence in the country. (Starting from are separated from the state. 2010 we have an offi cial recognition for The amalgamation of Muslim religion Albanian Evangelist Church and Albanian with ethnic and national identities is not Evangelist Community). All registered an argument which can readily be applied Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 95  in the case of the Republic of Albania Christian churches is that many Albanians where there is no direct confrontation have had to travel to Italy, Germany with non-Albanian elements and about 30 and Greece to work or to study. Yung per cent of the population is of Christian generation of that country which has been confessions.26 At the same time we have educated in the Western universities and to understand that the religious situation generally intellectual elite of main cities in Albania after 1990 is rather different as Tirana, Shkodra, Korça, Durrësi, and from the traditional fi gures. Prishtina is growing up with a laic and But, a division between two mentalities European mentality. represents a potential danger for the Generally, Albanians today, based on disintegration of any nation. The inclusion their traditions, have achieved a consensus of the Albanian elements in the Ottoman in the unifi ed presentation of their desires administration infl uenced in the delay of and problems, starting not from the the independence process obstructed the religious considerations, but from national clarifi cation of the position towards the considerations and European standards. progress, but without stopping it. But, in any case, the internal Albanian In the case of Albania, there is a development will depend mostly on the movable cultural reality, that is to say, it is manner of how to go forward when a country which faces within his national discussing the process of consolidation borders two different traditions, each of state of law and democracy, the strict with his own criteria of judgment and preservation of laicism of the state with their own different historical stands institutions, the equal treatment of regions towards modernity.27 Nowadays, these and religions components in the political two traditions are not fully based on the and administrative representations. The religious considerations and appertaining. avoidance of the political infl uences with They are mainly founded on the educational religious background in the strategic and civilization systems which infl uenced determination of the Albanian integration the contemporary Albanian citizens. will be decisive in the stability of that In Albania where there is no ethno- country. Those, according to my opinion, religion-based confrontation within the will be the preliminary condition which will country, the strategy of identifying national do more steady public and social life of the identities with religious ones does not Albanian state. Furthermore, an Albania appear so fruitful. As in others non-Western which will steadily and really proceed in the societies, the expansion of the West has European and North Atlantic integration, promoted both the modernization and and which will stand away of the shadow the Westernization. Furthermore, Western of international organizations with a propaganda appears stronger and has religious background, an Albania which greater advantages especially among those will close the doors of fi nancial supports individuals attracted by the West. Those for terrorism, traffi cs, and corruption , attracted by the West are mostly young and will be a secure place in the political and educated town-dwellers and intellectuals. social point of view. Albania as such, for One of the advantages enjoyed by the sure would be a secure country in the

26 Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in Post-Communist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/Suha Taji- Farouki (editors), Muslim Identity and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, London in association with the Islamic Council, London 1997, pp.135 27 Plasari Aurel, Vija e Teodosit rishfaqet, nga do t’ia mbajnë shqiptarët? in Hylli i Dritës, Tiranë 1993/2-3. 96  National Identity and Religions in Albania political and social point of view, which cultural point of view. Certainly, most of the will avoid the internal confrontation with Albanians, respecting everyone’s religion, cultural background, which will continue tend to have a laic vision of social life and to rebuild its European identity, a friendly, try in every way to imitate western stile of stable Albania and progressive in South life. But this is not for the all segments of East Europe. An important role in this society especially in the segments with a direction will play the future of Kosova, its remote non Albanian origin, who yet live future international status, the appropriate with the remembrance of the Ottoman solution of actual democratization and grandfathers, and an oriental stile of life Europeanization problem in that region and thinking. The challenge with which is and fi nally the ending which need to put faced in all periods of the Albanian identity, into practice the new leadership of Kosova, at least, has emerged again, and if it will to all Asian terrorist infi ltrations. If Kosova not be treated with the extreme prudence in the future international status would and large vision, would be e great problem have an independent state, this means for the future of that country, and not only. that this country would not be a place of The opening of Albania, free movement national and religious discriminations. A of peoples, different relationship, have new state in Balkan must be a conciliatory created the spaces for the penetration in entity for the social and political order in that country, parallel with real missioners of a geopolitical territory which has been for religions and of the representatives of some centuries disputable in historical point of integralist sects and so-called foundation, view; The state of Kosova must be a factor which constitute an unprecedented of stability in the Balkan and Europe, a developments for the Albanian tradition, secure political entity against terrorist and specially for the Islamic one. Some recent integralist infi ltrations and in the same time developments within the Albanian Islamic a space freed from international criminal Community have been kept up with a activities. A place such as Kosovo will great attention from public opinion. In infl uence directly in the stability of Albania, the last meetings of General Council of politically very fragile, but at the same time this community, on 14 and 15 May 2005, over Macedonia and Montenegro where has clearly predominated the perseverance there are a large number of populations of to follow the traditional school of Muslim the Albanian ethnicity living. Albanians based on Hanefi’s Islamic On the other side, Albania and the School of Law. But this decision of Albanians of the beginning of the 21st General Council of Albanian Islamic century are not yet isolated from the rest Community have been followed with severe of the world and the challenges which we reaction from the vahabist movements, are facing in the contemporary period. The compound by the young students and manipulation with cultural particularities imams educated in Arab world. Different from the religious extremism is one Albanian scholars and annalists think that of the most difficult challenges of the the vahabist movement represents a real contemporary world which is infl uencing danger for traditional Albanian Islam. the religious sensitiveness within the post Historically, Albania, though formerly part communist Albanian society. Being mostly of Ottoman Empire, being far away from a rural society and very backward in some epicentre of Islamic vahabists, continue to of its segments, post communist Albania follow an Islamic tolerant tradition which has been generally unprepared to face such has been brought here from the Turks. a challenge in the political, juridical and Representatives of Vahabist Movements Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 97  since 7 years ago are trying to take control accordance with the interests of national of the General Council of Albanian Islamic security and European integration of the Community or to create parallel structures. country, the Albanian political class must The fact is that with this stream are being be conscientious for the importance of educated most important part of religious careful treatment of religious matters in students, and unfortunately they have the the country and not to give free space future in their hands. Because of those facts, religious leaders with fanatic formation to the Albanian Islamic Community is before manipulate actual and future developments. the challenge of determination of their own Concluding, we can say that it is the future physiognomy. But the treatment of fact that Albanians of today apart from this challenge is a problem which affects the religious appertaining, incline mostly all Albanian society, because it conditions towards a full integration of their country a number of strategic developments in in the European Community. But if the internal and external fi elds of Albanian Albanian society will not treat this with the policy. The seriousness of treatment of this high attention religious matters or will not question needs the attention and the effective take care to rebuild the Albanian identity reaction not only from the leadership of the based in the European identity of this Albanian Islamic Community, but at the nation and in the same way as the Albanian same time, from the Albanian civil society National Renaissance did, every perspective and the state institutions generally. In would be obscured.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnakis George G, The role of religion in the The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the development of Balkan Nationalism, development of Balkan life and politics The Balkans in Transition, Essays on the since the eighteenth century, edited by development of Balkan life and politics Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of since the eighteenth century, edited by California Press, 1963. Charles and Barbara Jelavich, University of Haxhia-Ljarja Nertila, The Catholic Church and California Press, 1963. the Communist regime in Albania (1944- Clayer Nathalie, Islam, State and Society in Post- 1990). PhD Thesis (manuscript), Tirane Communist Albania, in Hugh Poulton/ 2009. Suha Taji-Farouki (editors), Muslim Identity Huey Luis Kostanick, The geopolitics of the and the Balkan State, Hurst & Company, Balkans; George G. Arnakis, The role of London in association with the Islamic religion in the development of Balkan Council, London 1997. Nationalism, at The Balkans in Transition, Duijzings Ger, Religion and the politics of Assays on the development of Balkan life ‘Albanianism’- Naim Frashëri’s Bektashism and politics since the eighteenth century, writings, at Albanian Identities edited by Charles and Barbara Jelavich, Myth and History, editors Stephanie University of California Press, 1963. Schwander-Sievers and Bernd J. Fischer, Jacques Edwin E., The Albanians, An Ethnic Hurst&Company, London 2002. History from Prehistoric Times to the Gallager Tom, Outcast Europe: The Balkans, Present, McFarland, North Carolina & 1789-1989, From the Ottomans to London, 1995. Milosevic, London and New York 2001. Lubonja Fatos, Albania after Isolation: The George G. Arnakis, The role of religion in the Transformation of Public Perceptions development of Balkan Nationalism, at of the West, at “The Balkans and the 98  National Identity and Religions in Albania

West, Constructing the European Other, Schwander-Sievers Stephanie, Albanians, 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond Albanianism and the Strategic Subversion Hampshire 2004. of Stereotypes, at “The Balkans and the Malcom Noel, Myth of Albanian National West, Constructing the European Other, Identity-Some key elements, as expressed in 1945-2003, edited by Andrew Hammond the works of Albanian Writers in America Hampshire 2004. in the early twentieth century, at “Albanian Stadtmüller Georg, Islamizimi tek Shqiptaret Identities-Myth and History edited by (manuscript in the Albanian language Stephanie Schwandner-Sievers and Bernd translated by Zef Ahmeti) German version J. Fischer, Hurst &Company, London 2002. in: Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteeuropas, Morozzo della Rocca Roberto, Nazione e 1955, Bd. 3, München 1955 Religione in Albania 1920-1944, Il Mulino, Vickers Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern Bologna 1990, gives a full panorama of the History, London: I.B. Taursi, 1995. history of Albanian Nation and Religion. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 99 

THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF SELF-CONSTRUALS AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS ON HAPPINESS

Albana CANOLLARI - Oxford Brookes University, UK/Phd Studente; Kristal University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present study examines whether interpersonal closeness to family and closest friend are predictors to happiness, and whether happiness can be explained by independent and interdependent self-construals. A questionnaire was developed and it was administered to 212 English participants in the United Kingdom. The questionnaire included three parts. Participants were fi rst asked to indicate how close they are, ought to be and ideally wish to be to their family members (grandparents, parents, siblings, aunts/uncles and children), and their closest friend. Part B included the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) prepared by Argyle (2001). Singelis (1994) 24-items Self-Construal Scale was the last section of the questionnaire. This study suggested that individuals who scored high in interdependence were closer to others than individuals who scored low, whereas individuals who scored high in independence were happier than the ones who scored low. It was found that happiness was predicted by how close people are to family members and closest friend. Being close to both made no difference from being closer to family or friends separately. However, not being close to either predicts unhappiness. Keywords: Actual, Ought and Ideal closeness; Culture; Independent and Interdependent Self-Construal; Well-being and Happiness

Introduction on the idea that people differ not only at national level, but also indeed within Many great minds have proposed culture and the way they view themselves and proved with research that people (Singelis, 1994). Among others, Singelis are different from culture to culture has given an important contribution in (Hofstede, 1980; Markus and Kitayama, the concept of individuals’ independence 1991). Research has also been conducted and interdependence self-constructs by

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 99-109 100  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness looking at them as two separate dimensions of individualism and collectivism were of the self. Another area of interest that identifi ed as one of the major themes of has grown rapidly during the last two cross-cultural psychology in the 1980s decades is the exploration of the pursuit (source: Triandis et al, 1998). Markus of happiness, which is very much exposed. and Kitayama (1991) contributed to the Because it is subjective, it is known to concept of individualism and collectivism be diffi cult to measure. The study aims dimensions as well, but from a different to explore how the notion of happiness prospectus. Based on the idea that people can be explained by independent and in different cultures have different construal interdependent self-construals. It also of the ‘self ’ and of ‘others’, they developed aims to fi nd the impact of being close to the concept that people have independent family and friends on happiness. and interdependent self-construal, which can be described as cultural conceptions of Individualism and Collectivism versus the self. In other words, it is an individual’s Independence and Interdependence way of measuring self relative to the other. Whilst collectivism and individualism Numerous writers have concluded that operate in cultural level, independent and people differ in various characteristics on interdependent self-construals operate at behalf to different factors. An important individualistic level. factor that distinguishes people from one- In general, collectivism and another is culture, which makes the society interdependent self-construal are associated people live in be different. Hofstede (1980) with cultures in Africa, Asia and some part fi rst came up with the notion that cultures of Eastern Europe, while individualism and can be recognized as individualist and independent self-construal are part of the collectivist. Amongst other dimensions, Western cultures. People in non-Western he proposed the individualism/collectivism cultures hold an interdependent image of dimensions, which illustrate the way all self-stressing “connectedness, social context cultures are different from each other. He and relationships” (Markus and Kitayama, viewed these dimensions in the level of 1991). Therefore, the ‘self ’ is viewed as cultural description. In 1991, he came up interdependent in complex with the others with a defi nition by stating that: and it is the ‘other’ or the ‘self-in-relation- to-other’ that is central in individual’s “Individualism pertains to societies in experience. Furthermore, their expression which the ties between individuals are and the experience of emotions and loose: everyone is expected to look after motives may be signifi cantly formed and himself or herself and his or her immediate controlled by the reaction of the others. family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains By contrast, people living in Western to societies in which people from birth countries hold an independent view of self onwards are integrated into strong, that emphasizes the “separateness, internal cohesive in-groups, which throughout attributes, and uniqueness of individuals” people’s lifetime continue to protect them (independent self-construal). In other in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.” words, they view themselves as being (Hofstede, 1991:51) separate and unique from other people and that their internal thoughts and beliefs After Hofstede’s suggestion a lot guide their lives and behaviour. more work has been done. According to In cross-cultural research on happiness, Kagitcibasi and Berry (1989), the concepts it was found that cultures seen as collectivist Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 101  are seen to be less happy, whereas collegaous argue that an individual could individualistic ones are seen as happier have both self-construals within his/her (Argyle, 2001; Diener et al 1995). In internal world. The self-construals can other words, people from individualistic be developed separately in the individual rich societies are happier than people who enabling him/her to be independent and live in collectivistic poor countries. In a interdependent (Hawk and Brislin, 1992; theoretical paper, Ahuvia (2002) discusses Cross and Markus 1991; Yamaguchi, individualism/ collectivism dimensions Kuhlman and Sugimori, 1992). Singelis and the cultures of happiness. He explains defi nes self-construal as the “constellation of how in individualistic societies people are thoughts, feelings, and actions concerning encouraged to be themselves. By contrast the elation of the self to others and the people from collectivist cultures consider self as distinct from others (1999:316).” others fi rst and they are not encouraged to Therefore, he designed the 24-item think of themselves; therefore less happy. In quantitative Self-Construal Likert –type other words, he is suggesting that a person scale to measure the complex structure who is collectivised and interdependent of feelings and thoughts that include would score signifi cantly lower in subjective independent and interdependent self- well-being (SWB); whereas, individualised construals as separate dimensions. and independent individuals would score What Singelis is suggesting is that high in SWB; therefore happier. However, both independence and interdependence he has diffi culty explaining himself when are not two distinct dimenstion. Therefore, individuals within culture are compared. He people can be independent and be happy. fi rst claims that individuals in individualistic However, they also can be interdependent cultures have the freedom to pursue their and be happy. In this study, we will intrinsic goals, which bring happiness. discuss whether both independence and According to Kasser (1997), intrinsic interdependence correlate with happiness. needs are self-acceptance, autonomy, and relatedness, having satisfying relationships Gender differences and Self-Construals with family and friends, community feelings. The issue he raises is that these Differences in women and men’s goals are actually characteristics of people behaviour can be explained by individual from collectivist cultures; therefore, they differences in the self-construal (Markus are not less happy. According to Kasser, and Oyserman, 1989). To prove this theory these goals do make people happy. On Cross and Madson (1997) showed in their the other hand, extrinsic goals are goals recent research that American women concerning fi nancial success/ money, wealth are more likely to describe themselves in and material success. Nevertheless, the last terms of relatedness of others, whereas ones are known to be goals of people in American men are more likely to describe the Western culture. Is he claiming that the themselves in terms of independence from values of the happiest people in the USA others. For individuals with interdependent are the ones that we know interdependent self-construal close friendships develop people hold (i.e. community feelings)? their sense of self and maintain their Perhaps this confusion can be self-esteem. By contrast, individuals with resolved if we think that independence independent self-construal avoid behaviours and interdependence are not opposite ends that encourage intimacy to protect their meaning that people can be independent sense of autonomy and separateness. and interdependent. Singelis (1994) and Cross and Madson defi ned independence 102  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness as “being free of connection with other Family ties differ from culture to people.” They concluded that men have culture. In Western Europe and America, an independent self-construal; whereas the main kin for a person are his/her parents, women, an interdependent self-construal. siblings, and children. Relations to uncles Cross and Madson’s research was argued and aunts, who are considered outside by Baumeister and Sommer (1997) the nuclear family, may be associated with in which they suggested that men and cultures such as Africa. In other words, women are more similar than different. in individualist cultures people are more They both pursue belongingness, but in likely to be attached to their nuclear family different aspects. They concluded that (people that they live with until they are women’s sociality is oriented toward independent). By contrast, in collectivist dyadic close relationships, whereas men cultures individuals are connected to their is toward a larger group. extended family, which includes their aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. Happiness and Social Relationships- Another source of social support, Family and Friends which is known to provide a “main effect,” is friendship. Larson (1990) carried a study, Another important aspect in pursuing which required participants to report their happiness is the impact of social network. mood in random occasions and discovered Argyle (2001) demonstrated with research that they were in the most positive when that the main cause of happiness and with friends. Many more studies show positive emotions are social relationships how happiness and friendship correlate at (pg. 74). The fi rst basic relationship to be different levels. Costa et al. (1985) found a experienced is the relationship we built factor of quality and quantity of friendships, with our family members. When kin get which correlated .29 with happiness. Close together they like to talk, eat and most likely friends are an important source of happiness provide “social support” for each other. because they are similar in attitudes and By social support Argyle (1983) defi nes beliefs, so when in need to talk friends the “availability of family and friends or raise our self-esteem. Weiss (1973) found others who can provide emotional support that to avoid loneliness people needed a and material help”, which is good for our close relationship. According to Argyle physical and mental health (Henderson et friends can be defi ned as people that we al., 1978:145). Social support can reduce can trust, like and whose company we enjoy and eliminate stress. The relation between (1983: 142). In addition, Larson (1990) parents and children is to a certain extent a concluded from his study that when people joy. Hoffman and Manis (1982) suggested are with friends, it puts them in a positive that parents give a lot of “stimulation, mood, therefore happier. He suggests that affection, and fun” to their children this is due to the enjoyable things that (source: Argyle, 2001). Shapiro and friends do together. Friends are important Lambert (1999) found that fathers were to us as they can provide “companionship, more depressed, especially when separated social integration, and acceptance by the from children. Argyle suggests that the community” (Cohen and Wills, 1985). importance of different relationships varies Recent feminist theory suggests that with stages in life. For children parents are relations have powerful significance in very important. Then as they grow friends women’s lives (e.g. Belenky et al. 1986). As become more important. Afterwards, there Gilligan (1986) claimed, a willingness and is love and marriage, and so on (pg. 86). ability to care are standards of self-evaluation Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 103  for many women (source: Markus and fi lled in the questionnaire (96 Females; 116 Kitayama, 1991). Additionally, Argyle Males). Four of them failed to respond to (2001) suggested that women’s friendships the OHQ, so they were excluded from are closer involving more affection and further analysis. The sample included 96 social support, whereas for men, social students, 105 employed, 7 unemployed and network are important. 4 retired, aged between 18 and 69 (Mean Age =31.14 and Standard Deviation The present study =11.7). 120 of participants were single, 74 were married, 9 were in relationship, The aim of study is to explore the and 9 were separated. This study examines impact of the Singelis Independent the effects of social relationships (family and Interdependent Self-Construals on members and closest friend), and Singelis individuals’ happiness in the United (1994) independent and interdependent Kingdom. This study also looks at the effect self-construals on the subject of happiness of social relationships on happiness. These within British culture, so only English are the hypotheses that the study predicts: participants were involved. Hypothesis 1: There will a positive correlation between independence and Design and Procedure happiness. The participants were asked to fi ll in Hypothesis 2: Individuals who are close their age, gender, occupation, nationality, to their family members will score high in and marital status. A pilot study was interdependence than the ones who are administered to 14 participants. Not not so close. many changes needed to be done. Asking Hypothesis 3: Individuals who are close about nationality was one category, which to their closest friend will score high in was added as it was noticed that people interdependence than those who are not from other nationalities were willing to so close. complete the questionnaire. Changes Hypothesis 4: Individuals who are close to were done on the format in which the family members will score high in happiness pilot was demonstrated. In Part B of the than individuals who are not close. questionnaire participants were asked to Hypothesis 5: Individuals who are close write down the equivalent number from 1 to their closest friend will score high in to 6; instead, this was changed into circling happiness than those who are not so close. the rated number from 1 to 6 to make it The question raised is whether easier for the participants to answer. interdependence, when used in conjunction Participants were informed that the with independence and closeness to family questionnaire would take 10 minutes from and best friend, adds to happiness. The their time. They were also informed that it result section will be presenting statistical was confi dential and anonymous between tests performed to see whether the above the experimenter and the supervisor at hypotheses are supported. Oxford Brookes University. Respondents were reassured that they did not have Method to fi nish the entire questionnaire if they felt uncomfortable and that, if they had Participants questions about the research or results, To maximize randomization, the the experimenter would inform them. The sample included individuals in Oxford, questionnaire consisted of 5 pages of A4 Reading, and Shrewsbury. 212 respondents paper format. Pens or pencils were provided 104  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness to the participants. (Please refer to Appendix variable called CLFAM3 because these for a copy of the questionnaire). three targets were found to be the most The questionnaire consisted of three significant. Furthermore, closeness to parts: family was divided into two categories Part A consisted of 3 separate questions (CLFAMCAT; 1= close, people who ticked in which participants were to answer Very Close; 2= less close, including the rest questions regarding their closeness to some of scores). A4FRIEND was the name of members of their family if those members the variable for closeness to the closest were applicable to them, i.e. how close friend. This variable was also divided into do you think you are (actual), you ought two categories CLFRICAT (1= close, to be (ought), and wish to be (ideal) to people who ticked Very Close; 2= less close, grandparents, parents, siblings, aunts/uncles including the rest of scores). and children. Respondents were asked to Part B included 29 statements of the circle the appropriate number for each of Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) those three questions in a 5-point Likert- developed by Argyle (2001). The number type format (1-Very Close, 5-Not At All). Part of respondents who completed the Oxford A also had a section asking participants how Happiness Questionnaire equals 208. close they think they are, ought to be and The questionnaire has been found to be wish to be to their closest friend rated from reliable and valid when compared to Oxford 1 to 5 with 1 being Very Close and 5 Not At Happiness Inventory (OHI, Argyle, All. Therefore, the lower score indicates Martin, & Crossland, 1989). Participants higher in closeness to specifi c target. were asked to rate their agreement with Romantic relationships were omitted the items in a 6-point Likert-type format in this study because of their complexity, scale (1-Strongly Disagree; 6-Strongly Agree). which contains a range of various factors Therefore, the lower score indicates less that need to be explored separately. The happiness. The reliability coeffi cient for the study was interested on fi nding distinctions happiness subscale was acceptable (alpha= between ‘blood relations’ (family) and ‘non- .86). Even when Factor Analysis was blood’ or ‘elective’ relations (friendship). performed, the deletion did not improve Furthermore, because not enough the percentage, so the original alpha score respondents answered the questions on was considered. The items that were children and grandparents, they were originally marked (-) were scored in reverse. dropped for further analysis. Therefore, Part C included 24 statements of the Parents, Siblings and Aunt(s)/ Uncle(s) Measure of Independent and Interdependent were collapsed in one category (closeness Self-Construal Scale (SCS) (Singelis, 1994), to family). Friends were separated as which measures individuals’ independence a different category called closeness to (12 items) and interdependence (12 friends. Closeness to family and friends items). Sample independent items included were looked at separately for actual, ought “I’d rather say ‘No’ directly than risk being and ideal. However, due to limitations of misunderstood” and “I am comfortable with the length of this report, only Actuality being singled out for praise or rewards.” will be reported and discussed in relation Sample interdependent items included “I to Happiness and Singelis Self-Construals. have respect for the authority figures with Closeness to family and friends were whom I interact.” and “It is important for looked at separately. It was decided that me to maintain harmony within my group.” the actual closeness to parents, siblings, Respondents were asked to indicate their and aunts/uncles to be considered as one agreement with the items in a 7-point Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 105 

Likert-type format (1- Strongly Disagree CLFRICAT, and GENDER being the Fixed to 7- Strongly Agree). Therefore, the lower Factors. As the table reveals, independence score indicates low in independence or is highly signifi cant predictor of happiness interdependence. There were 210 samples, (F= 12.07; d.f. = 1; p=0.001) and which were considered for further analysis ETA score equals 6.5% out of 13, so as two were dropped out for not completing independence predicts almost half of the the entire questionnaire. The reliability variance. This suggests that independent coefficients for both interdependent people are happier, which supports the (alpha=. 68) and independent (alpha=. first hypothesis. Linear Regression test 62) self-construal subscales were acceptable. was also performed, which showed that Preferably, the alpha should have been independence is a predictor of happiness higher. However, even when a Factor (F= 5.67; d.f. = 2; p= 0.004). Analysis was run, the new score did not make Furthermore, the analysis of variance significant differences (for independent shows that being close to your closest self-construal alpha =. 67, items=14; friend predicts happiness (F=5.12; d.f. for interdependent self-construal alpha=. = 1; p=. 025). This finding supports 64, items=10). Based on the diversity of hypothesis number fi ve of this research, scores, individuals were categorized as high which predicted that individuals who are or low in independence (INDEPBI) and close to their closest friend would score Interdependence (INTERDBI). high in happiness. It is worth mentioning The data was entered manually in that there is an interaction between the SPSS computer program and many closeness to family and friend. This suggests statistical tests were performed. that being close to both family and best friend predicts happiness. So number 4 Results hypothesis is supported as well. If people are close to either family or friend, they are Table 1 shows the Analysis of Variance still happy. However, if not close to both performed with OHQ being the dependent target, then unhappy. Table 2 and 3 show variable; INDEP, INTERD, and AGE the mean difference to both family and being Covariates; and CLFAMCAT, closest friend for males and females.

Table 1. Univariate Analysis of Variance summary table Dependent Variable: OHQ Source d.f. F Sig. Partial Eta Squared

INDEP 1 12.07 .001 .065 INTERD 1 .928 .337 .005 AGE 1 .014 .906 .000 CLFAMCAT 1 1.61 .206 .009 CLFRICAT 1 5.12 .025 .029 GENDER 1 1.34 .248 .008 CLFAMCAT*CLFRICAT 1 4.64 .032 .026 Error 173 a. R Squared =. 179 (adjusted R Squared =. 131)* Signifi cant at 5% level 106  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness

Table 2. Closeness to family and friend by gender FAMILY FRIEND Gender Mean S.D. N Mean S.D. N

Female/Very Close 125.5 19.06 38 121.8 13.35 15 Female/Not close 123.1 15.5 14 114.5 20.69 17 Male/Very close 119.7 19.67 31 122.3 15.54 16 Male/Not close 120.9 16.67 24 107.0 15.02 29

Chi square was carried out on Gender, 204; 2-tailed p= .002). The graph below Closeness to family, and Closeness to friends. shows how happiness is predicted by It showed that more females were very close closeness to family members and closest to their family (N=104) than males. More friend. These fi ndings support once more men were very close to friends (N=118) hypothesis 4 and hypothesis 5. As the graph than females. 94 of females were not close shows, when people are less close to friends, to their friends. 87 of males were not they are signifi cantly unhappy. close to their family. T-test was carried out which showed that there is mean difference Graph 1: Closeness to family/friends and (t=2.6; d.f. = 204; p= .010) between happiness female respondents (M=122.86, N=93) and male ones (M=116.3; N=113). Having a higher mean, females in this study were found happier. Being interdependent does not predict less happiness. The analysis of variance (Table 1) shows that interdependence does not predict happiness (F= 0.928; d.f. =1; p= 0.337). However, Pearson Correlation Test was performed on OHQ (N=206), INDEP (N=204) and INTERD (N=204), and it was found that there is a positive correlation between happiness (OHQ) and independence (INDEP; r= 0 .268; p< 0.01; 2-tailed). There is also a positive correlation between happiness (OHQ) and interdependence (INTERD; r= 0.159; p< 0.05; 2-tailed). Note - CLFAMCAT (closeness to family Independent T-tests were carried members with both categories ‘close’ and ‘less out measuring happiness and closeness close’ included); CLFRICAT (closeness to closest to family and friend. It was found that friend with both categories ‘close’ and ‘less close’); there is a signifi cant relationship between OHQ (Oxford Happiness Questionnaire) happiness and closeness to family (t= 2.654; d.f. =184; 2-tailed p=. 009), and Gender a signifi cant relationship between happiness T-test revealed that closeness to family and closeness to friend (t= 3.15; d.f. = was predicted by how interdependent Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 107  people were (t= 2.8; d.f. = 187; p= 0.005, the individual. It is this last point that the 2-tailed). This supports hypothesis number current study supports. People can have 2. Independence did not predict closeness an independent and interdependent view to family or best friend. In addition, of themselves. interdependence did not predict closeness In this individualistic society such as the to friends, which rejected hypothesis 3. United Kingdom, people who scored high in independence were found to be happier Discussion than those who scored low, who are not necessary interdependent. By contrast, it was Happiness and subjective well-being found as predicted that people who scored are fundamental and necessary conditions higher in interdependence were closer to for the satisfaction of basic needs. The their family and friends. In other words, we current work sought to integrate previous can say that interdependence is a predictor researches that have explored on the to how close people are to their family subject of independence/ interdependence member, whereas independence as predicted and happiness. It also tried to explore the is a fundamental predictor of happiness in impact of social relationships on happiness an individualistic society such as the United in an individualistic society such as the Kingdom. Perhaps, independent people in United Kingdom. On one side, Markus an individualistic society are happier because and Kitayama (1991) following Hofstede’s they fi t in with the norms of its society. It was cultural dimensions, developed the concept also found that both family and closest friend that people from individualistic cultures are predictors of happiness. This supports hold an independent view of themselves, Argyle’s (2001) as he claims that social whereas people from collectivist cultures relationships are the main cause to happiness. hold an interdependent view of themselves. To conclude, the study suggests that In addition to this view, Ahuvia (2002) in an individualistic society, people are discusses that people in individualist found to be high and low in independence societies are happier when compared to and interdependence. It concludes people in collectivist ones, who, because that independent people are happier. of their poor economy, will be unhappy. Alternatively, interdependent people were By contrast, Singelis (1994) challenged this not found to be less happy. They were idea by designing a 24-item Self-Construal indeed found to be closer to their family questionnaire. This questionnaire suggested members and friends. To examine in that people within one culture could have more details whether interdependence can both independent and interdependent self- contribute to happiness, it would need to construals that are grown separately within be an aim in a future research.

REFERENCES:

Ahuvia, A.C. (2002). Individualism/ Collectivism Argyle, M. Hills, P. (2001) The Oxford and cultures of happiness: A theoretical Questionnaire: a compact scale for the conjecture on the relationship between measurement of psychological well-being. consumption, culture, and subjective Personality and Individual Differences, Vo l well-being at the national level. Journal of 33, pg 1073-1082. Happiness Studies 3:23-36. Argyle, M. (1983). The Psychology of Interpersonal Argyle, M. (2001).The Psychology of Happiness. Behaviour. 4th ed. Hammondsport; Penguin. 2nd ed. Routledge. pg 142-145. 108  The possible effects of self-construals & social relationships on happiness

Baumeister, R.F., Sommer, K.L. (1997). What and the Self: Implications for cognition, do men want? Gender differences and two emotion, and motivation. Psychological spheres of belongingness: Comment of Review 98, 224-253. Cross and Madson (1997). Psychological Singelis, T.M. (1994).The measurement of Bulletin, Vol 122, pg 38-44. independent and interdependent self- Cross and Madson (1997). Models of the Self: construals. Personality and Social Psychology Self-Construals and Gender. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 20 No. 5, October (p.580-591). Bulletin, Vol 122, pg 5-37. Triandis, H.C., Chen, X.P. & Chan, D.K. Hofstede, G. (1980). The Organization in its (1998). Scenarios for the measurement of Environment. p. 89-99. collectivism and individualism. Journal of Markus, H.R. & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture Cross-Cultural Psychology 29, 275-289. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 109 

EDUCATION AND FORMATION IN ADULT EDUCATION

Edi PUKA - “Aleksander Moisiu” University, Durres-Albania; Faculty of Education E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

In adult age, development is achieved starting by putting into question the personal means of recognition, feelings, relationships, behavior and believes previously gained which constitute the basis of personality. For the adult to fi nd a new personal development, it is necessary to implement a process of regeneration and separation, through which what was previously thought, existed and believed, at a certain point does not exist any more; in a way, it is therefore transformed. Human life coincides with a teaching itinerary, the denying of which would lead to a denial of life itself; in fact, knowledge and educational needs can not appear limitless and unending because an adult notes that requests for change correspond to impulses involving mind, body and interpersonal relationships. Keywords: education, pedagogy, diversity, background;

I. Introduction Human life coincides with a teaching itinerary, the denying of which would lead In adult age, development is achieved to a denial of life itself; in fact, knowledge starting by putting into question the and educational needs can not appear personal means of recognition, feelings, limitless and unending because an adult relationships, behavior and believes notes that requests for change correspond previously gained which constitute the to impulses involving mind, body and basis of personality. For the adult to fi nd a interpersonal relationships. new personal development, it is necessary People, as human beings, are in the to implement a process of regeneration process of education and in fact they and separation, through which what was are even educated, because they do not previously thought, existed and believed, live in isolation and they do not remain at a certain point does not exist any more; abandoned in their fate in the enormous in a way, it is therefore transformed. effort to document the continuation of

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 109-116 110  Education and Formation in adult education their education, but they live in a cultural adult is distinguished by a temporary and, world and people who are different from in the fi nal analyzes, it is the individual each-other. who builds his own impermanence. It is exactly the presence of such Thus, age is a personal acquisition in diversities and the confrontation between a daily revision and as such it is destined them that provokes great changes and for instability; but the only suitable therefore, asks for the enrichment and way to give a sense of time is that of continuous growth of the individual. experimentation with the others and the This discussion mainly applies to the confrontation with the not always image evolutionary age, in which development has that he send. not fi nished yet, against any evolutionist Ultimately, self-representation is point of view which would consider it an illusion. In fact, it is the others who fi nished with the adolescent age, the social represent us or we represent ourselves and psychological tasks of individuals who through the others and come to know are in the middle of their life course, are ourselves this way. The individual himself the factors that permit the continuity of does not know how to represent himself, their education. because he can not do it and needs It would be fair to talk about lots of mediation of others to give him an identity. adult ages, not just one, as much as the In this case, identity, especially as an adult, different defi nitions that different cultures is manifested at the moment in which he have elaborated in order to respond to is able to communicate the existence of their need to defi ne the adult age. his ego to the others, through language or This problem is not presented if we other forms. (Demetrio, 1990: 37) follow the organic model, according to which the ages of human life are readable II. The Andragogical Theory only through evolution categories, according to which the adult results a The treatment of the flow of life cautious individual capable of coming to ”considers the individual as a continuous life and to immortalize the species and generator of his biography, a personal culture he is part of. history equipped with meaning, mediation, This defi nition is seen with equanimity interaction with others, and with the by the social scientists who focus their circumstances which he happens to live attention on the ontogenetic aspects of in”. (Saraceno, 1988: 22) human maturity, which bring back to the With the defi nition of adult age as a different and relative manifestations from phase of the complex human experience, one individual to another, which put the should be considered the way this subject in front of the task of turning into complexity, as a change generator, can be a personal identity, different from the encouraged and facilitated. The specifi c others. The image of oneself, which the notion which needs to be analyzed is individual tries to protect, in comparison that of change. Some state that: by to the others, tends towards independence making a relation between age and adult and more personal freedom. Identity age, it would be more fair to talk about cultures which modern societies accept, andragogy; this term implies: to lead the base on independence rights and reciprocal adult in the direction which he needs to be respect, contribute to formulate a modern self-directed, to know how to appreciate idea in adult age. (Demetrio, 1990: 22-23) his readiness to learn and he is interested Pursuing this direction, the idea of to learn what is related to the solution of Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 111  the problem of his concrete everyday life. processes of change. This is due to the The central hypothesis of the theory fact that in this orientation the same of andragogy is concentrated in that of environmental stimulus is interpreted an adult who has an autonomous idea of differently by specifi c subjects equipped himself and feels the need for recognition with characteristics that distinguish them of his independence. The adult represents genetically and socially. The individual is an incremental backup of his experience not a passive receiver of environmental of life, which should not be left apart, but stimulus, but he elaborates them starting on the contrary, it should be appreciated from his mental recognition. in the formation processes and, moreover, In this meaning, adult education these experiences generate a change in the is perceived as education of mind, the organization of the individual thought of activation of the processes which the an adult, who needs to learn about the role subject can answer in order to change he has in different stages of his life. what his image of the world is. Change is It is even important to analyze the implied as a representative transformation contribution and meaning assigned to which fi rst happens in the cognitive level change by the main trends of psycho- and then is able to infl uence the emotional social and therapeutic thought which and affective area. (Demetrio, 1990: 83) have underlined the fact that adult age Finally, another approach to be is still opened to formation. (Demetrio, considered is that of cultural psychology, 1990: 81). according to which, the individual is not Starting from the behaviorist only equipped with cognitive dimension, treatment, the topic of change may be but even with an affective, social and analyzed under the light of the relation historical dimension, that characterizes between the subject and the environment him and make his unique. and the impacts that are defi ned in such These assumptions create a vision an interaction. of change which presents innovation In this fi eld, the notion of learning compared to the previous ones: fi rst of has an essential role, which is the process all, the subject transforms his cognitive through which an activity is initiated model based on the meaning of personal and modifi ed reacting against a specifi c cognitive processes and not on results; situation. the change is relational, which means that In the transposition in the formation benefi ts from the role of one who interacts fi eld of the behaviorist model, education is with an intelligent mind. transformed into a conditionality of special In other words, the change starts behaviors, which means manipulation. when the individual notices that, from a Thus, education is not meant as a passive receptor he can turn into an actor of complex system of effective cognitive his own knowledge formation, acquiring events that operate between them, but the usage rules. Generally, change should as a set of mental and emotional factors, be considered as an interruption of which are subject to modification. experience, perception system and reality Therefore, the individual’s change comes interpretation with which people move in through the structuring of the educational the world and organize their life. If it is environment. true that change contains a modifi cation, Cognition, on the contrary, gives can be achieved by being prepared, or less importance to the environmental because it is an anticipated transformation conditionality in the modification in the biographical model, or because the 112  Education and Formation in adult education possibility of change is part of the personal soon as they fi nd themselves outside the model of value and of the life project itself. boundaries of their own groups of direct Conversely, it can be achieved by being reference; therefore it is important to unprepared, even because the incident supply with competences of transportation that change provokes appears suddenly, from one group to another, from one or because the change related to the culture to another, casing of confrontation anticipated means is perceived as dangerous and learning. (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 123) and negative. (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 111) Which are the objectives to be achieved? The cognitive and psycho- III. The adult and the psycho-social social objectives are the most notable character ones. The fi rst ones need to know and develop capacities of critical analysis The psycho-social character and self-criticism related to complex and incorporates different learning strategies. ambiguous topics; it is also important On the one hand, it means to supply with to learn how to develop confrontation such cognition resources that allow the skills in a dialogue related to personal individual an anticipated socialization and collective situations which can be and transitory changes and states, which considered historically and culturally ‘’new are predicated and predictable, as well ‘’. The second ones need to become aware as a capacity of reality-reading which of the existence of the denied attitudes and enables to determine the opportunities behaviors from the ethnical point of view, and the possible ways for an individual but sometimes, in fact, even supported. project of change. On the other hand, If these represent the objectives to be it means to supply with knowledge achieved, there are problems posed to resources, abilities to enter into relations permanent education which includes the and psychological competencies to face the entire individual and social human life, shocking unexpected changes. which consist in attempts of correction, Turning back to adult formation, organization and orientation of the an important observation is having acculturation process. access in a way or a formative experience This attempt aims what every which supplies with resources for the educative process does: to realize the social development of social competences beyond integration and personal growth processes the professional and cultural content. avoiding the trauma and imbalances of the These competences may be understood typical deformations of the socio-cultural as rational capacities (to establish and history. (Laporta, 1979: 53) develop various relationships) as well as Life-long education can not be limited capacities of reality reading. to acquisition of cultures in which we Fully competent and skillful people interaction their basis and their historical may get lost in their social world when existence. Its task is not to immortalize, exposed to other (new) rules. This is what but to make the acculturation relation that everybody experiences when moving to a they establish as harmonic and effi cient foreign country where one needs to learn as possible, especially with the prevailing the mechanisms, formal and informal rules culture. Its fundamental problem is always and the relational styles which govern life that of respecting the personality of the in that community. one who is being educated, thus, that of The fact is that a lot of people fi nd the whole culture that he represents and their own country to be a foreign one as embodies. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 113 

Co-existence in a society is based the education institutions, systems and on the solidary behavior which enables organizations in the center of a storm individuals to react in confl ictual or peaceful which they were not prepared about. way, towards the others interventions. (Josso, 1995: 28) Groups and communities are a residency As the learning act heads towards the in which maturity is tested and developed. individualization of the education process, The learning of co-existence and formation ways need to be conceived to interaction rules starts in the early stages fulfi ll the needs of a society which does not of life and implies, for the whole life, even know where it is heading for. a functional need in the material and psychological survival of individuals. IV. Learning Stages and Basic Formation Loss of membership relations, their crisis and the concern which derives from To be formed and transformed as them, is equal to the substantial threat a person implies being formed and of this practice which is made up of the transformed as a professional and as a dimension and reciprocity. Interaction and socio-cultural actor. Learning does not confl icting are deeply rooted and inevitable mean to learn this or that thing, but to phenomena, a social interaction fi nalized fi nd out new ways of thinking and acting with the achievement of results and private differently; it means starting to look or public benefi ts. (Demetrio, 1990: 134) for may be called something different. Interaction is the result of learning That is why today, we can say that the and progressive acculturation; an adult learning act, transformed into a searching experiences moments of interaction in act, may allow them to learn, develop many fronts, being unprepared to face creativity, skills, their capacity to evaluate, the tasks which put him in situations of communicate and negotiate. priority and prestige. An adult in groups Fundamentally, the learning process does not only learn to decide and compete, is an informal process. In fact, there is but groups and community are collective an informal formative process which not forms of territory identification and only works in the level of consciousness, preservation of personal roots. but even in the unconscious one, and In such a situation, interaction and these informal education processes are reciprocity are cases of liberation from activated in the young subjects as well as ignorance and cruelty, and serve to in the adult ones. delineate the maturity profi le of the work Adult education has continuously involved in raising the personal conditions tries to eliminate this “separation” vision of life against exploitation and injustice. in education but it has not made its way in Learning to work, to be part of a the pedagogical projections. (Alessandrini, group and ask for the others’ solidarity is 1995: 64) another moment through which maturity It is clear that such a theory, which is built by resigning from personal approaches the formation problem in a individuality in the name of general more detailed way, considers the subject interests. and the environment in which he lives, as Another aspect which goes hand an entirety which establishes the global in hand with learning is that of a process of learning; it is important to better understanding of learning. The consider human beings as total subjects so cultural changes that we experience that the formative process forces us to start in an international and local scale put from the subject himself, from his own 114  Education and Formation in adult education world, and to activate the processes that knowledge are not independent from the are found within the subject and which context where they are acquired and used, need to be “unlocked” and restored in but they are associated with it. (Morgagni- motion with the relevant strategy. Pepa, 1993: 222) The learning concept represents a Learning is the result of formation, constellation of concepts related to the it is important to distinguish two types of content, with he cognitive forms and the learning: the simple one which happens ability that an individual acquires and by the addition of new elements, in the processes through education. sense that the past culture of the individual The first concept belongs to is improved, but not modified in its the organization of knowledge; the elements; another type is the complex information that the individual acquires in one, which mainly occurs by modifying the continuity of his personal experience the previous knowledge of the person, in during the everyday life do not constitute other words, complex learning highlights elements in isolation, but they constitute the fact that the culture of the individual the organized cognitive structures: is modifi ed. schemes. These deal with the anchoring While the simple learning directs the of new elements of information in terms attention towards “a new element”, the that enables knowing and assimilating complex one directs the attention towards facts and specifi c examples of events that new connections that the individual should the individual comes across. establish between the new things and things Schemes have a creative function already present in his experience. Complex because they do not only get information, learning refers, above all, to the creation but they create it; the other function of adults who are already experts in their of the productivity of knowledge. The job and for whom learning signifi es always detailed recognition of a problem or fi eld adding, but even, mainly modifying. of experience allows the individual to make Learning new concepts and skills useful interventions to understand new related to the exercise of the employee’s role situations, helps to better involve facts itself, inevitably, results in a modifi cation and events and to formulate predictions. in the notion that the subject has for his (Morgagni-Pepa, 1993: 220) role and image; taken together, they can The second subgroup of the concepts be synthesized on the principle of learning belongs to the regulation strategies of as a form of change. This stems from the control that the adult puts into action fact that cognitive and psychological areas during learning. Learning is an active of a person constitute a system; according process, because it plans, supervises and to the systems law, an action on one part verifies the results obtained from the of the system determines the possible individual student learning. actions and reactions not only in that part, A third subgroup and the last of but also in all other subsystems which are concepts, belongs to the general or specifi c interdependent. nature of knowledge and skills. Learning By analogy, in the individual’s cultural theories applied to education have shown system, a change in the knowledge and skills that the knowledge and skills learned in subsystem, determines changes in all the school are generalized in different contexts. other subsystems such as perception of the In fact, thanks to the contribution of role and global conception of professionalism. intercultural studies, this assertion is (Bruscaglioni, 1991: 43-44) strongly put into question: Ability and It is possible to hypothesize a general Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 115  model of adult learning in three phases: process even in the education of adults. from the beginning, the adult has a global To explain the phenomenon of specifi c aid vision of what should be taught, even which the group context provides in the because he is an expert in the work he learning results, a set of serious factors are is engaged, or because he has elaborated emphasized, among which, the fact that dreams on such a topic, psychologically participation in a group activity allows important ones, therefore co-defi ned from and facilitates the ability of individuals to emotional aspects. Formation needs to better elaborate the personal doubts and work on this initial global image, which uncertainties, and through interpersonal will affect the ways of learning in further interactions, facilitates the emergence details. In the second phase, the adult of emotional aspects that have a strong learns different notions. During the last capacity to mobilize energy. phase, the global concept is reviewed for The second group of factors highlights the reinforcement of the complete and fi nal the fact that the change of individuals is results and for a possible development of made diffi cult by the preceding cultural what is learned. “affi liation” of individuals or reference From the observations made on groups, to whom learning new things and adults, it turns out how they really learn change would mean betraying such groups something when the external and internal of belonging, and violating the previously motivations act simultaneously. External acquired norms. motivations of learning are associated with Finally, the third group of factors the result that the individual receives, for regards the active group of learning example: a prize, feeling prepared, and the as the headquarters of interpersonal opportunity to reach new goals. representation. Dynamics between Perhaps these are necessary to individuals and subgroups that are motivate individuals to enter and to manifested in the learning group are participate in the didactic situation. While also active in representing the dynamics internal motivations are those dealing with inside each individual. For this reason, it pleasure the learning process itself such is possible to assume that each individual as: the so-called interest in the subject, has within himself different trends and the desire to exercise intellectual skills opportunities of choice, differentiated and development. These are necessary to elements of behavior and inhomogeneous determine the complex learning, namely, cultural impulse. (Bruscaglioni, 1991: to modify the preceding cognitive and 123-125) psychological fi eld. The formation task is not that of V. Conclusions motivating learning in subjects that have no motivation, but that of using It is exactly with such things pre-existing motivation, often, the real that formation deals, which has the challenge lies in knowing how to release responsibility to support the manifestation the possible motivations which are diffi cult of different attitudes among individuals; to show. (Bruscaglioni, 1991: 47-48-54) it favors the establishment of an Another aspect to be considered in the effective communication system and this general area that has to do with learning is means that it manages to facilitate the the one associated with the construction confrontation and that a differentiated of a group that, from a psychological but complete integration of the attitudes viewpoint, appears to facilitate this and ideas of different people is built. In 116  Education and Formation in adult education conclusion, we can say that that a subject, will inevitably determine uncertainty, particularly balanced or, as we say today, indecision and any internal confl icts in the open and fl exible, will be characterized experience of a person. However, all of this precisely by all of the following elements: would happen only if there are any stages inhomogeneous parts can also be well of change, breakthroughs, and diffi cult integrated among each other, but they new topics.

REFERENCES:

Alessandrini. G., “Verso la formazione continua”, n. 1 1995, pg. 28; in “Adultità”, n. 1, 1995, pg. 64; Laporta. R., “L’autoeducazione delle comunità”, La Bruscaglioni. M., “La gestione dei processi nella Nuova Italia, Firenze 1979, pg. 53; formazione degli adulti”, Franco Angeli, Morgagni. E – Pepa. L., “L’età adulta: il sapere Milano 1991, pg. 43-44-47-48-54-123; come necessità”, Guerini, Milano 1993, pg. Demetrio. D., “L’età adulta. Teorie dell’identica 111-123-220-222; e pedagogia dello sviluppo”, La Nuova Italia, Saraceno. C., “Pluralità e mutamento. Rifl essioni Firenze 1990, pg. 14-22-23-37-134; sull’identità al femminile”, Franco Angeli, Josso. C., “Formarsi in quanto adulti: sfi de, rischi, Milano 1988, pg. 22. poste in gioco, risorse e diffi coltà”, in “Adultità”, Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 117 

SCHOOL DROPOUT BY ROMA CHILDREN IN TIRANA

Anila SULAJ & Fatmir BEZATI - University of Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Education of children of Roma community in Albania has numerous problems related to primary school attendance (primary and secondary, 9-year education) leaving a considerable number of children uneducated. The social phenomenon of school dropout by children of Roma community in Tirana city is continuing to be evident. In our study carried out in Roma community in Allias, Tirana was concluded that out of 423 children of this community from 7 to 16 years old, 270 or 64% of them were quitting the school, 67 children or 16% were attending school 1 or 2 times per week. 86 children or 20% of them were attending school regularly. From all interviews was very convenient from 270 children 182 or 42, 5% were engaged or employed in different kinds of jobs. Some of the children were working together with their parents. According to our study education of children of Roma community in Albania remains problematic. The other problem is employment of children which needs engagement and taking of immediate measures by state social services in local and central governments. Keywords: dropout, school, children, Roma, Tirana

Introduction Persia, Iraq, the Byzantine Empire territories and those of the Ottoman The Roma community has settled Empire (Harluck 1938; Fraser, 1992). in Albania since above 600 years ago Based on data of 1993, there have been (Kolsti, 1991). Researches of the origin about 20 000 Roma people in Albania of this community explain that they (Anonymous, 1997b). During the arrived in Albania mid 15th century. period of the communist regime there The mobility of this group has been was an assimilation process of the Roma interpreted in various ways, giving community, which was accompanied arguments on the mobility from different with loss and assimilation of the Roma places in the course of history, like India, culture in the country (Fonseca, 1995a).

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 117-122 118  School dropout by Roma children in Tirana

During this period, Roma children there is another phenomenon – that of together with other children were obliged marriage of Roma girls at a very early by law to attend primary school. Like age (early adolescence). There is no in other former communist countries, accurate data on the level of education of the Roma community in Albania is Roma community in Albania. Based on considered as one of the parts of the some information in an article in Gazeta population which lost considerably in Shqiptare (17-11-1997), out of 2708 the economic and political changes of Roma people who live in Tirana, 80.2 1980-1990. Having been uneducated % were illiterate, 6.5% have completed and lacking qualifi cations, their position primary education, 1.2% has completed in society changed drastically, leaving high school and only 1% has a university them totally unemployed. As a result, degree (Anonymous, 1998); Cahn, the new generation (the children) of this 1998). There have been attempts by community was unable to attend school Albanian government and NGOs to due to the fact that it was impossible for improve the situation of education among their families to support education for Roma community in Albania. In 1995, their children. There have been few cases “Baltaz” – a private school licensed by the when Roma children attended school in Ministry of Education and Science – was the primary education. (Kovacs, 1996). built in Tirana for the education of Roma Recently, there have been trends showing children in their native language, teaching improvement of the situation concerning their history and culture (Anonymous, education of Roma children in Albania, 1995). Despite the various attempts, the and there has been signifi cant growth number of children attending school was in school attendance in the primary and law (27 children). This school was closed secondary education level (9-year school) in 1997 because of fi nancial problems Based on Albanian legislation on pre- (Kovacs, 1999; Courthiades, 2000). university education, children in Albania There have been even later attempts from are obliged to attend 9 years of school private and public enterprises to promote (primary and secondary education). education of the Roma community in However, school attendance by Roma the country. In 1997, schools were built community based on a 1996 ERRC by NGOs for Roma children to attend, report appears to be: 60% of Roma for example “Xurdelin” and “Rromani children dropped out of school before Baxt” kindergartens in Tirana. The social they completed the fi rst grade, and the phenomenon of poor school attendance majority of the Roma students were has been evident in these schools as well could not pass grade one. Data from this (Courthiades, 2000). The program of study show that 40% of the children of the Institution for an Open Society, Roma community complete only 4 grades sponsored by Soros Foundation launched of the 9-year education (Anonymous, and undertook a series of programs about 1999). Based on explanations by the education of the Roma community in parents of these children, the reasons why Albania and other countries. Programs of their children drop out or do not attend this foundation have been supported by school is related with discrimination many countries of the communist bloc. of children on Roma community in They include projects and programs in schools, especially in rural areas and local governance through pilot projects regions where Roma community leaves for the education of Roma community. In far from schools. On the other hand, 1998, The Foundation of Open Society Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 119  through a project for Development Allias (Tirana). For this reason, a simple of Education in Albania developed a questionnaire was compiled, in two parts. program by funding Roma students It served to collect information on school together with Roma and non Roma attendance. The questionnaire had a teachers to improve school performance general and a specifi c a part. The general and promote high learning outcomes in part included simple questions like: the education of Roma children in 9-year name, last name, age, place of residence, schools. There have been continuous parents’ occupation, name of school and attempts and initiatives, both private grade attending. The specifi c part of the and public for improvements in the questionnaire included questions that education of Roma children. In addition, focused on specifi c information about these attempts have been intensifi ed with school attendance. The beginning of projects and investments in building the this part included questions as such: schools and different associations which do you attend school or not, reason for focus on education of Roma children not attending, how many times do you (Anonymous, 1997a). School dropout go to school, how long have you been is a social phenomenon which remains a out of school for, are you happy with hot problem in the community of Roma school, do you work, what do you do, are children in Tirana. This is proved by you accompanied by your parents. 423 many studies in this fi eld. Often, there children took part in this process; they is no support for studies and projects were interviews in the 9-year schools in concerning this problem-sometimes, Allias and the area around. In addition, when started, projects are not completed. two centers represented by NGOs were The excuse in both cases is that school included in this study. These centers attendance by Roma children is a very provide education for Roma children. In diffi cult problem to tackle. This study the period of one year, 423 Roma children aims at raising awareness among the grades one to nine were interviewed. public, government institutions, NGOs, in order to evaluate the phenomenon of Results and discussion school dropout in the Roma community in Allias (Tirana). This study covers the The outcomes of the survey carried years 2009-2010. out during the academic year 2009- 2010 show that school attendance by Materials and Methods Roma children was very low. Out of 423 surveyed children, 270 did not attend This study was carried out within school at all, having dropped out of it. a one year period, the academic year This considerable part, about 64% of the 2009-2010, among the Roma community interviewed group shows clearly that the

Table 1. School attendance by Roma Children

Roma Did not Went to school Attended Exploitation of children attend 1 or 2 school children studying school days a week regularly through work

423 270/423 (64%) 67/423 (16%) 86/423 (20%) 182/270 (42,5%) 120  School dropout by Roma children in Tirana

Table 2. Happiness of Roma children at school families is an outcome of this situation (Liegeois, 1995). It is a serious social Evaluation Values in % problem. There are about 270 or 42.5% of the children who did not attend school and Very Happy 11/ 153 (7%) were exploited for work by their parents. Happy 17/153 (11%) A considerable number of children (6-14 Somewhat Happy 3/153 (2%) years old) are found as beggars in the Not that Happy 50/153 (33%) streets of Tirana, often alone or surveyed Not happy at all 72/153 (47%) by their parents or their custodians. Results of studies carried out by UNICEF-Albania social phenomenon of school dropout is in reported the school dropout incidence until high occurrence in the Roma community 55% of all roma children community in living in Tirana. According to some remarks Tirana (Anonymous, 2010). by authors of social studies in their social Happiness at school was another part studies on education of Roma community of the survey. Results from Table no. 2 in Albania, there have been cases of dropout show that only 7% of the Roma children and lack of attendance in schools by Roma who attended school were very happy, 11% children. Some authors show that school of them were happy and the other part dropout and lack of attendance in 9-year expressed they were somewhat happy 2%, schools has been in high numbers among not that happy 33% and not happy at all the Roma community. Their fi gures show 47%. In other words, 82% of the children that in various populations there has been interviewed were not happy with school about 50% up to 80% of Roma children and did not like it. There were cases when (Anonymous, 2009, Anonymous, 2010). children expressed they had experienced Despite attempts by the local and central discrimination by the other community government to increase attendance of of children. Among the discrimination, Roma children in schools, the situation in forms mentioned were calling names, the 9-year school system does not have any insults, and refusal to stay together by the apparent improvement. It is evident that part of the non Roma community. There there is an increase of illiteracy in the Roma have been many projects and studies to community as a result of the fact that many increase school attendance but their results most of the children drop out of school have not been promising. The social while still in grade one, thus not completed projects carried out initially were based on at least one grade. Only 67 (16%) attended investing for construction of appropriate school once or twice a week, fi gures which schools for the Roma community, social show that even this group of children centers, kindergartens, education centers, were not happy with school and school etc (Lakshman, 1996; Liegeois, 1999). attendance was not periodic. There is some There have been cases when Roma children improvement for 86 Roma children or 20% received separate education from the other of those attend public schools, social centers community of children; this has produced for specifi c Roma children education and a negative impact in attending public kindergartens. More than half of Roma schools and has not promoted social skills children who attend regularly belonged to for this category of children in their co- the social centers for the Roma community habitance with various communities in and the other part belonged to public public 9-year schools. Social exclusion of schools. Employment or exploitation of some groups of children, including Roma children for work by their parents or their children, is an evident concern which is Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 121  spreading and getting more and more country. Attendance of school at the level serious (Goltson, 2002). Roma children of 9-year school system (primary and can be labeled as endangered group just secondary education) by Roma children because of their ethnicity, since this is a has been low, and the number of illiterate factor. However, this does not determine children in this community is increasing. the risks for a considerable number of this The social phenomenon of school dropout category, which are deprived of the right by children of the Roma community in for social services, because many of them Tirana remains present. Our study, carried have not been registered at birth. Lack out in the Roma children community of birth registration of Roma children in Allias (Tirana) indicates that out of deprives them of the right for public social 423 children ages (7-16) 270 (64%) service as well as nongovernmental care did not attend school or had dropped (Janusz 1994; Anonymous, 1999). The out of it. The results of this study show education situation in the 9-year school that 67 (16%) attended school once or system for the Roma community is not twice a week and only 86 (20%) of them good and presents hardship due to some attended school regularly. Exploitation extent to the abovementioned deterring of children through work alongside with factors. It requires serious commitment by school dropout and lack of attendance public social services agencies, the support remains a serious problem. 42.5% of of NGOs, state institutions which tackle the Roma children, who do not attend problems in the education of children and school, were engaged in work alone or that of Roma families. together with their parents. Education of the Roma children appears to have serious Conclusions problems. In addition, exploitation of these children through work is a sharp There have been many serious social problem which requires measures problems with school dropout by the by state social services which operate at children of the Roma community in our the local and central level.

REFERENCES:

Anonymous, Albanian Human Rights Group of their Movements in Central and Eastern (1997a), a document, Tirana. Europe and in Some OECD Countries Anonymous, ACCESS Association (1997b). (University of Maryland). Balkan Neighbors Newsletter, Vol. 5, Sofi a. Anonymous. European Roma Rights Center Anonymous,ACCESS Association (1998). (1997c). No Record of the Case: Roma in Balkan Neighbors Newsletter, Vol. 7, Sofi a. Albania, Report, pp: 27-59. Anonymous, Amaro Drom (1999). “Balkan Cahn, Claude (1998), researcher at the European Roma Conference for Peace and Security” Roma Rights Center in Budapest, CEDIME- in Yilli i Karvanit, Issue Nr. 27. SE interview, March 1998, Budapest. Anonymous, (2010). UNICEF-Albania. Cahn, Claude (1999). Researcher at the European Anonymous, (2009). UNDP-Albania. Roma Rights Center in Budapest. CEDIME- Anonymous, Center for International SE Interview in April 1999, Budapest. Development and Confl ict Management Courthiades, Marcel (1990s), “A Social and (1995). “Minorities at Risk Project” in Historical Profi le of the Roma in Albania, Evaluation of the Gypsy Population and Part III.” Conference Papers. 122  School dropout by Roma children in Tirana

Courthiades, Marcel (2000). CEDIME- Kovacs, Petra (1996). “The Invisible Minority. SE electronic interview with Marcel Roma in Albania”. Journal of Minorities and Courthiades (a linguist, specialist on the demographic changes 7(4), pp: 245-353. Roma dialectecs), March-April, 2000. Kovacs, Petra (1999). Program Manager of Fraser, Angus (1992). The Gypsies (Blackwell, the “Managing Multiethnic Communities Oxford UK, Cambridge USA) pp: 41-45. Project at the Open Society Institute Friedman, Victor (1998). “The Romani Language in Budapest”, CEDIME-SE electronic in the Republic of Macedonia:Status, Usage, interview on 18 October. and Sociolinguistic Perspectives”, Acta Courtiades, Marcel (1995) “Between Conviviality Linguistica Hungarica 123-128. and Antagonism: The Ambiguous Position Fonseca, Isabel (1995a). “Among the Gypsies”, of the Romanies in Albania”, Patrin The New Yorker, 25 September. No.3/1995. Fonseca, Isabel (1995b). Bury Me Standing, Lakshman-Lepain (1996). “Religions Between (London:Chatto &Windus). Tradition and Pluralism” in Human Rights Goltson A.J. 2002. Europe Gypsy’s Problems. Without Frontiers, European Magazine of Foreign Affairs Journal 81(2), 146-162 Human Rights. Harluck, Margaret (1938). “The Gypsies of Lakshman-Lepain (1996). “Religions and the Albania”, Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, Law on Associations Recognition De Jure April 1938. and De Facto” in Human Rights Without Janusz Bugajski (1994). Ethnic Politics of Eastern Frontiers, European Magazine of Human Europe, A Guide to Nationality Policies, Rights pp: 67-79. Organizations, and Parties. Center for Liegeois, Jean-Pierre and Nicolae Gheorghe Strategic and International Studies, Armonk, (1995), Roma/Gypsies: A European NY and London, M.E. Sharpe, pp.107-108. Minority, Minority Rights Group Kanev, Krassimir (1999). CEDIME-SE Interview International, Report. on 8 January 1999. Liegeois, Jean-Pierre (1999). Romi, Tsigani, Kolsti, John (1991). “Albanian Gypsies, The Chergari [Roma, Tsiganes, Voyageurs] Silent Survivors” in The Gypsies in Eastern translation in Bulgarian, (Sofia:Litavra Europe, (New York: Sharpe). Publishers). Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 123 

CONSTRUCTS OF QUALITY OF WORK LIFE: A PERSPECTIVE OF MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS

Lediana XHAKOLLARI - University “Luigj Gurakuqi”, Shkoder-Albania E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Most of the adults spend a large part of their time at work. Over time, the work becomes like a second family. On the one hand work is an earning of one’s living for the family, on the other hand it could be a self-realization providing enjoyment and satisfaction. This article reviews literature on quality of work life (QWL) in terms of its meaning and constructs specifi cally from the perspective of mental health professionals. This research study is focused specifi cally on quality of work life in psychiatric hospital employees in Albania this because productivity and effi ciency of an organization depends greatly on the quality of work life of employees. Mental and psychological health of psychiatric hospital employees is a critical factor for their performance at work. Any carelessness can have undesirable consequences for patients. This can happen from lack of authority in decision-making, fatigue, fear of attack patients, social isolation, shift work schedules, etc. Data were collected through questionnaires, interviews and observations. First study aims at covering a wide range of aspects and features of life at work, make a comprehensive assessment of satisfaction of mental health professionals in psychiatric hospitals with quality of life at work. Secondly this study will determine to what extent the facts of life work chosen as research variables assessed by staff as important. Other goals related to respondents’ demographic characteristics such as gender, age, experience, marital status, education level, etc. Are explored interesting issues about the level of satisfaction and relationship between demographic characteristics and satisfaction with the specifi c construct of QWL. Keywords: Quality of Work Life, Mental Health Professional, Job Security, Adequate and Fair Compensation.

Introduction and psychiatric wards (Tirana, Elbasan, Vlora, Shkodra). The QWL concept was Mental Health Services in Albania introduced into the work place in the late focus on four districts of the country 1950s. It was initially introduced as a way where they are located psychiatric hospitals of focusing on the effects of employment

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 123-130 124  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals on worker health and general well being, Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Lewis & Cooper, and a way to enhance the quality of a 1987). QWL includes life satisfaction, person’s on-the-job experience. (Bowditch job satisfaction, and work-specifi c facet & Anthony 2005). Up until the mid satisfaction such as satisfaction with pay, 1970s, the focus was on work design and co-workers, supervisor, among others improving work. Quality of work life (Danna & Griffi n, 1999). Heskett, Sasser is a concept of behavioral scientist, and and Schlesinger (1997) defi ne QWL as the the term was fi rst introduced by Davis feelings that employees have towards their (Mathur, 1989; Hian and Einstein, 1990). jobs, colleagues and organizations that It was fi rst introduced in 1972 during an ignite a chain leading to the organizations’ international labor relations conference growth and profi tability. A good feeling (Moen, 1999). However, beginning in towards their job means the employees the 1980s QWL has come to include feel happy doing work which will lead other features that affect employees’ to a productive work environment. This job satisfaction and productivity for definition provides an insight that the example, reward systems, physicalwork satisfying work environment is considered environment,employee involvement, to provide better QWL. QWL has been rights and esteem needs (Cummings well recognized as a multi-dimensional and Worley, 2005). The concept of construct and it may not be universal quality-of-work-life (QWL) has been or eternal. Beauregard (2007) said that used in a variety of ways, encompassing the key concepts captured and discussed an approach to industrial relations, a in the existing literature include job method of work re-design involving security, better reward systems, higher team decision-making and a movement pay, opportunity for growth, participative to enhance organizational effectiveness groups, and increased organizational (Nadler & Lawler 1985). Quality of productivity. Quality of work life is a work life (QWL) is a process by which an dynamic multidimensional construct that organization responds to employee needs currently includes such concepts as job by developing mechanisms to allow them security, reward systems, training and to share fully in making the decisions career advancement opportunities, and that design their lives at work (Robbins, participitation in decision making. In 1989). QWL and job-related outcomes health care organizations, such as hospitals, such as job satisfaction and organizational specifi cally clinical laboratories, quality of commitment have been important topics in work life has been described as referring human resource (HR) and organizational to the strength and weakness in total work development (OD) since the beginning environment. QWL is a process by which of 1960s (Cummings & Worley, 2005; an organisation responds to employee Leopold, 2005). Previous studies indicated needs by developing mechanisms to allow that employees’ perception on work life members to share fully in making decisions quality signifi cantly infl uenced their job that design their lives at work (Robbins satisfaction. As early as 1960’s researchers 1998). Subsequently, organisations have begun to study and connect the dots cognisant of issues surrounding the concept between work and family. Numerous of QWL appear to be more effective at works on work life thereafter proves that retaining their employees and achieving what happened in the workplace have their goals. QWL consists of opportunities signifi cant impact on individuals and their for active involvement in group working families. (Greenhaus & Beutell,1985; arrangements or problem solving that are of Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 125  mutual benefi t to employees or employers, QWL in the literature include job security, based on labor-management cooperation. job satisfaction, better reward system, People also conceive of QWL as a set employee benefi ts, employee involvement of methods, such as autonomous work and organizational performance (Havlovic, groups, job enrichment, high-involvement 1991; Scobel, 1975). Thera are eight main aimed at boosting the satisfaction and conceptual categories which together make productivity of workers (Feuer 1989). It up the quality of working life. These are: 1) is noteworthy that employees perception Fair and appropiate compesation; 2) Work of Quality of Work Life varies based on conditions; 3) Use and development of demographic and organizational variables. capacities; 4) Chance of growth and security; Understanding this perception would 5) Social integration in the organization; 6) help the leaders of the industries to work Constitutionalism; 7) Work and the total on improving the Quality of Work Life. space of life; 8) Social relevance of the work Rice (1985) emphasized the relationship in the life. (Walton, 1975). between work satisfaction and Quality of people’s lives. He contended that work Research Methodology experiences and outcomes can affect person’s general Quality of life, both Aim of this research:This study attempt directly and indirectly through their to investigate the current state of affairs in effects on family interactions, leisure terms of satisfaction with quality of work activities and levels of health and energy. life in an organization. It will be attempted Efraty and Sirgy (1990) conceptualized to identify the predictors of satisfaction with QWL in terms of “need satisfaction.” In quality of work life from range of facets of their later research, Sirgy et al. (2001) work life. It is hoped to be able to point defi ne QWL as “employee satisfaction out specifi c indicators that have a signifi cant with a variety of needs through resources, effect and may constitute problem areas if activities, and outcomes stemming from dissatisfaction is experienced. Secondly, participation in the workplace.” They it will be determined to what extent the proposed that QWL be measured in terms facets of work life chosen as variables for of employees’ needs. Specifi cally, seven the research are regarded as important. dimensions of needs were suggested: Additional objectives are concerned with (a) health and safety needs (protection the demographic characteristics of the from ill health and injury at work and respondents relevant to needs and quality outside of work, and enhancement of good of work life in order to determine what health); (b) economic and family needs sub-groups exists according to their (pay, job security, and other family needs); commonality of needs and perceptions of (c) social needs (collegiality atwork and the quality of work life. Interesting patterns leisure time off work); (d) esteem needs will be explored with respect to levels of (recognition and appreciation of work satisfaction and relationships between within and outside the organization); (e) demographic characteristics and satisfaction actualization needs (realization of one’s with specifi c facets of work life. potential within the organization and as a professional); (f) knowledge needs The question an hypotheses of current (learning to enhance job and professional study are: skills); and (h) aesthetic needs (creativity Q1: What is the level of satisfaction at work as well as personal creativity and with quality of work life among mental general aesthetics). The key elements of health staffs? 126  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals

Q2: What is the level of satisfaction with depth interviews. The methodology each of constructs of quality of work life? developed in this work was initially based H 1: There is a signifi cant relationship on bibliographical review of research of between personal factors (age, status, the main factors and criteria in QWL education level, work position, work considerate in literature. Quality of work experience) and overall satisfaction with life was assessed by using Walton`s scale. quality of work life. The questionnaire was completed by a H 2. Satisfaction with fair payment is total of 36 employees in Shkodra and positively related to overall satisfaction with Vlora Psychiatric hospitals. A fi ve-point quality of work life Likert-type scale ranging from “Strongly H 3. A safe and health working dissatisfaid” (value of 1) to “Strongly environment is positively related to overall satisfi ed” (value of 5) was used to measure satisfaction with quality of work life QWL. The questionnaire involves 33 polar H 4. Developing human capacities is affirmations regarding QWL. Among positively related to overall satisfaction with different methods of estimating reliability quality of work life Cronbach`s Alpha is used. It shows that for H 5. Chance of growth and security the 33 items of Walton`s scale, =0.89. So is positively related to overall satisfaction the questionnaire is reliable enough. The with quality of work life basic descreptive statistic had been used for H 6. Social relationship in organization analysis of the data set. is positively related to overall satisfaction Variables: Demographic characteristics with quality of work life of employees, satisfaction with various H 7. Regualtions and rule orientation factors of work and the facts of life at is positively related to overall satisfaction work and individual perceptions of the with quality of work life importance of the latter are considered H 8. Balanced role of work is positively as independent variables, and general related to overall satisfaction with quality satisfaction with the quality of life at work of work life is considered dependent variable. H 9. Social coherent in the work organization is positively related to overall Findings and Discussion satisfaction with quality of work life. Sampling: The purpose of this study The collected data were analysed using are mental health professionals employed the SPSS 16 package. The analysis reveals in psychiatric hospitals in Albania. In this that the respondents were aged 21-30 years study, the sampling method used is simple (16.7%), 31-40 years (30.5%), 41-50 casual (probalibitar sampling) where each years (36.1%) and over 51 years (16.7%). employee based on random selection from Marital status was singles (12.1%), married the list of the population had an equal (75.8%) and divorced/separated (12.1%). chance and independent to be elected. Their education was secondary education In conclusion in this study took part 36 (48.6% ) bachelor degree (25.7%), 4 years employees from a psychiatric hospital in higher education (14.3%),masters degree Vlora, and Shkodra. (11.4%). Their positions were physicans Instruments: The study used (6.2%), psychologists (12.5%), social quantitative research methods as well as workers (9.4%), staff nurses (40.6%), qualitative ones. The necessary information custodians (6.3%), sanitary (25%). In this is collected through semi-structured study majority (89%) of respondents are questionnaires, natural observation and female and remaning 10% are male. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 127 

Level of satisfaction with QWL is developed which justifi es that the The research questions is: “What is the employees are socially integrated. level of satisfaction with quality of work 2. The second most satisfied factor life among mental health staffs?”. Based perceived by mental health employees on the fi ve-point scale used, the minimum was “Opportunities to use & develop QWL rating was 2 and a maximum of 4. human capacity” with a mean score The median QWL rating value was 3.11 of 3.26. This indicate that employee With a standard deviation of SD=.590. participation is encouraged which The mean QWL rating was 3.13 implying enhance employee-employee and that overall the level of QWL is good or at employee-employer relationships in a moderate level. the organization. 3. The third most satisfied factor Level of satisfaction with conceptual perceived by mental health employees categories of QWL was “Social relevance of work” with The research questions is: “What is the a mean score of 3.21. This indicates level of satisfaction with each of constructs that being a public organization of quality of work life?”. For initial psychiatric hospitals promotes social analysis of the 33 questions considered in responsibility within the employees as this study had been gouped in 8 criteria well as among patients. idealized by Walton (1973). For each 4. The fourth most satisfied factor criterion the average of the questions of perceived by mental health employees the research referring to the criterion had was “Eminence of Work Life” with a been calculated and is presented in Table 1. mean score of 3.21. This table indicate the mean ratings for the 5. The fi fth most satisfi ed factor perceived conceptual categories of QWL. by mental health employees was “Fair 1. It was discernible from the table and appropriate compensation” with that the fi rst most satisfi ed factor as a mean score of 3.07. This indicates perceived by mental health employees that the organization follows adequate was “Social integration in the work income and fair compensation schemes. force” with a mean score of 3.64. 6. The sixth most satisfi ed factor perceived This indicates that the coordination by mental health employees was “Safe and cooperation in the organization & healthy working conditions” with a

Table 1. The mean rating for the conceptual categories of QWL

Conceptual categories of QWL Mean SD Level of stisfaction

1. Fair and appropriate compensation 3.07 .838 Moderate 2. Work conditions 3.02 .735 Moderate 3. Use and development of capacities 3.26 .798 Moderate 4. Chance of growth and security 2.67 .892 Low 5. Social integration in the organization 3.64 .805 Moderate 6. Constitutionalism 2.99 .908 Moderate 7. Work and the total space of life 3.21 .700 Moderate 8. Social relevance of the work in the life 3.21 .917 Moderate General Average (QWL) 3.13 .590 Moderate 128  Constructs of Quality of Work Life: A Perspective of Mental Health Professionals

mean score of 3.02. This indicates that variables some called conceptual categories the working conditions are somewhat and other demographic variables. The conducive and transparent. The fi ndings reversed that the personal factors: employees working are satisfi ed with age, status, education level, work position, the hygiene and tha maintenance of work experience were not relate to the the organization which automatically QWL at 0.01 level. Thus, the research proves that the employees are safe and hypothesis Nr 1 “There is a signifi cant free from risk of illness\injury. relationship between personal factors (age, 7. The seventh most satisfied factor status, education level, work position, perceived by mental health employees work experience) and overall satisfaction was “Constitutionalism in work with quality of work life” was rejected. organization” with a mean score The descriptive statistics, correlations of of 2.99. This indicates that proper QWL and other predictor variables are hierarchy exists in the organization shown in Table 2. The fi ndings indicate where everyone is aware of his or her that the QWL is positively realted to all responsibilities. conceptual categories of QWL. 8. The eighth most satisfied factor Correlation is signifi cant at the 0.01 perceived by mental health employees level and the results of Table 2 show that was “Chance of growth and security” all correlations are signifi cant (r < 0.01). with a mean score of 2.67. This The findings indicate that the QWL indicates that there is not a provision is positively realted to all conceptual of enhancement programmes for categories of QWL. “Fair and appropriate mental health employees. Moreover compensation”, “Use and development special training programmes are not of capacities”, “Work and the total space organized for boosting employees of life”, relate to QWL at moderate capabilities. Insecurity of job leads to level, others like “Chance of growth and discouragement and anxiety. security”, “Constitutionalism”, relates to the QWL at high level, while “Work Correlation of QWL conditions”, “Social integration in the Based on the conceptual framework organization” and “Social relevance of of the present study, the QWL was the work in the life” relate to QWL at independent variables of some dependent moderate to high level.

Table 2.

Correlation between QWL Pearson Sig Level and its dimensions Correlation (2-tailed) of relation (r) (p)

1. Fair and appropriate compensation .537 .007 Moderate 2. Work conditions .650 .001 Moderate to high 3. Use and development of capacities .554 .005 Moderate 4. Chance of growth and security .797 .000 High 5. Social integration in the organization .701 .000 Moderate to high 6. Constitutionalism .847 .000 High 7. Work and the total space of life .522 .009 Moderate 8. Social relevance of the work in the life .738 .000 Moderate to high Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 129 

Conclusion supported by their administratons and belive they had the appropriate tools and The study found that there is a information to do their jobs, have better moderate level of satisfaction among professional QWL. employees regarding the Quality of Work Life. All conceptual categories of QWL Further research determine the satisfaction with quality Future researches should include other of work life in the organization. All these salient variables and also examine more factors are positively correlated with quality complex interactions of quality of work of work life. So by improving these factors life with democraphic characteristics and quality of work life in psychiatric hospitals other variables among mental health staffs. can be enhanced. QWL is the shared It is recommended to present a comparison responsibility not only of the management between QWL level in mental health and employees, but also by the society. workforce and other professions. This study To improve quality of work life is fi rst to was limited to the executives in two type of identify and then try to statisfy employee`s hospitals, so it is not generalizable to other important needs thorugh their experience hospitals. Replication in other setting and in their working environment. Depending comparative analysis are likely to enhance upon the situational requirements, this framework. management may select the relevant needs of the employee`s to improve them with Acknowledgement short term plan. The results of the present The author would like to thank the study could be more effectively utilized for mental health staffs at Vlora and Shkodra the promoting QWL among mental health Psychiatric Hospitals for their support in professional. Mental health staffs who feel data collection.

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HUMAN RIGHTS AS COLLECTIVE GOODS

Jordan DACI - Wisdom University, Tirana-Albania E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The most prevalent conception of human rights draws on a theory of natural rights: human rights are the inalienable entitlements of individuals, based on their nature as human beings (moral person); they protect those potentials, attributes, and holding that are essential to a life worthy of human beings.1 Meanwhile, from the perspective of jurisprudence and legal history, human rights may be defi ned also as the basic and the very fi rst legal norms that were ever produced by human beings. In other words, Human Rights are the very fundamental norms of original social contract and the basic source of other legal norms. Thus, Human Rights can be considered also as collective goods, since they make the most essential part of society’s interests and their respect and protection is a precondition for the security and peace of the human society. Keywords: Human Rights, Common interest, Human Society, State legitimacy, Human Rights as Legal Norms, Democracy, Law, Jurisprudence.

1. State, Law and Human Rights point of view, state is perceived as the political system of a body of people who State and Law are the two main are politically organized; the system of perquisites for the existence, for the rules by which jurisdiction and authority respect, protection and for the promotion are exercised over a body of people,2 or as of Human Rights. The latter are the very “an institution, that is to say, it is a system of reason for the creation of State and Law relations which men establish among themselves as its primary product designed to control as a means of securing certain objects, of which human beings and to protect them from their activities can be carried on. From another themselves. As such from a contemporary point of view the state can be defi ned also as

1 P.I.O.O.M., Alex P.Schmid.“Research on Gross Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P.Leiden 1989, pp 6. 2 Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007, pp. 1443.

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 131-137 132  Human Rights as collective goods an association of human beings established of the law of nature, was permanently living for the attainment of certain ends by certain in a state of war were the perfect freedoms of means. It is the most important of all the man was also its greatest enemy. Under these various kinds of society in which men unite, circumstances, men decided to go out from being indeed the necessary basis and condition the state of war and enter into human society of peace, order, and civilization.”3 As such, under the rule of positive law enacted by state the fundamental reason for the creation of as its own creation. This process is described state is to safeguard human rights which in Hobbes inquires, “For what reason go men are inseparable, undividable and inalienable armed, and have locks and keys to fasten their from human beings. They are vital, necessary doors, if they be not naturally in a state of war?” and indispensable to a modern society, which But is it not obvious that he attributes to without them would be unable to function mankind before the establishment of society and cannot be developed.4 Nevertheless, the what can happen but in consequence of this protection of human rights as the basic of establishment, which furnishes them with the human society unity and the essential motives for hostile attacks and self-defense? part of the society common interest cannot For Montesquieu, as soon as man enters into a be achieved without the help of law. The state of society he loses the sense of his weakness; law itself is described by Montesquieu equality ceases, and then commences the state as the relations subsisting between it and of war.7 Therefore, for Montesquieu the law different beings, and the relations of these to one in general is human reason, inasmuch as it another.5 At any case, we should make a clear governs all the inhabitants of the earth: the distinction between the law as a divine rule political and civil laws of each nation ought to and absolute true of nature or the law of nature be only the particular cases in which human and the law as a positive act deriving from the reason is applied.8 Thus, we may defi ne law state. While natural law represented the law as product of human reason, or as Thomas “imposing” to human beings the principle of Jefferson used to simply describe it as ideal or unlimited or perfect freedom, the positive “written reason”.9 law is imposes to human being rules which aim Nevertheless, it should be emphasized to control and limited the perfect freedom, very that law is not a phenomenon with a often understood also as the natural impulse nature wholly independent of our beliefs or desire which Hobbes attributes to mankind about it, but one that is constituted by of subduing one another is far from being well our understandings and expectations.10 founded.6 Thus, man living in under the rule Although, the concept of law is a paradigm

3 John Salmons. Jurisprudence 129 (Glanville L. Williams ed., 10th ed. 1947). As cited in Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson West. USA 2007, pp. 1443. 4 Jordan Daci. “Te Drejtat e Njeriut”. Botimi III. Julvin 2, Tirana 2011, pp 35. 5 Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.19. 6 Ibib. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid, pp.22. 9 Thomas Jefferson. The Writings. Ed.Paul Leicester Fors (New York:1898),9:480; 18:1 (“The Batture at New Orleans”), 15:207. Cited in Donald R. Kelly, The Human Measure: Social Thought in the Westerns Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Pres 190), p.186. As cited in Russell Hittinger. “Natural law in the positive laws: A Legislative or Adjudicative Issues?”. The Review of Politics. Available at EBSCO Database, 2001, pp.7. 10 N.E. Simmonds. “Law as moral idea”. University of Toronto Law Journal 2005, pp.68. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 133  concept of a non-natural kind that is people created the state. As such Human intrinsically related to natural kinds,11 the Rights represent the basic moral values humankind perception of law and how it and human society’s interests. The Law should refl ects peoples’ understandings and which would not properly take into expectation remains an ongoing discussion account human rights would not be among scholars. In one hand, the law considered a proper law, since will lack would be also as a set of norms enacted the basis requirements such as morality by the legislative power with the scope to and legitimacy. In addition, also a state regulate the social relationships between which would not properly respect, protect individuals in one hand and between and promote human rights would not be individuals and state in another hand, a legitimate state, but rather a group of the enforcement of which is guaranteed people constituting a model of state being by the sanction imposed to people via far away from a democracy. the force mechanism of state. Certainly, the law as product of society made by 2. The Social Nature of Law and its people through the state and for the relationship to the State people must refl ect people’ understandings and expectations that are nothing more The notion of Human Rights as or less than the prevailing moral values collective goods cannot be explained with of a particular society. Therefore, there explaining the social nature of law and cannot be any division between the law its relationship to the state. The notion and moral, because such laws would be of law is essentially related with the considered as vain. Even Latin people notion of society, state and in last century used the expression “Leges sine moribus also with the international community. vanae” (laws without moral are vain). That’s why, Curtis F.J. Doebbler, defi nes On the other hand, the law should be human rights as “the main requests that understood fi rst as “lex” or the act of the individuals make to their own government, sovereign body that represents the People whose legitimacy is often based on its ability to with its primary scope to regulate the provide a proper answer to these requests.”13 relationships between individuals in one From a different perspective, the law hand and between individuals and state on itself is a product of People’s interaction the other hand. Secondly, the law should in society, made by the People and for the be understood as “Jus” or the whole body People. As previously explained, human of norms including norms deriving from being created the law as part of the social subordinate laws12 that constitute the contract they reached to enter into human system of domestic law in a given country. society, in which human beings are tied to To conclude, the notion of Human “membership”14 of each of them into the Rights is closely and strictly related state and so they are interdependent. As with the notion of state and law since Kant explained, the human beings in order Human Rights are the very reason why to be related in a mutual relation with each

11 Robert Alexy. “On the Concept and the Nature of Law”. Ratio Juris. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.Vol. 21, No. 3., USA 2008, p.284. 12 A subordinate law is an act issued by a non sovereign body, based and with the scope to enforce a law. 13 Curtis F.J. Doebbler. “International Human Rights Law: cases and Materials”. CDP, Special printing. United States of America 2003, pp 6. 14 Tony Honore. “Making Law Bind”. Oxford University. USA, 987, pp. 129. 134  Human Rights as collective goods other must get out from the State of Nature and clear appointment, an undoubted right where everyone have respect only for his or her to dominion and sovereignty.18 interests and their own fantasy.15 As such, At the end, the scope of people to the social nature of law cannot be question enter in human society was to better secure as soon as the law itself is as a product of their natural rights and freedoms what the society. In addition, while the social was under permanent threat of the other contract represents the very fi rst positive unlimited natural rights and freedoms. law, the human society represents the very Plato also in his book “the Republic”, inter fi rst type of state. The later is nothing alia explains that human beings entered more than a “Mortal GOD” who accepts into society and constituted the state to or proclaims something as just, that secure the exchange between each-other.19 thing proclaimed as law.16 For Hobbes, Hence, the law as social product embodied human beings “did as God”17 through in itself prevailing moral and customary the art and as result of this process they rules of society. From this perspective, created the State as an artifi cial human law is related with peoples’ manners and beings. Consequently, the main property costumes as forms of pure and regular of law is the principle “Iustum quria manners. The law would be very simple iussum” (everyone can do everything that and natural only when it expresses the don’t do harm to others). This principle prevailing forms of pure and regular explains the difference between the human manners of the People from which law is society and the state of nature or the state produced.20 This important and symbiotic of war, A state also of equality, wherein all relation between laws, society and state is the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no further explained by Solon being asked if one having more than another, there being the laws he had given to the Athenians were nothing more evident than that creatures the best, he replied, “I have given them the of the same species and rank, promiscuously best they were able to bear.”21 This mean that born to all the same advantages of Nature, laws should derived from the soul of the and the use of the same faculties, should people, only in this way, the law would be also be equal one amongst another, without very simple to be understood and easily subordination or subjection, unless the enforcement, because such laws express the lord and master of them all should, by any very meaning of people on their mutual manifest declaration of his will, set one above relationships including their relationships another, and confer on him, by an evident with the state. This symbiotic relationship

15 Il Rapporto Cittadino-Stato nel Leviathan di Hobbes, Di Michelle Averchi. www.dialettico.it.html. Accessed on 26.11.2002. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 John Locke. “Two treaties of government”. From the Works of John Locke. A New Edition, Corrected. In Ten Volumes. Vol. V. Printed for Thomas Tegg; W. Sharpe and Son; G. Offor; G. and J. Robinson; J. Evans and Co.: Also R. Griffi n and Co. Glasgow; and J. Gumming, Dublin. 1823, pp 106. 19 Plato. The Republic, pp 36. 20 Ibid. As cited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.163. 21 Pliny, Natural History, xxxiii, art. 13. As cited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.162. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 135  is further explained by Plato,22 “When a and to obey to what it orders, forbids or people are not religious we should never have allows to be done. From this perspective recourse to an oath, except he who swears is the legal norm or the law itself in wider entirely disinterested, as in the case of a judge sense, does nothing more than defi nes and and a witness.”23 protects the common interest of society. The relation between the law and the The importance of interest defi ned and state is essential, since the state represents protected by the legal norm defi nes also the the human society and is the sole creation importance of the legal norm itself, which of people authorized by them to act for in consequence defi nes also the place of this them and on their behalf as tool to better norm within the hierarchy of legal norms secure peoples’ rights and freedom. Thus, of a given country. In fact, this is the whole when the state proclaims a law, it acts as a idea of the legal system that Kelsen has mouth of people, speaking for them and argued in his Pure Theory of Law. Kelsen on their behalf. From this perspective, the had emphasized “that a norm belongs to a law is a law as long as is proclaimed by a certain system follows simply from the fact that state, as the only authority empowered by the validity of the norm can be traced back to people to enact legislation. the basic norm constituting the system.”24 On the other hand, according to him the basic 3. Human Rights as Collective Goods norm is the constitution itself. Therefore, it is obvious that the main criteria used by The notion of human rights as Kelsen to defi ne the content of the basic collective goods is strictly related with the norm as well as to construct the idea of notions of the social and legal relationships. the legal system is the theory of interest Social relationships are the result of according to which legal norms shall be interactions between the subjects of laws ranked according to the importance of regulated by legal norms. The reason why interests they defi ne and protect. In fact, a social relationship shall be regulated by this is also the sole parameter that we can one or several legal norms is the necessity use even today in explaining the principle of society to be able to secure and maintain of legality that will not make any sense if the peace between its members by defi ning legal system wouldn’t be understood as a rules of behavior through legal norms well defi ned hierarchical structure. before a dispute over a relationship between Beside defi ning the constitution as two or more members of the society takes the basic norm, we can also defi ned the place. The reason why the resolution of the constitution as the social contract reached dispute will be based on rules of behavior between the governors and the governed, accepted by all members before the dispute or the social contract through which people takes place is the related with the obligation created the state. Hence, a contemporary of all members of the society to accept the constitution would be an updated version legitimacy of the applicable legal norm of the original social contract. The latter is

22 See Father Joubert, Science of Medals, p. 59, Paris, 1739. As sited in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society, pp.163. 23 Ibid, pp.162, 163. 24 Hans Kelsen. «Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (1st Ed.)». 2004. (§27). As cited in Hanno Kaiser. “Notes on Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law (1st Ed.). 2004”. (§27). Professor’s Hanno Kaiser webpage. I disponueshëm në: www.hfkdocs.com/fi les/Kelsen_Pure_Theory.pdf. 136  Human Rights as collective goods the very fi rst legal norm or set body of legal the most essential part of the society norms that were ever produced by human interests and their respect and protection beings. Meanwhile, as many philosophers is a precondition for the security and peace such as Hobbes, Locke, Montesquieu, of the human society. Rousseau etc, have pointed out the main reason for the creation of the state was to 4. Conclusions protect the basic interest of people, or what we call today as Human Rights. Thus, from The original and the contemporary the perspective of jurisprudence and legal notions of state and law are closely and history, human rights could be defined strictly related with the notion of Human also as the basic and the very fi rst legal Rights, which make the most essential part norms that constituted the social contract. of the society interests and their respect In other words Human Rights are the and protection is a precondition for the very fundamental norms of original social security and peace of the human society. contract and the basic source of other legal From this perspective, Human Rights are norms, the content and validity of which also the essential part of social contract and is defi ned by Human Rights in the same represent the basic legal norms that defi ne way as the validity of legal norms is defi ned the content and the validity of other legal by the basic norm (the constitution). In norms in a given legal system. As such, addition, as a consequence of the universal Human Rights can be considered also as value of human rights they are also universal collective goods of human society which judgment standards used to determine the cannot exists in an environment that does validity of state legitimacy and of the state not respect, protect or promote Human law. As such, fundamental human rights Rights. The natures of Human Rights as in one hand can be considered also as legal collective goods make sense just if we accept principle or basic legal norms inter alia, the idea that Human Rights are the essential because they impose to individuals and interest of the society and they protect those government general standardized behavior potentials, attributes, and holding that are manners in an identical way as the legal essential to a life worthy of human beings.25 principle impose general standardized Therefore, no one can disagree with the idea meanings and understandings to other that considers Human Rights as collective legal norms. On the other hand, Human goods as long as they make the essential Rights as basic norms can be considered part of the social contract which has secured also as collective goods, since they make peace a development for human society.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomson by Jon Roland of the Constitution Society. West. USA 2007. Curtis F.J. Doebbler. “International Human Rights Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Laws”. Law: cases and Materials”. CDP, Special Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised by J. V. printing. United States of America 2003.. Prichard, based on an public domain edition Hans Kelsen. «Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law published in 1914 by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., (1st Ed.)». 2004. (§27). As cited in Hanno London. Rendered into HTML and text Kaiser. “Notes on Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory

25 P.I.O.O.M., Alex P.Schmid.“Research on Gross Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P.Leiden 1989, pp 6. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 137 

of Law (1st Ed.). 2004”. (§27). Professor’s by J. V. Prichard, based on an public domain Hanno Kaiser webpage. I disponueshëm edition published in 1914 by G. Bell & në: www.hfkdocs.com/fi les/Kelsen_Pure_ Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered into HTML Theory.pdf. and text by Jon Roland of the Constitution IL Rapporto Cittadino-Stato nel Leviathan Society. di Hobbes, Di Michelle Averchi. www. Robert Alexy. “On the Concept and the Nature dialettico.it.html, accessed on 26.11.2002. of Law”. Ratio Juris. Blackwell Publishing John Locke. “Two treaties of government”. From Ltd.Vol. 21, No. 3., USA 2008. the Works of John Locke. A New Edition, Father Joubert, Science of Medals, p. 59, Paris, Corrected. In Ten Volumes. Vol. V. Printed 1739. Ac sited in Charles de Montesquieu. for Thomas Tegg; W. Sharpe and Son; G. “The Spirit of Laws”. Translated by Thomas Offor; G. and J. Robinson; J. Evans and Nugent, revised by J. V. Prichard, based on Co.: Also R. Griffi n and Co. Glasgow; and an public domain edition published in 1914 J. Gumming, Dublin. 1823. by G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London. Rendered John Salmons. Jurisprudence 129 (Glanville into HTML and text by Jon Roland of the L. Williams ed., 10th ed. 1947). As cited Constitution Society. in Black’s Law Dictionary. Eight edition. Thomas Jefferson. The Writings. Ed.Paul Thomson West. USA 2007. Leicester Fors (New York: 1898),9:480; Jordan Daci. “Te Drejtat e Njeriut”. Botimi III. 18:1 (“The Batture at New Orleans”), Julvin 2, Tirana 2011. 15:207. Cited in Donald R. Kelly, The N.E. Simmonds. “Law as moral idea”. University Human Measure: Social Thought in the of Toronto Law Journal 2005. Westerns Legal Tradition (Cambridge, MA: P.I.O.O.M., Alex P. Schmid. “Research on Gross Harvard University Press, Pres 190), p.186. Human Rights Violation”. P.I.O.O.M. P. As cited in Russell Hittinger. “Natural law in Leiden 1989. the positive laws: A Legislative or Adjudicative Plato. The Republic. Issues?”. The Review of Politics. Available at Pliny, Natural History, xxxiii, art. 13. As cited EBSCO Database, 2001. in Charles de Montesquieu. “The Spirit of Tony Honore. “Making Law Bind”. USA-Oxford Laws”. Translated by Thomas Nugent, revised University, 1987.

INTERRELIGIOUS COMMUNICATION, RELIGIOUS EDUCATION AND SECURITY ISSUES

Xhavit SHALA - Albanian Center for National Security Studies E-mail: [email protected];

ABSTRACT

The object of study and research of this paper is interreligious communication, religious education and the impact they have on the security issues. The purpose of this paper is the presentation and the handling of communication and dialogue between religions and the trends that threaten it; communication crisis between religious beliefs and its consequences for security, communication features and interreligious dialogue among Albanians as a contribution to European democratic values, factors that contribute to the creation of these values and those that threaten it, and the relation of religious education with security matters. Study and research of interreligious communication and religious education is of interest, because religious affairs are regarded as very important for our national security, across the history of the Albanian state. That is because of the conditions of our country; a geographic location that has relatively a small population of four traditional religious beliefs, now also open to non-traditional religious missionaries. The study and research of interreligious communication and religious education is of interest in regional level and beyond. The lack of communication and interreligious dialogue has often resulted in ethnic and religious hatred, in crimes against humanity, terrorist acts and genocide, becoming thus a serious threat to regional and even global security. The study argues and concludes that communication, dialogue and religious tolerance represent national treasures of our culture, which have been created and survived for centuries, should be securitized and therefore be treated as assets at risk. The study also concludes that religious education does not violates the secularism of the state and of the education system, but is an investment in protecting interreligious dialogue and communication, and the religious tolerance for our national security itself. At the end, the paper also puts forth a number of conclusions and some recommendations Keywords: interreligious communication, religious education, national security, religious tolerance, passive neutrality.

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 139-146 140  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues

1. Communication between religious Such a spirit of exculisivism exists even beliefs; The main trends. within the same religion, allegedly claiming authenticity for one current compared to The rivalry and the rejection of another variant of the same religion.3 dialogue between religious beliefs and On the other side, the groups that their relationship with the state, society embrace the philosophy of Religious and individuals have had a major impact Inclusivizm also regard their religion on the development and progress of as the only true one but unlike the human society. Precisely when, instead of exclusivists they do not regard all other collision, communication and dialogue religions as false but they see them as dominated between religions, and religion incomplete and partly developed. was separated from the state after the onset Europe was able to escape religious of the era of secularism, when pluralism fanaticism and enter the path of development and religious tolerance become part of only when the viewpoint of accepting the society; then the society went in the path legitimacy of other religions and religious of development and progress. pluralism became a dominant pattern of The opinion that people of a certain thought. According to the representatives religion have about another religion of this group, all religions are legitimate, helps us identify the existence of three valid and true when seen from within their worldviews: “religious exclusivism” particular culture. According to them, all expressed in the lack of communication religious traditions are deserving of respect. trends and the exclusion of other religious The term religious diversity can also be used beliefs; “religious inclusivism” the trend to denote religious pluralism. Religious of including other religious beliefs exclusivism and religious pluralism are two and “religious pluralism” the trend of worldviews that are completely opposed in accepting the legitimacy of other religious the way they see other religions. beliefs. People that subscribe to the view of religious exculisivism see their faith 2. Crisis of communication between as the only true one. According to them religious beliefs and Security. all other religions are false and are an expression of a satanic act. Often, if allowed free rein, followers Oftentimes, intolerance and violence of such exclusivist movements can incite are accompanying features of the behavior religious hatred and violence against of these groups. The representatives of members of other religions undermining exculisivist group fi nd their inspiration in the security of a state. a twisted interpretation of passages from Religious exculisivism is often the scripture like the Bible1 and the Qur’an.2 main cause behind civil wars, crimes against

1 The Bible, in addition to passages on love and peace contains passages that are taken to imply the application of represive measures against those who do not embrace the faith. For example, Mateu, 12:30 states, “He who is not with me is against me, and he who does not gather with me, scatters. 2 The Koran divides the people into groups: into Muslims and Non-Muslims. The Muslims form the Islamic community and the territory where they live is “Dar al –Islam” (abode of Islam) an area under the operation of Islamic law.The Non-Muslims are inhabitants of “Dar –al – Harb” (place of war). They must obey Islamic law and in order for them to preserve their religious faith and protect their properties, they must pay taxes. 3 Although itself an Islamic State, Iran created reservists unit and followed from very close the actions of the Taleban, because it feared the religious exclusivism of the Sunni Pashtun Taleban. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 141  humanity and genocide. In such cases these Islam where recognitions applied only to teachings represent a serious threat for the Sunni branch. the security not only of the states affected The religious exclusivism of Taliban by it but for regional and global security had repercussions on the internal security also.4 This has happened in the Middle- of Afghanistan. Upon coming into power Ages as demonstrated by the crusades and in 1996, the Taliban established the rule continues to our days, with the most recent of shariah and curtailed human rights examples being Bosnia and Afghanistan, and the rights of women in particular. the 9/11 terrorist act in the United States In Afghanistan, Bin Laden used the and most recently the terrorist act of Anders opportunity and in March 1998 unifi ed Behring Brejvik5 in Norway. under his command the terrorist groups This concept of religious exculisivism operating at the time by establishing the becomes even more dangerous when it Shrines Liberation Front , which later is transformed into state policy. Such became known as Al Qaeda. The Taliban theocratic states were common in the rule became an issue of great concern for Middle Ages but they have surfaced Central Asian Republics.7 These countries again in more recent times in the Middle feared that religious extremism would East. The transformation of religious spread into their territory from Afghanistan exclusivism into state policy is followed by and would destabilize their fragile systems other developments in domestic politics. of government. Such states, because of their policy of not The Taliban religious exclusivism accepting as legitimate any other faith, became a matter of concern for global practice systematic violations of human security also. The 9/11 terrorist attack rights and freedoms. They often become against the United States was prepared and a place of shelter that attracts like-minded originated from Afghanistan.8 militants from other countries. In the foreign policy area, these states 3. Communication and interreligious become a concern for the region. They dialogue: The Albanian cultural encourage and export terrorism threatening treasures; The European democratic regional security. Afghanistan is a suffi cient values illustration of such a case. The coming to power of the Taliban in Afghanistan presents Communication and interfaith a typical case of religious exclusivism where dialogue that exists in Albanai is a value such a doctrine become state policy which that the West welcomes into the European recognized on the Sunni but also within family where we are striving to enter.

4 For more see: Xhavit Shala- Albanians at the Crossroads», page 42-56, Tirana, May 2004. A publication of the Albanian Center for National Security Studies. 5 In his manuscript of 1518 pages titled “A Decleration of European Independence 2083”, Anders Brejvik speaks openly of his hatred for muslims. He puts forth arguments for thier extermination and elimination of islmic states. 6 Excerpt from the affi davit of the accused Ahmet Ibrahim Al Nagar given before the Egyptian justice. He was arrested in 25.6.1998, in the Institution “El Hagri” and extradited to Egypt. – Albania, cited source, date 2 December 2001, pg 5. 7 Alexander del Valle – Genesis and the actuality of pro-Islamic strategy of USA. 8 Most of the fi gures that were later to become heads of terrorist networks came out of the “Afghan schools”. Figures such as Osama bin Laden, Ajman Zavahiri, the one responsible for organizing the 9/11 attacks in New York, Al Zarkavi in Iraq and others, at one time or another spent time in Afghanistan. 142  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues

This value is one of the most precious remain always vulnerable, if we do not treasures of our culture and national take care of them, if we do not identify the heritage, created in centuries by our factors that threaten and invest to neutralize nation, through the celebration of and the impact of these factors. That’s why the development of a religious tolerance that communication and the religious tolerance, is communicated through generations, being the national treasures of our culture worthy of an ancient and civilized European that have been created through centuries, nation. These are also the European should be securitized13 and should be democratic values. treated as assets at risk.14 Following is a list of the factors that have made possible this interreligious 4. Communication and interreligious dialogue and harmony of the Albanians: dialogue, passive neutrality and active a. the Albanian national identity was secularism. build upon the foundation of our language, tradition and culture and not on our Immediately after the declaration of religious affi liations.9; b. the presence of independence, the Albanian state, while an Albanian Islam, with a folk nature and initially very weak, considered interreligious softened by the presence of the Bektashi ccommunication, dialogue and religious faith10; c. certain aversion for intolerant harmony, and religious matters in general forms of Islam, such as wahabism11; as very important to its security. d. the forced religious estrangement of In 1923, Visarion Xhuvani, who was the Albanian youth brought about by later to become the Archbishop of the communism; e. the fact that economic and Albanian Autocephalous Orthodox Church social confl icts have never become religious says: “We all know that religious issues ones and the tradition of the Albanian have always been a bit complicated here. political forces, which, historically, have We all know how much they cost the state. not sought out constituencies based on God forbid that they can be used as tools religious differentiations.12 These are some [against the state] in the future.”15 Given of the factors that have cemented the these circumstances, the Albanian patriots communication, our religious harmony asked, as expressed in the words of Mehdi and tolerance and that have maintained Frashëri, that “the Government needs to be a traditional religious beliefs of Albanians bit more inside [the affairs] of religions …”16 from fanaticism, extremism or religious The Albanian patriots from that time fundamentalism. on continued to work to establish the But the cultural treasures of a nation principle that the religious communities

9 Veton Surroi - Religions and Civilizations. Newspaper “Korrieri” 14 november 2003. 10 Mehdi Frasheri- The ancient History of Albania and Albanians - Pg 44 -45. 11 Prof. Dr. Arbër Xhaferri «Religion, Politics and the Albanians», published in the «Religions and civilizations in the new millennium- the Albanian case» page 68. 12 Artan Fuga, “The attitude of the Albanians of today towards religion.” 20 prill 2004 / TN / QSHDNJ. 13 The classifi cation of certain issues into the category of security problems has been defi ned as “securitization of the issues” which implies the introduction of additional measures to confront the threat. For additional information see the Copehagen School, Buzan, Waever, de Wilde, 1998: 23. 14 See Xhavit Shala: “National Secuirty and Albanian Religious Issues”. Remarks delivered at a Conference on Preserving National and Religious Values, held in Skopje, September 3, 2010. 15 Albanian State Archives, F. 246, D- 68, Fl. 471, 1923. 16 Albanian State Archieves F. 246, D- 68, Fl. 637, viti 1923. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 143  in spite of their size in numbers were to our country suffered during the transition be treated and represented in an equal years (1991, 1992, January-March 1997, manner. It was this principle that has served and September 1998); associated with as the pillar of inter-religious dialogue and the absence of a legal state and serious tolerance in our country ever since. violations of law, order and security, the The sanctioning of principles, such as lack of fi nancial support from the state and the laicité of the state, the freedom of faith the hope of getting support from abroad; and the right to change it, the equal treatment delays and failure in returning the property of religious communities, defi ning in detail to religious communities; the absence the manner of appointment of religious of a law on religious communities, the primates, and the detailed regulations of favorable geographical position of Albania, their fi nancial resources have been provisions as a country situated between the East that have encouraged interreligious dialogue and the West, and the absence of effi cient and communication. They would have a state structures18 that would manage legal positive impact on the consolidation of relations and reciprocal obligations between religious tolerance among Albanians and the the state and the religious communities.19 security of the new Albanian state. We must all work together to neutralize Given this specifi c feature of religious the threat of infiltration by religious beliefs of the Albanians, the problems extremism in our communities. It is that the religious community may have unfortunate that during the fi rst years of within, can not be just their own but of all pluralism, the state dropped any material the Albanian people. We are right when support to religion. Unlike their ancestors we worry, because any of the traditional committed patriots, the Albanian legislators Albanian religious communities is not did not engaged in the restoration of that immune to the risks. The main factors that necessary legal infrastructure to protect the risk communication and inter-religious Albanian religious beliefs against risks. tolerance in our country are: That’s why the Albanian legislators The arrival in an uncontrolled manner should enable the Albanian state to move through NGOs of religious spectrum of away from the position of passive neutrality various religious sects and movements17 in employed during these years and pursue a Albania, which affect the right of Albanians policy of active secularism.20 This is because to exercise their traditional religious our edifi ce of religious harmony is as great beliefs; The crisis and the political, social, as it is fragile. “It takes only one serious rift, economic, and financial instability that it takes only the radicalization of only one of

17 Khatar Abou Diab, Patrik Karam, Riçard Labevier, Zhulien Lariezh, Olivier Roy dhe Antuan Sfeir: Dictionnaire Mondial de l’Islamisme - A publication of the French publishing house “Plon” that devotes a whole chapter to Albania was released in August of 2002. 18 Since 1992 the Albanian State Committee on Cults has been the only state body operating in the fi eld and until 1999 this body did not have a defi ned status. For the fi rst time the duties of this agency were set forth in the decision of the Council of Ministers no. 459, dated 23.9.1999, “On the Creation of the State Committee on Cults”. This structure has been continually reduced in staff and now has ended up with a small staff of no more than four to fi ve employees. In many other states, of the former Communist East in particular, such structures operate at the level of a Minister. 19 The Albanian Govenrment and the four traditional Albanian religious communities signed agreements mandated by the Constitution in October 24, 2008, 18 since the introduction of democratic rule and ten years since this had become a legal obligation. 20 “National Security and the Challagnes of integration”, page. 107. Tiranë, May 2003. A publication of hte Albanian Center for National Security Studies. 144  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues our religions, for the edifi ce to come down,” education from fear that the principle of our great writer, Ismail Kadare, has said.21 Laicité and of a secular educational system The State has the duty to ensure that could be undermined.22 freedom of religion should not remain During the communist period religion declarative. The State should take all and religious education were replaced with necessary measures to guarantee the effective the teaching of Marxist Leninist ideology. enjoyment of freedom of religion. Belief in the divine was replaced by belief in Because of this, the State must protect the party. This type of teaching permeated the religious beliefs from interventions that not only the school curricula but every aim at promoting distortions, extremist cell of the society. Marxism was gradually trends, or any other phenomena of transformed into a religious creed, like the radicalization among religious faiths. This opium for the people. is what it means to pursue active secularism. Due to the demographics of religious Such a policy does not undermine the communities in Albania, the issue of principle of seperation of state and church religious education can not be simply an which is sacred to a democratic state. educational or pedagogical issue but also This does not affect the right of each a matter that affects our national security citizen to believe as a private right of as well. The introduction of children and people, which is recognized and protected teenagers to twisted religious education, in all international documents dealing with aggravated by the association of such human rights. Instead, being secular but teaching with economic aid by suspicious active, the state undertakes to guarantee organizations, can open our children up and realize in practice of the right to to easy manipulation and make them tools freedom of religion. In this context, the of illegal activities and a serious threat to question of religious education takes communication, dialogue and religious particular importance. tolerance in our country. While the State has stood aside, NGOs 5. Religious education and Security with missionaries from Arab countries, Italy, Greece and other countries, that are located Fifteen years ago, after an interruption in Albania are already working on providing of more than a quarter of a century, Albanians religious education according to their own were allowed again to worship in freedom. means and goals. Some of these associations The new democratic state established by law providing religious education have drifted the principle of laicité and the country broke away from the traditional religious teachings for good with the policy of state atheism. in the country and in some cases are also But while time has passed, our country making diversions against them. For many has still to fi nd a legal arrangement on the years in our country an entire system of of issue of religious education which can not illegal or semi-legal religious education has wait any longer. Political Parties hesitate to been in operation.23 involve one self with the issue of religious When we talk about religious education

21 Remarks delievered at the International Conference «Religions and Civilisations in the new Millenium – The case of Albania», held in Tirana in November 13-14, 2003. 22 See Xhavit Shala: “The Democratic State and Religious Education”. “Tirana Observer”, dt. 1.2.2006. 23 According to reliable sources from our law enforcement agencies, in the Region of Elbasan there were about 500 children aged from nine to 15 years of age that were attending illegal or semi-illegal course conducted by Arab NGO, with a selafi -wahabi backed funding and origin/ The Information is confi rmed by the Intelligence Service branch in Elbasan. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 145  we must first make clear the difference Like the United States, France that exists between religious teaching and also forbids state funding for religious religious education. While religious teaching education due to the traditional separation aims to provide general information about here between the French Republic and religions and their rituals, the term religious the Catholic Church. But France is education implies a system of teaching that swiftly moving towards abandoning aims to instill and deepen belief in a certain this system and is seriously considering faith and also includes a system of studies introducing religious education into its to train the clergy. public system. The presence of a large If one looks at world practices in Muslim community of a mainly northern religious education, it would note that African origin and the need to introduce while these practices may vary widely in to them appropriate education on Islam their application, they are always treated and other religions is pushing the change with seriousness. forward. Many hope that these changes Western practices, which we often will help facilitate a better integration refer to, vary widely. According to the of the Muslim population into French American system, religious education in society and prevent incidents such as the public schools is prohibited and the system ones that took place at the end of 2005. allows only the presentation of religious The religious education system information from a natural and academic in the United Kingdom is of special perspective. Such information is provided interest.24 Children there are given the through theology course or theology opportunity to receive religious classes on departments. The U.S. has had a strong six religions that are prevalent in the UK tradition of separation between the state and Commonwealth, namely Christianity, and religion. State schools do not offer Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, and the Sikh religious studies for children. The religious faith, beliefs that are present and in education of believers and ministers is the territories of United Kingdom and provided by the religious bodies. Commonwealth .Such a variety of teaching In Europe there exist different systems comes as no surprise when one learns that of education and different ways through one hundred years ago there were Muslim which the states funds religious education. MPs seating in British parliament. These systems vary from state to state. The English system of religious In Norway there is a class that focuses on education is based on some very important providing information on main religions. principles. Greece provides classes that focus mainly on First of all, while religious teaching Greek Orthodox practices while Italy and in the UK is required by law, the system Spain clases that focus mainly on Roman is a secular one. The teaching does not Catholic teaching. In Germany and the intend to convert people or promote a Netherlands students can choose to attend particular faith but instead aims to provide classes on Protestant or Catholic teaching information on the various religions or opt to take a class in ethics, instead. and promote respect for the values of In former communist countries religious life. Religious indoctrination is strictly education has largely taken the place that forbidden. Both the curricula and the staff was once occupied by the old communist teaching it uphold secular principles and system of indoctrination. the religious classes are considered a regular

24 John M Hull, University of Birmingham England - Religious Education and the Globalised Economy. 146  Interreligious communication, religious education & security issues professional responsibility of the teacher. terrorist acts and genocide, becoming The teachers in these classes may have a thus a serious threat to the security of a degree in theology or religious studies and country, region and beyond are expected to teach other regular classes Communication and inter-religious also. They are not necessarily representative dialogue for the Albanians are treasures of a faith or have any special belief. Specialist of our national culture, as well as the teachers, who graduate in theology or European democratic values. But these religious studies, are trained to teach other values are at risk and as such they need subjects of the curriculum. to be securitized. On the other hand, religious education  Therefore the State should move from in England is becoming critical and spiritual. a passive position of neutrality towards The British system of religious education a more active policy of secularism. promotes the values of critical thinking and This does not affect the principle of is aimed at helping children and students seperation between the stet and religion develop their ability to think critically which is sacred to a democratic state. and to provide them with understanding Instead, being secular but active, the about religious values and a well rounded state undertakes to guarantee and view of the world. Its goal is to develop a realization in practice of freedom of civic sense within a multicultural society. religion. Decentralization is another important  Religious education does not violate principle of the English system of religious the secularism of the state and education. Despite being a legal obligation, secularism of the education system. the application of religious education For the specifics of our country, curricula is the responsibility of local this education can not be simply a authorities. The religious education class is pedagogical and educational problem, part of the curricula that is determined in but is an investment to maintain cooperation between teachers and parents communication and interreligious Discussion whether the religious dialogue, and religious tolerance for education is needed or not in our country our national security itself. already is already exceeded. The problem is  Given the circumstances that exist in how to put on legal tracks and to legalize Albania, it would be appropriate to the education. What will be its relation with consider including a class on religious public education? education into our public school system in a way that respects fully the 6. Conclusions and recommendations laicité of the state and the secular nature of our educational system. The class  Communication and interreligious should provide suffi cient information dialogue are important for safety. on the main religions in Albania with Lack of communication and the the goal of providing the students with exclusion of other religious beliefs, a well rounded view of the world and otherwise known as religious exclusivism promote the development of a critical has often resulted in ethnic and religious thinking and of respect for the values hatreds, in crimes against humanity, of the society. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 147 

PSYCHOSOCIAL EFFECTS OF A LIFE – THREATENING DISEASE

Veronika DUCI - University of Tirana, Faculty of Social Sciences E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The diagnosis of cancer can be the starting point of putting into question previous beliefs. Individuals who are able to answer to these questions and to fi nd meaning tend to adapt better. In this study nine semi - structured interviews were conducted with people diagnosed with cancer. The purpose of this study is to explore the process of dealing with a life threatening diagnosis and the impact that has on the lives of cancer patients. It is focused on the lives of individuals before getting the diagnosis, during and after the diagnosis. Using the notion of meaning in life, a number of other changes take place, such as social and emotional support, motivation, acceptance or denial of death, the lowest point, emotional coping techniques and anxiety management. The questions are comprehensive, in order to emphasize the important interaction of medical and psychosocial factors in coping with cancer. Keywords: health, psychosocial effects, cancer survivors, death anxiety

Introduction and tumorial diseases have undergone a steady growth. Today, one in two Albanians According to statistics (INSTAT, dies as a result of a cardiovascular disease. 2004), it is estimated that every year almost Although Albania has a much higher 3500 to 4000 individuals will be given the mortality than Western countries, again this diagnosis of cancer, ranking as the second is lower than many countries in transition. cause of mortality in Albania. Tumorial It remains to be discovered if this is a long- diseases come after cardiovascular diseases term trend and what are the real reasons. as a major cause of death, which resulted Studies in the field of chronic diseases in 93.1 deaths per 100,000 thousand have had a spontaneous character. As a inhabitants in 2004. result of demographic and epidemiological Based on mortality data of the last transition, cardiovascular tumorial and decade, it is noted clearly that cardiovascular some other diseases is likely to become

Social Studies 2011, 2 (5): 147-153 more frequent, whereas in industrialized lives, in a holistic perspective, regarding countries are declining for two decades. cognitive processes, health care, emotions, These statistics are merely indicative of a and changes in their family and social life? living reality, which means (in the depth of it) much more than some fi gures in a Literature review chart or graph. The number of people affected by Operationalization of terms cancer, including not only individuals In this study cancer survivors will diagnosed with the disease but also be considered all individuals who are their families and friends, is shocking. diagnosed with cancer and those that Although all people are at risk there has their lives are affected by this diagnosis, been a significant reduction in cancer- including family members, friends and related deaths worldwide. These reduction caregivers (Lance Armstrong Foundation). in the number of deaths is due to the Theorists have conceptualized meaning implementation of prevention and early in life as a perception for the coherence of screening efforts for some specifi c forms of the world and for the purpose of human cancer, increasing the examinations for the existence. Searching for meaning in life general population and those at greatest risk is regarded as a fundamental element of for developing the disease, and advances human beings, a unique process to each in research and in clinical care. Albania, as individual. The successful development a transition country does not follow these of meaning in life may contribute to trends. In Albania from 1993 to 2004, feelings of wonder and bliss in life. Also, there has been an increase in the number it is associated with feelings of fulfi llment, of patients diagnosed with cancer. satisfaction and wellbeing. Levels of cancer survival depend to a large extent on where the tumor is initially Purpose of the study displayed (eg. breast, colon etc.). Progress The purpose of this study is to explore and stage of cancer when diagnosed the impact of cancer diagnosis in the lives (e.g. if the tumor has made metastasis), of the participants of this study. Specifi cally, implementation of prevention (tobacco this study has studied the psychosocial control, skin-protective behavior etc.) as changes in the life of the individuals by well as efforts for early detection of four taking into account the signifi cant role of forms of cancer (breast, cervical, colon and emotional support, the main motivation, prostate) have stepped up examinations of acceptance/denial of death, the lowest the general population and in people at a point, emotional coping and anxiety high risk for developing these diseases. management techniques Despite the optimistic prospects for a considerable number of individuals Research questions diagnosed with cancer today, a more This research is based in three main detailed examination of the literature and research questions. These are : statistical trends shows that not all the 1. Which are the coping strategies members of the society enjoy the benefi ts that the survivors used during the process of current knowledge about cancer. Survival of dealing with the disease? rates lag in social layers - economic, racial 2. Which were the psychosocial effects minorities and ethnic populations and not of the diagnosis? receiving proper medical services in relation 3. What changes have made in their to risk of developing cancer and dying. Physiological and psychosocial issues for individual, form the basis of a rule that cancer survivors gives meaning, coherence and purpose in Physiological symptoms of cancer may life. They speculate that a scheme of life be acute and chronic and may occur during incorporates the image of yourself, a system therapy as well as after it. These symptoms of assumptions about the world, a series may include pain, malaise, nausea, fatigue, of goals to reach and events related to the hair loss etc., depending on the forms achievement of them. According to this of cancer and the type of therapy that view, physiological and social dysfunction the patient is subjected to. These effects that continues long after treatment can can be devastating, resulting in loss of challenge previous beliefs regarding the mobility and changes in bodily functions order, coherence and purpose. and appearance. Impairments in social functioning Psychosocial issues related to cancer seem to reduce interactions with the diagnosis include fear, stress, depression, world. This can affect the meaning, since anger and anxiety. However, the effects it is found that low levels of social activity of cancer in an individual are not always correlate with low life satisfaction and self negative. Cancer can give to the individuals fulfi llment, in patients with cancer (Bloom the opportunity to discover another & Spiegel, 1984). Social interaction is meaning in their lives, build stronger associated with a greater understanding. ties with family and friends, to adopt a The quality of family relationships is commitment of “giving back” to those associated with higher levels of purpose in who have similar experiences. After the life and religious and existentialist wellbeing diagnosis and/or therapy, survivors may (Folkman, & Moskowitz, 2000) still have an active, vital life, but they can also live in fear or uncertainty that the Methodology cancer may return. Individuals with cancer may experience diffi culty in managing pain The purpose of this study is to explore and disability caused either by the disease the psychosocial impact of cancer disease or by the undergoing therapy. Emotional in the lives of the participants in this impact on survivors may include feelings of study, in relation to emotional support, helplesness, lack of self - control, changes coping strategies and changes in their lives in self - evaluation and self image for after diagnosis. To achieve this purpose a survivors and increased stress and anxiety in semi-structured interview has been used people who care for them (National Cancer for data collection.The unit of analysis for Institute, 2004). this research is the psychosocial process Social wellbeing may be affected that comes after the cancer disease and its by the diagnosis and therapy of cancer. effect on meaning in life. Participants in Physiological difficulties like pain and this study were nine individuals affected by disability may result in a perception of a cancer in various stages of healing. Some reduced social wellbeing, because the time of them did fi nish therapy before many spent with dear people may be shorter. years, while others were still being treated. Also, survivors experience diffi culties in The fi rst participant was selected directly school or work related to their ability to from the research questions. The following interact with friends and colleagues. participants were selected based on their Thompson and Janigian (1988) have suitability to the theoretical basis of this suggested that a “scheme of life,” or a study. So, four individuals were initially cognitive representation of the life of an identifi ed, who were long term survivors, 150  Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease and the researcher subsequently selected the On the other hand family problems other fi ve who had completed treatment or had an impact on mood and psychological were in its end. distress for some of the participants. A participant has had problems in his family, Data analysis but he coped better with them comparing Data analysis was based on open coding to his wife (both were participants in the process, in which concepts are selected and study). One reason for this may be the described according to their dimensions fact that he was always at work, while the and characteristics. Initial categories were spouse was a housewife throughout her developed further in relation to causal married life. He says: “I could not believe circumstances, consequences, context, it that I had cancer, I never considered the action and interaction and intervening symptoms as serious. And still I don’t have any factors. Finally, selective coding was used “heavy” symptoms, that’s not the way I know in order to consolidate and integrate the and heard of cancer”. main research issues. However, other participants of this There are different ways to perform study report that their family life before encoding. For example, coding by row cancer has been normal, quiet and they row can be used, or sentences or paragraphs had an active social life. or compare documents. In this study, the coding used sentences and paragraphs. ii. Family and social support Some of the categories that were Each of the participants in this study initially identifi ed were the changes in the had support systems ranging from good meaning in life, the expression of emotions, to very good but also some experienced emotional coping, etc. Some other categories isolation. For some people the lack of social are managing emotions, acceptance of death support was a problem in their lives. (an important element of this category One married woman, who also could is the lowest point, which was common not have a child, said “No one considered me in all participants), the mourning for the in his life... Neither husband nor... none, unless loss of several major functions, reaction to you have your one child... My life was a zero, so diagnosis, new life, etc. I lived, in the air. In the air... But what I really want to explain is that I wasn’t as I would like Results and discussion to be. I was always rigid, lonely, sad and I never had courage for anything”. A. Life before diagnosis Other participants in this study have i. Physiological and psychological concerns said that they had an active social life and For the participants of this study a supportive family and social group. That their life before the diagnosis ranged it is also observed later, when they were from satisfaction and relative happiness to diagnosed with cancer. disappointment and sadness. In terms of physiological concerns all iii. Motivation participants reported that they had good The topic of motivation is important health before the diagnosis. They obviously in order to describe the person’s changes have been sick before, but the diseases that during these stages. It is very important to had were the easiest ones, such as tonsils, understand who was the major motivation infl uenza, appendicitis, etc. Furthermore, in a person’s life and how it has changed some participants said they had never been after the cancer experience. hospitalized in their lives. One participant said that her two Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 151  grandchildren have been the most important participant saw the confrontation with thing in her life, before she got sick. She death as an essential element of fi nding did not care much for herself, but more for meaning. Also, denial is defi ned as a defense others: “I didn’t think much of it. I said to mechanism that protects the individual myself that I would care for the children..if it from stressful awareness, which can vary weren’t for them I would be worse. But I had from an awareness until the other end of my mind on them: now I should take them to the continuum, in total denial of reality their courses, now they will eat, I must cook, imposed by an unconscious impulse. do the ironing, laundry, so I had something Data from this study suggest that to occupy myself. Otherwise I would be lost”. the denial should not be seen only in its The majority of participants felt that traditional psychoanalytic sense, but more family was the most important thing for as Elizabeth Kubler-Ross (1969) pointed: them and then came work and friends, and that people can use denial in a positive way believing in God. Another participant said at various stages. They may think little “The most important persons for me were my about death, but, later, they have to put daughters, my family and perhaps even work, as aside this thought, in order to continue these were the things for which I have worked, their lives. Life requires attention to to meet fought and contributed. Perhaps it is my nature the obligations, to care for the loved ones as a mother and wife”. and to support yourself and others. Acceptance of death may also be seen B. During diagnosis from a positive and negative dimension: The stage of diagnosis begins when (a) negative acceptance of death - because individuals confront cancer diagnosis given the individuals thinks that he will die, he by a physician and communicated by him does not receive any medical treatment or by relatives. This is a moment that can and expects the inevitable death and (b) change a person’s life and it is impossible positive acceptance death - the person to ignore. perceives the possibility of death, so he tries to understand what death is, who is he/she i. Awareness/acceptance of death and what is its place in this world and what The challenge of diagnosis consists death actually is, under this prism? in finding meaning from the new and negative information that their has taken ii. Important steps and acceptance of life and, simultaneously, to calm the death: the lowest point and emotional calming emotions of anger that accompany a cancer All participants of this study have diagnosis. Individuals of this study have achieved a deeper level of acceptance of been diagnosed with terminal disease of death, which was not a fully deliberate different duration. Some of them have pursuit of this goal, but more as a result of faced death and survived longer than events that resulted in a very low point of doctors had predicted. They should make despair or near death, which has made them the choice that every patient with cancer seek for answers. Some have coped with makes: is it a death sentence or is simply death by accepting it or denying completely another disease to be cured and which will the possibility of it happening. The period gradually recover? of acceptance of death came after a time or a When diagnosed, any person processes moment of deep despair, which is described his awareness of death to a level that can as the lowest point of their experience. The vary from total denial to total acceptance low points are characterized by periods (Kübler – Ross, 1969). In this study, each of very great emotional pain (McCann & 152  Psychosocial effects of a life – threatening disease

Pearlman, 1990). The descriptions of the iii. Relief of symptoms participants about their lowest points are The relief of the symptoms of cancer very interesting, as well as the moment has not been a climactic moment in the of making the fi rst step forward, of not history of the disease. This is because the giving up. participants were prepared for everything, One participant indicated that: “For including death. a moment i felt despair. I was doing the Specifically, a participant after 11 chemotherapy back then, it was really bad. years continues to be concerned for her But there was one time that I was really bad... health, she says: “This is a disease that can and I said what will I do now, how will I live... come back at any moment”. For another nothing, I will go in vain, I will not exist. I participant the fi ght with cancer is ongoing, kept it for me, this feeling of sadness” Then: but every time he gets positive results “...But then I didn’t think of it anymore, I from his medical tests, he is even more did it myself, I said that I will care for the optimistic: a restrained optimism. The children, I will fi x one thing, than another same applies to other participants. and the time passed... I got out of it”. Most participants of this study, having C. New Life conducted the necessary therapy, they have Gradually, there comes a moment reached a certain level of acceptance of in life where life stabilizes, the person death. Despite the fact that they did not understands what he/she can expect from want to think they will die, they regarded the relief of symptoms and reconceptualizes the event as inevitable. the impact of cancer in his life. He/she may A change that all participants reported be feeling stronger after this experience. was the appreciation of life, which now People are transformed by this experience it was greater. After the period of the and know that there is no old life to get most diffi cult moment and then coping back to. Their lives have changed forever. It / acceptance of death, they have come to is diffi cult to determine where each person cherish and appreciate life more. has passed the line and has reached a point In this traumatic experience they did where he feels at ease in his new life. not change their motivation and direction The new life in this study, the life in in life. For the majority of participants both which cancer is no longer a major part of before and after the disease the family and their lives, has not come for all. Four of the relatives have been the most important participants continue to do chemotherapy thing. while another is continuing therapy, but On the other hand they changed their remains at a critical stage yet. However, way of thinking and perceiving situations for four other participants the new life and their disease. after the cancer has come. How have they For example, one participant says that experienced this turning point in their lives? she now has no fear of the future, preferring What has changed as a result of the disease? to live more the present. Another says that What has remained the same? the disease of cancer besides experiencing In only one participant life had no the trauma has given him a very strong substantial changes, while for many others belief in himself. A third has refl ected much this is not the case. Many of them have on this period, which has made him relax undergone structural changes in their and cope better with the situation “crying personality and in life satisfaction. would not solve anything.” Some of them say they are already living a “second life”. Social Studies  Vol. 5  No. 2 153 

Conclusions acceptance of death, the more they changed. The extreme use of denial or avoidance can A dominant factor that has emerged sometimes result in the deterioration of the as a central structure in this study has been disease and the wider pathology. awareness and acceptance of death. The But in this study individuals had more ways they used to cope with this issue was severe diagnosis than the fi rst stage: from important for the progress of the disease, the second stage to third. Indeed, to some major motivation, their priorities, the ways of them it had been communicated that they used for problem managing etc. they have only a short period of time to live. Although there are a variety of methods Confrontation with death has the power to that an individual can use to cope with destroy all life assumptions. cancer, and, consequently, the possibility of The challenge that the participants a death, this study identifi ed some common faced would be rebuilding their lives, elements in how individuals faced cancer. including in it their disease. In this change A signifi cant role has been the effect they included also their beliefs and support of denial. Denial was used by participants systems (family, work and friends). in this study in a positive as well as in a Another change in the lives of the negative way. Most of them, after they had participants related to the way of perceiving passed the lowest point of this experience, life and the world. Most of them claim that managed to recover their morale, their life has already received more value for patience and optimism. them, consider it as more precious, more The more they approached the expensive.

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