Characterizing Farmers and Farming System in Kilombero Valley Floodplain, Tanzania
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Article Characterizing Farmers and Farming System in Kilombero Valley Floodplain, Tanzania Bisrat Haile Gebrekidan *, Thomas Heckelei and Sebastian Rasch Institute for Food and Resource Economics, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany; [email protected] (T.H.); [email protected] (S.R.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +49-228-732-323 Received: 30 June 2020; Accepted: 24 August 2020; Published: 31 August 2020 Abstract: Recognizing the diversity of farmers is crucial for the success of agricultural, rural, or environmental programs and policies aimed at the sustainable use of natural resources. In this study, based on survey data collected in the Kilombero Valley Floodplain (KVF) in Tanzania, we design a typology of farmers to describe the range of farm types and farming systems systematically, and to understand their livelihood and land use behavior. The KVF is the largest, low-altitude, seasonally-flooded, freshwater wetland in East Africa. Despite its values, KVF is a very fragile ecosystem threatened by current and future human interventions. We apply multivariate statistical analysis (a combination of principal component analysis and cluster analysis) to identify farm groups that are homogenous within and heterogeneous between groups. Three farm types were identified: “Monocrop rice producer”, “Diversifier”, and “Agropastoralist”. Monocrop rice producers are the dominant farm types, accounting for 65 percent of the farm households in the valley, characterized by more than 80 percent of the land allocated to rice, showing strong market participation and high utilization of labor. Diversifiers, on the other hand, allocate more land to maize and vegetables. Agropastoralists account for 7 percent of the surveyed farmers and differ from the other two groups by, on average, larger land ownership, a combination of livestock and crop production, and larger household sizes. This typology represents the diversity of farmers in KVF concerning their land use and livelihood strategy, and will allow to target policy interventions. Besides, it may also inform further research about the diverse landscape of floodplain farming, through the classification and interpretation of different socio-economic positions of farm households. Keywords: Kilombero Valley; Tanzania; farmer typology; principal component analysis; hierarchical clustering; farmer diversity 1. Introduction The Kilombero Valley Floodplain (KVF) in Tanzania is the largest, low-altitude, seasonally-flooded, freshwater wetland in East Africa. The valley was designated as a Ramsar site in 2002, due to its international, national and regional importance for a wide array of ecosystem services: waterflow regulation, fisheries, dry-season grazing, tourism, and hunting. Besides, it is part of the “Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor”, an area earmarked for future investments in agricultural development [1,2]. Despite its values, KVF is a very fragile ecosystem, which is threatened by human interventions. Conversion to cropland and excessive exploitation by improperly planned development activities in the valley is having, and will continue to have, severe, adverse, and irreversible impacts on its capacity to provide services in the future [2]. In both neighboring districts (Ulanga and Kilombero), population density has been increasing steadily. As a result, productive agricultural land is scarce, and clearing wetland vegetation for crop farming is impossible. The problem is further aggravated by intense competition between smallholder farmers, migrating pastorals, large scale commercial ventures, Sustainability 2020, 12, 7114; doi:10.3390/su12177114 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020, 12, 7114 2 of 21 governmental and non-governmental conservation groups [1,3–6]. Many studies have provided evidence for the perilous situation the smallholders are in, from the degradation of ecosystems to the fragility of their livelihoods [1,7–10], characterized by persistant food insecurity and high inequality. The government of Tanzania has recognized the need for increasing smallholder welfare and the achievement of economic growth and poverty reduction through sustainable intensification pathways [2,11,12]. Backed by international donors (DFID, USAID, UNDP, FAO, Norwegian Embassy) and multinational companies (Bayer CropScience, Monsanto, Syngenta, Yara, Unilever, Nestle, SAB Miller, and others), the government has shown renewed interest to invest in both large scale and smallholder farmers in KVF [13]. Efforts have been made to remove critical obstacles through increasing supply and efficiency of input use, training and capacity building, finance, infrastructure, value-chains, and markets [1,11,14,15]. However, there are many different types of farm households in KVF, which differ in terms of the available natural resource base, the dominant pattern of farm activities, household livelihoods and the way that they allocate household resources (labor, land, fertilizers, machinery, technology, etc.) to agricultural production [5,16,17]. Diversity among farmer households, in terms of resource endowment, land size, and household characteristics, will have an implication on how they will respond and benefit from policies and investments. Such diversity among farmers, has received increased interest from the public and private sector in recent years. The latter especially became aware of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where the majority of the population is rural, and agriculture is considered the engine of growth. Generally, SSA’s farming systems are highly heterogeneous and are driven by a complex set of socio-economic and biophysical factors [18–20]. Such heterogeneity has important policy implications, as [21] (p. 51) argues that, “the diversity of farming systems in Africa is greater than in any other part of the world . and generic policy assessments related to resource management or production are usually inappropriate and are often downright misleading”. Yet, initial efforts to understand the diversity of farmers in the SSA are based on distinct points of polarization, including crop production vs. livestock breeding, food crops vs. cash crops, subsistence farming vs. market-oriented [17], rather than on more contextualized typologies. As a result, international development programs and national policymakers have struggled to “reconcile their recognition of heterogeneity and complex systems, with the reductionist inclinations that come with a focus on large scale, or even on global priorities” [22] (p. 6). This struggle can possibly be resolved by adding more contextualized types from case study research to the empirical wealth on farmer diversity, upon which more profound and largescale generalizations can be built in the future. The case is not different in KVF, where blanket policies and interventions are implemented. For example, [23] reported that a large-scale agricultural investment (LSAI) scheme, as promoted by the SACGOT initiative, exhibits a negative association with the welfare of female-headed households, and they recommend specific targeting of potential beneficiaries. Similarly, [24] denotes considerable heterogeneity among households in terms of benefits from the effect of out-grower schemes under SAGCOT. Land rich outgrowers benefit more than land-poor ones, and farmers under sugarcane outgrower schemes are benefiting more than those under rice outgrower schemes. Moreover, land poor and landless households are benefiting more from wage employment than from outgrower projects. A case study from a program initiated by Kilombero Plantation Limited (KPL) and “Feed the Future Tanzania NAFAKA” on sustainable rice intensification (SRI) also shows that farm households with higher labor supply were able to increase their income due to the implementation of SRI [25]. To this end, understanding farmer diversity through typologies is now considered as a ‘requirement’ and a ‘tool’ in the analysis of farm households capacity to increase output and yields in an environmentally sustainable manner, while taking into account economically viable pathways [17,26,27]. Generating a typology means “reducing the assumed or known variety of different types of farm households concerning their sources of livelihood and their ‘socio-economic status’ into a reasonably small number of groups which — in some respect — can be treated as a unit” [27] (p. 262–263). Sustainability 2020, 12, 7114 3 of 21 There is a vast number of studies conducted to characterize farmers through typologies. The aims of these studies vary, and determine the type of methodological approach, the variable selection, and the characterization of the identified groups. Typologies are constructed to generally understand the farming systems [28,29], explore land use and intensification [26,30–33], technology adoption [34], livelihood strategy [35–38], vulnerability to climate change and environmental assessment [39–43]. Although there are attempts to provide an international typology of farmers (see) [17], it is often constructed for a specific case study site (country or region). Moreover, [44,45] provide a comprehensive review of the development of farming system typologies, illustrate those that include environmental aspects, and consider their broader setting. In this paper, we develop a typology of farmers in KVF that captures their heterogeneity and elicits the diversity of farm-households that might be expected to exhibit different land-use behavior and livelihood strategies.