1 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Khrua In Khong (fl,1850s-1860s, possibly alive 1800s-1870s): I would like to record my great debts to Phaptawan Suwannakudt in understanding Thai temple murals and in accessing some of the Thai literature mentioned below.

Notes & Chronological materials

Precursor discourses, domestic There follows a list of some of the temples completed before Khrua in Kong’s emergence as a painter which he could have seen, and at some of which it is conceivable he worked as a trainee muralist monk. ‘Muang Boran’ (The Ancient City) is the name of the publisher with a monograph on the temple in question, which is usually bilingual in Thai and English.

Rama III (Phra Nangklao 1824-1851) and importantly brother of the future King , Rama IV, was responsible for many temple patronage schemes, some of whose murals have decidedly Chinese elements such was Suthat and Wat Rachaorot. The history of Khrua In Khong’s domestic precursors is mostly a feature of what was handed down from the preceding Ayutthaya era which came to an end in the Burmese sack of the former capital in 1767. Those craftsmen who survived the Burmese invasions or were not taken back to Burma as captives moved to and then Bangkok, and many surviving temples or their construction schemes were moved down rive to Bangkok after the stabilization of .

The temples of the reign of Rama III include: Bangkok, Wat Phra Chetuphon Wimonmangkhalaram (, Wat Photharam), (Muang Boran, 1994) restored and explanatory inscriptions added to Jataka scenes from ca 1835-45. Bangkok, Theppawararam (Muang Boran, 1996) Ratchaburi, Wat Khongkaram, restored in Rama IV following Rama III models and Ayuttahaya predecessors (Muang Boran, 1994) Thonburi, Wat Bangyikhan (Muang Boran, 1987) Thonburi, Wat Chaiyathit (Muang Boran), Klong Bangkok Noi. Thonburi, Wat Daowaduengsaram (Muang Boran, 1987) Thonburi, Wat Kalyanimit (Klong Bangkok Yai) Thonburi, Wat Raja Orot (Klong Dan) Thonburi, Wat Suwannaram, by Khru Khongphae & Khru Thong Yu (Muang Boran, 1982, 1997, Muang Boran, 1987) Thonburi, Wat Thong Thammachat (Muang Boran, 1982)

Siamese art worlds and court patronage Little is known directly about patronage. However, royal patrons were likely to have been determinative in assigning subject matters and in choosing master artists as heads of muralist teams, all of whom would have been ordained monks for the period of Khrua in Khong’s identifiable activity in the 1850s to 1860s.

Thongpan, 1991, writing of the second half of the 19th century has recorded that When there were insufficient chang so Princes competed through wages to obtain their services. (Thongpan, 88) In Wat Khruawan there is a record of payment for work by area covered (Thongpan ,89) and that at Wat Pho specialists hired to paint important buildings who were more skilled than royal chang (Thongpan, 92) where the abbot was in charge of renovations. The court controlled a list of skilled monks (96), and 99 art was controlled to promote new ideas but not provocative ones. For example the Abbot of Wat Thong Noppakhun saw explicit nudes in a Jataka series such as bathing scenes in Vessantara Jataka and had them removed. (Thongpan, 99). 2 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

One text, the Ratchalichanupeksaa, no.365 of Chulasakkarat 1249, Phuttasakaratm 2430 (1887) records that By royal command, in the matter of (the funeral of) Prince Thongtaemtawalayawong (Crown Prince Siriraj), seeking painters with ability to paint pictures of (scenes from) the Dynastic Chronicles of Ayutthaya to Bangkok, capital of Ratanakosin, we were able to obtain about 30 craftsmen who painted according to the narrative in set episodes to decorate the funeral mount on the oval of Sanaam Luang, there being total of 92 tableaux from the Chronicles. Let the officers examine the pictures by the painters, examine their skill in painting animals like animals, that (the skill of depicting) people is like people, examine that the houses are like houses, that shadows are the same as real ones, and that the actions of people and animals are real in detail. (Thongpan, 103)

Known domestic precursor artists and their intellectual environment We may presume that Khrua In Khong’s skills had their origin in apprenticeship to precursor artists. Very little is known of the late 18th century after the foundation of Bangkok but there is Phra Acharn Nak, painter of murals of Wat Rakhang ca 1780s.(Muang Boran, 1987).

Somewhat later in the reign of Rama III Khru Khongpae & Ajaan Thong Yu, were known painters of murals of Ten Previous Lives of the Buddha in ubosot of Wat Suwannaram ca. 1830s. (Muang Boran, 1987). They were most likely to have been alive during his earlier years and possibly his apprenticeship, but unfortunately there appear to be no identifiable stylistic links.

Domestic discourses and their changes in meaning Large, full-body mirrors were first introduced (from China, presumably from Macao, via the Portuguese ambassador in 1818) during reign of Rama II and this starts to be discussed in contemporary literature, particularly the play Inao which is a compilation of translations from different Javanese stories. The result was that people started to see themselves realistically in a mirror and the previously tabooed images of the viewed person died away.

Thai society reacted to importation of new technology typified by the introduction of mirrors in the reign of Rama II and steam-powered vessels in the reign of Rama III. The reception of this was future-oriented: there is a replica of a Chinese junk at Wat Yanawa which is believed to show the maritime technology which would be replaced by steam vessels. (Phanuphong & Chaiyot, p.50)

Mirrors can make: 1. a picture or image of the self 2. a picture of an object with a left-right inversion from what the eyes can see. Glass krajok was divided into karajok siii (coloured or painted glass) used for decoration, and krajok ngaw(shadow glass) to mean mirror (Phanuphong & Chaiyot, p.57) In Thai culture there was no reference to a portrait of a real person in art. However, the widespread making of portraits began with sculpture in the reign of Rama II. has two portraits, one of a Mr Nok and another of a Mr. Rueng, followed by one of Sankharaja Suk in 1844. Also it seems the play Inao contains reference to a prince who sent out the royal portrait artists to paint the face of a princess in another kingdom). Photographic portraits later such as by Francis Chit were not popular. This is because when he took a photo of an upper male torso, this meant the man was cut in half. People then thought that photos of men meant they had their soul taken. (Phanuphong & Chaiyot 52)

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Wat Ratchaorot of late Rama II includes many compositions made with the aim of a mirror which allows an image to be symmetrically doubled, incuding the semblance of one-point perspective.

There were two kinds of mirror views and their combination, particularly in trompe l’oeil images at Wat Rajaorot. Movement from idealized to real figures contemporary with increased commercialization and increase in trade with China. (Phanuphong & Chaiyot 70)

The Self was seen by means of a mirror, and from early Rama III the time of Wat Suthat ordinary people appeared in art as individualized, a state that was previously true only for angels and deities. Even in typical Buddhist narratives the emphasis changed from the Vessadon Jataka within the Ten Major Jatakas (Tosachat) to Mahosot, a jakata known for attention to wisdom and wit which was focussed on a particular person. In it Mahosot followed a crow to identify where its nest was, but by looking at its shadow on the ground, not its shape in the sky. The artists were aware that real people have a shadow, others understood via the popular Thai metaphor of the moon seen in a pond of water: If the pond was drained the moon would disappear. Wat Suthat showed an increase in the area dedicated to Mahosot as against the preceding Wat Pho (Phanuphong & Chaiyot 80)

Re-use of Buddhist ideas as allegorical denotation The Dharma Allegory: Paintings with inscription of the Phutasuphasit on six pairs of columns in the ubosot The paintings depicted and the painted backgrounds are keyed with different colour shadings to show the six categories of people’s minds. The colour varied from the darkest in the front to the lightest closest to the Buddha statues. The first five pairs of columns face each other, and the sixth pair faces the ubosot in the same direction with the same direction as the Buddha ie towards the East. Chalaphichat six dispositions 1.Kanhabhijati evil, sin –black 2.Nilabhijati justice-green 3.Lohitbhijati righteous, dhamma –red 4.Halodadabhijati purified, merit-making -yellow 5.Sukkabhijati more religious than laymen, sage –white 6. Paramasukkabhijati supreme Arhat – extremely white (Faay anurak…1990, 19)

Examples of visual allegories at Wat Bownooniwet ubosot: Buddha is the horse rider, dharma is the trick of training horses (the horse whisperer), and the sangha community of monks is the herd of horses. (Faay anurak…1990, 32)

Hospital is Buddhist Dharma: The doctor, one who dispenses medicine to cure diseases, like the Buddha (who is one brings wisdom) Faay anurak…1990, 33)

Known foreign precursor discourses None are known of directly. However, Westerners certainly appear in surviving Thai murals of the early 1700s, (Wat Ko Kaeo Suttharam, 1734, Petchburi (Muang Boran, 1986)) as do representations of landscape elements derived from Chinese craftsmen painting (landscape elements behind Buddha figure, Wat Mai Chumphon, Nakhon Luang, Cangwat Ayutthaya, ca1675-1700). There is also a distant undertow of Indian conventions in some narrative schema for the shaping of rocks and the space cells of narrative construction (Wat Buddhaisawan, 4 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

(Muang Boran, 1983)). The possibility of 17th century Persian connections is not remote given the presence of Iranians at the court in the 1680s, by one of whom a significant commentary survives (The Ship of Sulaiman, Eng. tr.1973) What Catholic church decoration was available for view, again since the 1680s, and what survived until the arrival of Abbé Pallegoix and re- establishment of Roman Catholicism in 1830, remains to be more fully explored. But priests were certainly culturally active in translating elements of liturgy into Thai in the 18th century, and in transcribing Thai in roman letters for use in musical accompaniments: perhaps visual learning from Catholic icons also took place.

The major visual discourse from which Khura In Khong borrowed, and this must have been on the orders of Rama IV, was in the visual citation of images from late 18th and early 19th century US’ prints, supplied as gifts by Townsend Harris to King Mongkut. These included Heck, Johann Georg, Iconographic Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art (tr from German, ed by Spencer F. Baird), New York: Garrigure, 1851-2 (4v and atals, 2v plates) copies for three volumes of which from Rama IV’s library are now in the National Library, Bangkok. (where the ‘Iconographical’ or Illustrated volumes were not found) Some of the views which were given to Rama IV could have included William and Thomas Birch The City of Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, North America, as it appeared in the Year 1800 and William Bird’s Country seats of the United States, 1808.

Since Rama IV’s Nakhon Kiri Palace at Petchburi above the Wat Mahasamanaram was built from 1859 after the return of its architect Thuam Bunnak from taking part in a diplomatic mission to London in 1857, it could be that some of Khrua In Khong’s representations of buildings in a Western manner are also derived from architectural drawings brought back at that time.

Stylistic Issues: antecedence of endogenous and exogenous, nested endogeny Foreign figures in the murals of Khura In Khong are taken directly from late 18th century and early 19th century US’ prints and illustrated books, not from casual observations of non-Siamese at court as in Wat Ko Kaeo Suttharam, 1734. These archetypal representations survive as visual and symbolic figures as late as Wat Suwannaram in the 1830s. The difference is that Khrua In Khong had both actual foreigners as well as art discursive figures from much nearer in time available to him. Thus his representations of Westerners are variations from a base of existing representations. Probably because these were already present in mural painting provided Khrua In Khon with discursive space to so prominently assimilate them into Buddhist allegorical schemes apparently about Dharmically good deeds incurring good Karma, but without a strict narrative line or contents.

The visual space of the latter is apparently also already prepared by non-sequential narrative elements from all or one particular Jataka stories of Buddha’s previous lives already being part of the late 18th and early 19th century schemes which preceded Khrua In Khong, from Wat Buddhaisawan of the 1790s. Elements of Chinese landscape of a kind familiar to Chinese craftsmen painters are already seen in the last half of the 17th century at Wat Mai Chumpon at Nakhon Luang near Ayutthaya. They were further developed by the tiem of Wat Suwannaram, both of whose major painters come down to us as of Chinese origin or were Chinese in an era of very large Chinese immigration. Thus rather than seeing the Khrua In Khong’s deployment of images of Western buildings and practical disappearing point perspective schemes as a radical innovation, we could see these as more effective deployment of representations of discontinuous, allegorical elements taken from but no longer integrated by narrative tales.

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Shading and light receive little except symbolic attention as part of an overall pictorial scheme until Khrua in Khong. Previously murals were painted on a prepared white ground with figures drawn in red or outlined in red fields with other colours being applied under various codas which are by turns partially naturalistic or with key hues for marking out a moral atmosphere (yellow for good, green for karmically harmful desire, blue for foreigners). This colour marking continues in Khrua In Khong’s age of the 1850s-1860s, but the red on white grounding scheme has been lost. Instead he sometimes works on a white ground with the painted effect of contemporary glass paintings, themselves learnt from Chinese craftsmen and done by them in Bangkok. But as importantly he works with dark, even close to black, grounds into which he works pigments brightened by the addition of white or whole areas worked up as white, bright areas. Areas are also left unpoainted on white with outlines of buildings in black, and into these later colouring schemes for the buildings and figures are over-painted. None of these schemes appears to have a single light source, but the figures are certainly given local shading to indicate volume or perhaps just to look more ‘real’ as an attribute of their universality. Undoubtedly his work is a quest for the real within the frames given by his patron Rama IV whose intent may have been to metaphorically seek to have represented a more universal symbolic space for the Buddhist law, rather than let different subject motifs sit within a scheme more or less given by a didactic, habitually particular Buddhist narrative space, itself with plural segmentations and expressions. Some painting schemes such as at the ubosot ofWat Bowonniwet are articulated as a Buddhist set of moral allegories detached from particular narratives. Some narratives such as the ubosot of Wat Mahasamanaram in Petchburi are singularized around idealized stages of a life- history which appear in a series of linked narrative tableaux with possible reference to European depictions of the Stages of the Cross, or Pilgrimage narratives.

No Na Pak Nam Wat Somanat Wihan, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1996, 14-17) made some significant observations about works in the reign of Rama IV (reg.1853-1868). These were contemporary with Khrua In Khong. Paintings of this reign depicted 18th century Carolinian architecture from the USA the replacement of canals by roads, the riding of Western merchants along them, the local elite riding in horse-carriages, and a Western man and woman strolling through a local fair. Representations of Western countries seen as a dream landscape made after Western prints.

Techniques The artists of the periods used ‘half a coconut shell as a mortar to mix powdered dyes and resin, separating the different kinds of paints and calling each one namya or “coloring water” ’. (No Na Pak Nam, ibid, 14)

Angels were depicted as if flying in clouds, some playing musical instruments Different from earlier depiction seated on discrete levels background colourings were black, red, green, while blue used to show cold climate of the West. Only clothes and dresses had lighter shades Buildings were now shown bigger than people. Hitherto people were often shown too big to fit into buildings. (Faay anurak…1990, 4)

Sky takes up 30% of the surface with different shades for sky and clouds Each narrative episode is depicted in groups of buildings separated by bush or opaque colour Black used to sketch in outlines then filled with colour. Characters then sketched n top The background is coloured in for the ground and the sky by leaving a space out for buildings. (Faay anurak…1990, 5)

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Bbush and tree shown by using technique called krathang by using the crushed outer part of the krathang tree as a brush for green and by making an imprint of the leaves of this tree. Ornaments and head gear were drawn with a pencil and a thin brush Clouds were painted with white in the middle and the shadows shaded with yellow, indigo and red. The bottom of the clouds were shaded with red. . (Faay anurak…1990, 6)

Binder media for colour were animal hide glue, usually rabbit skin glue; a glue made from a tamarind seeds phit makhaam; a glue made from the sap of the madua tree ( a kind of fig) used after application to painted surface for attaching gold leaf

At top sky white with red in shadows turned into darker tones by indigo, then grey in middle, ground colour was blue & grey or brown & black, the skyground colour was a dark indigo. black at bottom except for outlined architectural elements to be painted in later. Figures painted over black. Gradual change of colour on ground. Painter would do different parts of the painting in succession not in a fixed order so the colour would change across these. Figures, trees, and other objects all marked by discrete colours then gold leaf (Faay anurak…1990, 7)

Paintings in the Ho Traiphitok building, at Wat Bowonnoiwet, RIV-RV (1860s-1870s) Tempera (pigment and binder) Wall prepared on stucco plaster and lime and oil from sugar cane Wall washed with bay khilek, seen from a trace of the plant found on top of the wall. This is to wash out salt with lime and white tempera mixed with binder made from tamarind seed. The top part of the wall is rough and only thinly covered with paint, only the lower part near eye level is properly primed. The upper part is painted with a lighter shade, the lower with more vibrant tones to produce the effect of distance. (Faay anurak…1990, 35)

Red for roof and other parts of buildings Green for the leaves, mixed with white and black, Black for the ground and on people or used in linear drawing on the figures. White on clothes or mixed to make lighter tones Buildings have gold , there is gold on vessels and parts of buildings, as well as clothes of king or priests. (Faay anurak…1990, 36)

Drawing is with a no.3 brush using black wash from the lower wall upwards because the upper part is covered from the front and near, by drawing the main structure, ground, sky, river, mountain , ubosot, palace, and main compounds of houses and buildings in groups. This leaves room for drawing in pencil or wit a small brush the detail, groups of small buildings and trees on the second layer. Figures are drawn by brush with black, brown, red, or yellow, in pencil on a white or light background. Main figures are drawn by brush with careful steps an layers, the rest is by free hand. There are trees and various designs drawn over the original patterns. Background was painted first leaving buildings and main structure blank for colouring in later. (Faay anurak…1990, 37)

General styles followed in reign of Rama IV: 1, Khrua In Khong, adoption of Western modes (Wat Baromniwat) 2. rendering of human figures continued in Thai style (Wat Maha Phreutharam) 7 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

3 traditional style, but incorporating new techniques: perspective at Wat Phra Chetuphon, story of a disciple, interior with European chandeliers and furniture, vbut with monarchs gilded and outline in Thai manner (Wat Matchimawat, Wat Kanmatuyaram, Wat Pathum Wanaram, Wat Khongkhgaram (Ratchaburi)) (ibid, 15) General characteristics of murals in the ubosot (ordination hall) and wihan (congregation hall) in reign of Rama IV: 1 traditional ceiling in gold motifs on red (vermillion and cinnabar) or dark red (earth red). Darkening by admixture of some soot. Star motifs replaced by Chinese or other designs such as birds, Chinese fret prachaechine and krua thao intertwined sprays. Curtain could be depicted as pulled back to show black ground at Wat Noppakhun. 2 skill in drawing figures indicates a handed down craftsmanship. Western depictions included tree with straight trunks, water flowing in ripples, splashing white foam, ocean-going vessels at Wat Pathumwanaram and Wat Somanat. Naturalism different to garish landscapes of bright indigo skies, trees in garish green, red, and yellow of contemporary folk drama or likay sung entertainments. 3 a Trees not outlined, brushing of spots of light, sometimes horizontal seriation of pine tree 3b naturalistic rendering of water, use of reflections for trees, bushes emerge in dark with glowing edges. 3c people shown with unconventional clothing some wearing hats. First appearance of male and female Westerners. 3d flagpoles with flags flying high. 3e many features of Western architecture in housing with hip or ridge rooves, paddle wheel steamships shown. 3f use of Western perspective devices to show depth, sometimes with light and shadow. 3g stories shown include Dhamma riddles (Wat Bowon Niwet, Wat Baromniwat), revision of scriptures (Wat Thong Noppakhun), story of Sri Thanonchai (Wat Pathumwanaram), representation of sect temples of Damayutnikai (Wat Senasanaram, Muang Ayutthaya), Tale of Inao (Wat Somanat Wihan). (ibid, 16-17)

Other notions of plurality Beyond stylistic plurality in Khrua In Khong’s one must notice two other kinds of stylistic plurality. The first is that most of the pictorial work seen in Bangkok from the 19th century is metropolitan and often controlled directly by court patronage. There were undoubtedly many regional variations including Northern or Burmese and Eastern or Lao and Vietnamese variations in painting styles. Khrua In Khong’s work in the service of the king is thus outside of many vernacular practices which did not always survive but traces of which can be found all over smaller schemes in regions of what is now . Such as Wat Phra Singh in Chiangmai or Wat Thung Sri Muang in Ubon Ratchathani. A second kind of plurality is with pan- or cross-religious themes. Among the more prominent is the Nariphon scheme (name is from Pali) which shows risis being denuded of their powers because they grasp at betwitching, golden tree nymphs, and thus lose their karmic merit. But this tale is also well known in the Islamic world in or before the 15th century as the tale of the Island of the Blest and the WaqWaq Tree (in Bodleian Library, Oxford University). It is expressed on the doors of Wat Khongkharam (1830s-50s) at Ratchaburi and on the outside of some temples in the Isaan region of the North East.

Art worlds The social institution art schools and salons did not basically exist until the first decade 20th century. Although the existence of a short-lived art school is known from 1898-1900. (Saran Thongpaan, 106).

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Training for artists Teaching was in a workshop under a master, invariably a monk, by rote drawing after model books and rarely from life. The existence is known of a model book for various types of figure (Saran Thongpaan, 105). But we cannot assume any lack of visual interest in the external world and a rough naturalism can be found among surviving mid-18th century Ayutthaya manuscript illustrations, particularly of flowers and some animals such as elephants. Craftsmen or Chang were not an independent organization or segment of any unit in the government. They belonged to either the king or the nobles. (Saran Thongpaan, 40) They could be in competition with foreign technology and there is a 108 record of overseas printing of Defeat of Mara to produce images for purchase (Saran Thongpaan, 108) .But while the overall social status of chang was unclear but skilled ones could individually raise their status (Saran Thongpaan, 113) even though there were no separate, autonomous guilds of craftsmen.

Contemporary discourses with period of artist’s activity As far as can be discerned there are inherited schema and drawing techniques from what must have been histeachers in the reigns ofRama II and Rama III, but no direct borrowings by Khrua In Khong from his contemporaries, We can only infer that his use of western visual devices would have been impossible without, and was directly due to, the patronage of Rama IV.

Rama IV received many books and also optical devices including photographic equipmwent fromQeen Victoria in 1856 from foreign visitors. (see lists below). On the grounds of visual similarity Khrua In Khong appears to have used US’ townscape views in his backgrounds. Since these often include small-scale views of everyday activities in the street or parks these are the images which he has re-deployed into Buddhist allegories peopled as at Wat Bowonniwet, by foreigners in the place of Thais. He appears to have built up a notion of perspective from these images and from the set of illustrations which accompanied

Use of other art as exemplary for own Rama IV (King Mongkut, reigned, 1851-1868) Ayutthaya, Wat Pradu Song Tham with restored Ayutthaya elements, (Muang Boran, 1985) Bangkok, Wat Kanmatuyaram (Muang Boran, 1983), Thanon Mang Korn / Yawarat-Chareun Krung. Bangkok, Wat Maha Phruttharam, Thanon Chareun Krung/Thanon Maha Phruttharam, Khet Bangrak, (Muang Boran, 1983) Bangkok, Wat Pathumwanaram Rachaworawihan, >1853-1857<, (Muang Boran, 1996), Khet Patumwan, Kwaeng Pathumwan, Thanon Ratchagan thi 1. Bangkok, Wat Rajapradit (Klong Lod) Bangkok, Wat Somanat Wihan, ca. 1856-60, (Muang Boran, 1995) Thanon Krungkasem. Nakhon Ratchasima P., Wat Ta Khu (Muang Boran), Pak Thong Chai. Petchaburi, Phra Nakhon Kiri, after 1858. Phatalung P., Wat Wang Phatalung P., Wat Wihan Beuk Songkhla, Wat Matchimawat, >1851-1865< (Muang Boran, 1983) Thonburi, Wat Aponsawan Thonburi, Wat Chinorot Thonburi, Wat Pao Rohit, (Muang Boran, 1983), Charansanitwong 32. Thonburi, Wat Thong (Muang Boran, 1983), Charansanitwong Soi 46, Phya Waraphong.

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European travelers from the 1840s commented on Thai visual art from time to time, acknowledging decorativism and Chinese debts, but they infrequently understood the narrative range of the subjects displayed, and did not grasp the range of variations with their representation. The Thai have taken the Chinese as models in the art of painting and drawing until today they have remained well below their masters. Their drawings are crude; they have a grotesque style never imitating nature. They draw landscapes on moveable screens and on the interior walls of houses but it is especially in the palace and temples that they deploy their paintings with great luxury. It is there that gold is mixed in profusion with rich colours and these images, as bizarre as they are, never fail to stimulate the admiration of Europeans who have visited them. (Pallegoix 1854/2000, 184)

Social and Historical Issues Social milieu The social world of early to mid-19th century Siam in which Khrua in Khong worked has been summed up as one segmented by those who had to pay service to the nobles and, separately, to the king. Besides serving or giving gifts to their nai, the nobles, the phrai luang were also required to serve the king(ratchakan) by doing government corvée labour for a period of six months in a year. When the king assigned phrai to be under the princes, he gave those phrai directly to the princes. Such phrai became phrai som belonging completely to their nai, the princes. They were, therefore, not required to serve government corvée. As the phrai luang had to do government corvée, which was a heavy burden to them, they always tried to escape from their nai and become phrai som of the princes. The king could not take away phrai som from their nai and redistribute them. For unlike phrai luang, they did not belong to the king, but belonged completely to their nai. Thus the king had no control over the phrai som. (Akin, 1969, 210)

This was a world of patron-client relations, not of independent craftsmen in autonomous ateliers whose services were competitively bid for by king and nobles. Order within the state depended on his (the king’s) distribution of manpower, the balance of which gave security to the king. Yet the principle of formation of groups, the relation between patron and client depended on reciprocity. On his part, the patron’s role was to give protection to his client, and the client’s role was to render gifts and service to his patron….(Akin, 1969, 219)

The social relations were thus intensely particularistic whatever the claims to charismatic authority by birth royal persons might assume. The dominant value of Thai society was kat anyu-katawethi, ie to remember what another has done for one, and try to do something in return. This is different from the concept of loyalty. One could be loyal to the crown or to an abstract principle, but that would not be katanyu- katawethi. Thus when a patron could not give the usual protection, i.e., would not perform his customary role, the client was free to seek a new patron’. (Akin, 1969, 219)

The principle of rule was that persons were ranked according to a notional area of land, not an absolute measure geographical territory . The structure of sakdina, as the sytem was called began with the king who had an unlimited amount of land, an amount not necessarily based on actual land (Saran Thongpaan 1991, 17) Men and women had to register as phrai tying themselves to their father’s or mother’s status, and women could be registered to work in the palace (ibid, 19). Men were tattooed on the wrist or under the arm, but not women. A distinction was drawn between those conscripted to the king phrai luang and those conscripted to nobles phraii sorn (ibid,19). Changes could be made in the status of phrai luang/sorn and length of period working for the palace varied as then for nobles. Remembering that Khrua In Khong was a monk, phrai 10 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013 for life or who had three tattooed children, could ordain or be upgraded to khun mun (ibid, p.22). But minors or lek wat were often conscripted as chang (craftsmen). The status of phrai and that (slaves) was about the same, but the latter could be exchanged between nobles. (ibid, 24)

This labour structure was continually augmented by Chinese labourers outside the system and 10,000 immigrants per annum arrived from 1825-1860. (Saran Thongpaan, 28 citing Nakya). The children of Chinese migrants were tattooed for labour though they could keep their status as foreigners (ibid, p.29). It is important to realize that monk painters like Khrua In Khong had no autonomous status through their holy orders and the palace had power to appoint, disrobe, and rank monk craftsmen (ibid 30). They were not separate from lay people. Sangha men (monks) were exempt from the labour force and also had their own sakdina rank called samanasak. But the engine of the patronage system was indeed a kind of competition between royals in making merit, eg between Rama II and Rama III, such as in the commissioning of temples and their decorations (ibid, 31).. It was for example, the way of the king to show barami (charismatic radiance) and merit by bringing the Large Buddha to Wat Suthat in Bangkok from Sukhothai in about 1820. It was Rama II who sent the chang to finish the doors at Wat Suthat (ibid, 33). The palace controlled scheme of entertainments, design of costumes and medals (ibid,34), and Rama III regulated the use of external decoration on houses to compete in showing status to others, for example in sumptuary rules in the fashion for Chinese pavilions gong ciin on rooves. (ibid, 35). Bowring in 1856 recorded use of expensive cloth by nobles and cotton by ordinary people (Bowring, reprint 1997, 238). Under Rama III royals’ processions allowed competition in clothes’ display, an expression of valued social prominence for which nobles competed (ibid, 36).

Some analysis of the literature on the early 19th century sees changes in the consciousness which authorized rule or wealth.

There was a change in the source of wealth on which the King relied during the reign of Rama III when, the government began to have a policy of hiring skilled labour in place of conscripts, and felt this method achieved better results. But those hired by government were mostly artistic craftsmen. Most artisans with skills relevant for market production gained little or no benefit from this era of economic change. (Niddhi, Pen & Sail: Literature and History in Early Bangkok, (1982) 109). Thus we can speculate there was some benefit to the situation of a nameable artisan like Khrua In Khong, but it was still one highly dependent on the royal patron’s favour.

The relation of the king to the noble class changed: The power of the bourgeois king is thus expressed in the wealth that is spread among the ruling class generally. Moreover, such wealth has been generated by the efforts of the people in the world, not as the consequence of the store of merit which the king has accumulated in previous lives. (Niddhi, 2002, 117).

Social structures changed and so did consciousness of them during the period of Khrua In Khong’s activity, leading in some respects to a wish to revive social relations which had already passed but by new ideas of how to rationalize them, a feature of Thai life which continued to reappear in the twentieth century. There was s shift away from a Thai base in custom and tales to one with emphasis on knowledge of English and Western literature, which qualified them to be kings, ministers, and so on. In parallel with this lapse of the Thai upper class into mental slavery to the west, the court circle from the Fourth Reign onwards became increasingly conscious of difference between themselves and the ordinary people. They tried to revive the “sacred” power of sakdina and reinforce their own 11 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

sakdina-ness which had been neglected under the influence of bourgeois culture in the early Bangkok era. (Niddhi 2002, 145)

Extant works of Khrua In Khong These notes are based on Wiyada, 1979, and Listopad, 1984, as well as personal viewing over different visits during 1993-2012 to 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

The following works are extant:

1 Bangkok, National Library, Sketchbook(s)

Catologued as: Ekkasan lekh thi 17, Chuu tonrang ruup phaap manut rup phaap yak le luatlae tangtang khong ajaarn In Khong Wat Ratburana, Nangsuu samut Thai khaaw. Ekkasan lekh thi 18, Chuu tonrang ruup phaap manut rup phaap yak le luatlae tangtang khong ajaarn In Khong WatRatburana, Nangsuu samut Thai khaaw. (I understand from the National Museum that these drawings have been photographed under the instruction of HRH Princess Sirindhorn, but I was unable to obtain sight of a copy on a visit in December 2011. ).

2 Bangkok, National Gallery, paintings a. Five studies from Vessantara Jātaka. Circa 1868-1870 (Listopad, 1984, 29) b. A portrait of King Mongkut, (now given to E. Peyze-Ferry, 1856, See Apinan, 1992, 11)

3 Bangkok, Chapel Royal a. paintings of Thai Proverbs on Window Shutters b. five paintings from Ten Lives of the Buddha c. murals depicting episodes of Thai History in Ratchakoramanuson Pavilion and Ratchaphongsanuson

4 Petchaburi, Wat Mahasamanaram, after 1859?, murals showing an allegory of an individual life together with scenes of depict sending of monks to Sri Lanka in 1852, and of a pilgrimage to Buddha’s Footprint in Saraburi.

5 Ayutthaya, Wat Phra Ngam, Murals in mondop of Buddha’s Footprint.

6 Bangkok, Wat Bowon Niwet (Wat Boviranives Vihāra), after 1860? Murals in ubosot show figurative allegories of religious teachings, as well as depictions of daily lives of monks and ceremonies.

7 Bangkok, Wat Boromniwat, near Bo Bae market originally called Wat Nok, construction ordered by Rama IV when a monk in 1834. Murals circa 1851. (Listopad, 1984, 29) Restored Rama V, Murals in ubosot. (cf John Singleton Copley, Watson and the Shark, 1778, NG Washington, Listopad, 1984, 10)

8 Bangkok, Wat Somanasvihāra Rajaworavihāra (Wat Som, Wat Somanasa Vihāra) Phadung Krungkasem Road, and canal on Nang Loeng market side, 1856–1860, meditations on the decaying body (asubha kammaṭṭhāna) (Listopad, 1984, 16-17, 29) by Rama IV to honour Queen Somanas Wattanawadee Phra Borom Rajathevee, his first queen who had died aged 17 in 1852.

Successor discourses, ‘followers’ of Khrua In Kong 12 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Thonburi, Wat Thong Nopphakhun, Paintings in ubosot by Phra Khru Kasin Sangwon, Luangpho of temple

Samut Phrakhan, TaMuang Boranon Phra Padaeng Wat Protketsachettharam, 35 framed paintings, 20 in Sleeping Buddha Hall, 15 in ubosot

Other works by near-contemporaries Wat Poramayaikawas (Bhoramayyikwaawaan) after 1876, murals by Than Tong (or Mom Chao Pravij Jumsai, 1847-1925) (Muang Boran, 2003)

Phra Thinang Songphanuat>1873-1899<, 1899 ubosot re-located to Wat Benchamabophit, it contains depictions of historical events from reigns of Rama IV and Rama V. (Muang Boran, 2000)

Materials on Khrua In Khong Khrua In Khong was active as a painter 1850s-1860s Born at Bang Chan in Petchaburi province Ordained Wat Ratchaburana (Wat Liap) Bangkok (Wiyada, 1979, 13, 109 citing No Na Paknam, Phochanaa Nukrom Sinlapa, Bangkok, Kaseem Panakit, 1972, 23-4

The meaning of Khrua In Khong’s name: Khrua: old monk who is strict disciplinarian In: original name Khong: talking of Khrua In Khong (the painter), I once asked him why he had the name Khong (low tone). He told me has stayed a novice too long; hence he was called In Khong (falling tone). At first I understood this to mean that people had mistaken Khong (low tone) for Khong (falling tone), either spelling or pronouncing it wrongly. In thinking over the matter again, I now realize there is really no such mistake. Take Hoi Khong (low tone, the apple snail), for example. It means big snail. Neen Khong (falling tone) is a Big Neen (novice). Therefore Khong (low) and Khong (falling) are the same. They both mean “big”. (Thongmitr, 1979,110 citing Saan Somdet, Bangkok, Khurusapha, 1962, v.3, 125-126)

Mentioned in Royal Chronicles for painting the Royal Mausoleum Ratchaphongsanuson the King demanded the service of Phra Achan In in painting murals depicting the Royal Chronicles of the Bangkok period. Shows King Mongkut held him in special favour, and virtually as the royal painter.

Prince Naris: he was not very sociable would lock himself up in a kuti (monk’s shelter) to prevent visitors disturbing his concentration in planning ubosot murals. (Thongmitr, 110, citing No Na Paknam Kwaam ngaam nay sinlapa Thay (Beauty in Thai Art), Bangkok, Odeon Store, 1967, 232) 13 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Historical Notes on the times of Khrua In Khong The probable life span of Khrua In Khong falls into the range 1800s-1870s. Modern Siamese history may be taken as beginning fifty to a hundred years earlier with the fall of Ayutthaya to Burmese invaders in 1767 and the transfer of the cpital first to Thonburi under King and then to Bangkok under Rama I.

Ayutthaya Period (ca 1350-1767) 1766-7 Burmese invasion, fall and destruction of Ayutthaya. Many court craftsmen including musicians and painters taken to Burma. One mode of Burmese music is still called ‘Ayutthaya mode’. After some temples and remaining sculptures moved to Thonburi & Bangkok

Thonburi Period King Taksin, reigned 1767-1782. Taksin later executed by Rama I, ostensibly for heterodoxy.

Ratanakosin Period (1782-2012+) Rama I (Phra Phutthayotfa, reigned 1782-1809)

Rama II (Phra Phutthaloetla, reigned 1809-1824) 1811 Consumption of Opium is forbidden, but the law is never properly enforced. Some court income derived by the farming-out of collection of tax on opium sold by Chinese (illegal to Thais) to prominent Sino-Thai families. 1818 Portuguese envoy arrived to conclude Commercial Agreement and became the first resident Portuguese Consul. *the Portuguese ambassador imports two big circular mirrors among other items. Rama II placed an order for a mirror immediately on the next invoice. 1820 Protestant missionaries said to have arrived. 1821 arrived in Bangkok as the envoy of the Governor-General of India, attempts to negotiate treaties but fails. His mission included George Finlayson as surgeon and naturalist. 1822 Britain re-establishes relations with Siam.

Rama III (Phra Nangklao 1824-1851) 1824 British opened war with Burma, Siam being Britain’s nominal ally. * Scottish merchant Robert Hunter moves to Bangkok (expelled 1844) * Mongkut, later Rama IV, younger half-brother of Rama III, became a monk with name Vajirayan. 1826 British forced opening of trade with Burma. The concluded between Siam and Britain. 1828 Protestant missionaries Tomlin and Gutzlaff arrive. Gutzlaff established the first press to print Thai at Singapore in 1829/30. 1829 trade begins to open up Siam to Euramerican powers. 1830 French priest Abbé Pallegoix re-founded Catholic Church in Thailand, became Latin teacher and discussant on Western culture and science to Mongkut at nearby Wat Samorai. 1831 Pallegoix visits Ayuttahaya. 1833 Treaty of Siam signed with the United States of America * Mongkut, later Rama IV, established the reformist, rationalist and anti-superstitious Thammayut Sect. 1835 The US’ Protestant missionary and medical doctor Dan B. Bradley (1804-1873) brought to Bangkok the first Siamese printing press from Singapore. 14 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

* Square-rigged vessels were built in Bangkok, and seventeen to nineteen Thai vessels were constructed by1847. * restoration of Wat Pho, included stone and painted illustrations of contemporary knowledge and morality. 1836 Mongkut, later Rama IV, became abbot of Wat Bowonniwet, a new monastery under royal patronage. 1838 Pallegoix consecrated Bishop of Mallos and stayed at Conception Church, not moving to Assumption Cathedral (on Thonburi side near Wat Arun), around the same time as Mongkut moved from neighbouring Wat Samorai to Wat Bowon Niwet, so ending intimate contact (note from Edward van Roy). 1839 Bradley printed the Royal Proclamation contrabanding opium for Rama III. 1840 Rev. Jesse Caswell joins Bradley’s mission, he became fluent in Thai. 1842 J. Taylor Jones’ Brief Grammatical Notices of the Siamese Language, with an appendix, published in Bangkok 1843 Bradley published first Thai newspaper, Bangkok Recorder. This year he also published a treatise on midwifery ‘with illustrations by a Siamese artist’ (Bradley, 1981, 62), as well as one on vaccination in 1844. 1844 missionary John Hassett Chandler arrives, skilled as printer and type founder. He was later tutor of Prince Chutamani who built first Thai steamship. Left missionary service in 1856, then lived as a merchant importing machinery, was Leonowens’ replacement as English tutor to ’s children, and Siamese representative at Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition in 1876. 1845-46 Mongkut began English lessons from Jesse Caswell at Wat Bowonniwet for about 18 months. He records the presence of 48 Ceylonese at Wat Bowonniwet, 32 of them priests (Bradley, 1981, p.36) 1847 Bradley and Jesse Caswell had preached Christian Perfectionism doctrine, which because it was offensive to other missionaries, caused their resignation. 1848 Caswell dies in Bangkok of erysipelas, a streptococcal infection. 1848 October 19, The Singapore Free Press describes the engineering skills of a Thai prince in building a small steamer with a 2-horse power engine. 1849 Cholera epidemic took place in Bangkok when about 30-35,000 people died. 1850 Pallegoix’s Grammatica Linguae Thai printed in Bangkok. Dictionarium Latinum Thai, ad usum Missionis Siamensis published in Bangkok. * mission of British diplomat Sir James Brooke to Bangkok was thwarted.

Rama IV (Phra Chom Klao, King Mongkut, 1804-1868, reigned, 1851-1868, younger brother of Rama III) 1851-53 teaching by female Protestant missionaries ordered by Rama IV for female department of palace. 1852 Thai envoys were attacked by bandits on their return from a visit to Beijing. This was the last tribute mission to China. * The Second Anglo-Burmese War broke out. * Thai nobles ordered to wear shirts to court * Mongkut sent ten monks to Sri Lanka to receive Buddhist texts. 1854 Pallegoix’ Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam published by Mission de Siam in Paris. Plates inscribed ‘A. Jourdain sc.’ ‘J.Worms’ and one by ‘S.Lancelot’. 1855 Sir , Governor-General of Hong Kong, visited Bangkok and concluded the Treaty between Siam and Great Britain, signed in 1856. This removed Royal Storage with its taxation rights over foreign ships and goods, limited import duties and established consular, i.e. extra-territorial, jurisdiction, the latter to be finally removed in 1909. 15 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

1856 Aprl 5th, gifts presented to Rama IV by Bowring included engravings and a camera with photographic plates. 1856 May 1st, gifts presented to Rama IV by Townsend Harris from USA included many prints and illustrated books 1856 July, gifts presented by Rama IV to President Pierce of USA included a daguerreotype portrait of himself and his principal wife. 1857 Mongkut sends embassy of 28 persons to London; it visited the Crystal Palace. 1857 November 19th, received by , gifts to her included two daguerreotypes ‘one of which is a likeness of His Majesty the King of Siam dressed in full royal robes and decorations seated on his throne of state. The other is a Daguerrotype of His Majesty with the Royal consort and two Royal children seated in Their Majesties knees.’ Present was Phra Petcha Phisai Si Sawat (Thuam Bunnak) And Item 34: Four painted plates shewing different views of the Coronation of the First (sic) King of Siam which took place on 15th May 1851 (Low, 1961, 204-206) * Rapid increase in foreign vessels visiting Bangkok noticed. 1859 about this year, Somdet Chao Phraya Boromahasi Suriyawong sent to Singapore by Rama IV and brought back plans of Singaporian architecture. 1859 works on summer palace complex at Petchaburi begun under Thuam Bunnak. 1860 introduction of coinage. 1861 Bradley published a primer in verse written earlier by a Prince in 1849. 1862 Pallegoix died in . 1862 arrives as governess to Palace children. She leaves in 1867. 1863 Bradley printed the first public version of the Dynastic Annals, Pongsawadan. 1863 French sculptor Chatrousse does a portrait of King Mongkut from a photograph sent to France 1867 Siam’s territorial rights recognized in treaty with France (other territory was also later yielded to France in 1907). Leonowens replaced by Chandler as English tutor to Rama IV’s children. 1868 Luang Tetprojana completes a life size sculpture of King Mongkut begun in 1863. Versions exist at Tamnak Phet, Wat Bowon Niwet and at Summer Palace Petchaburi.

Rama V (Phra Chulachomklao, King Chulalongkorn, 1853-1910, reigned 1868-1910, (Chulalongkorn was the son of Mongkut and under regency of Prince Suriwongs, Chuang Bunnag, 1868-1873). 1869 Siam ceased paying tribute to China. 1869-71 Prince Pradit Worakan does/supervises portraits of Chakri kings for Royal Pantheon in on command of Rama V. 1870 Rama V visited Singapore and Java, and later India in 1870-71. These visits would result in the borrowing of colonial administrative practices for re-organized Siamese domestic rule in the provinces. His group included the artist/craftsman Than Tong (or Mom Chao Pravij Jumsai, 1847-1925). 1872 School for princes and noble children established. 1873 Rama V at 20 years reached his majority and was given a second, full coronation. 1876 Siam exhibits at Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. 1883 August 4, Postal service begins with Rama V’s head on stamps. 1885 A group of court nobles petitioned Rama V to establish a . 1887 Department of Education established, becoming a Ministry in 1890, and creating elementary school textbooks which were first used in 1892. 1892 Royal Pages School established which became Chulalongkorn University in 1916. 1893 Prince Vajravudh sent to England for education, invested as Crown Prince in London in 1895 on death of Crown Prince who died from cholera aged aged 17 years. 16 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

* Treaty ceded territory on left bank of Mekong to France, and forbade Thai military establishments within 25 kilometers of its right bank. Thailand paid an indemnity of three million francs to France, and ceded part of the State of Luang Prabang to France. Laos was completely ceded to France in 1907. 1897 Rama V visited Europe which was widely reported in European illustrated press. 1897 first movie shown in Siam 1898 Treaty concluded between Siam and . 1900-02 Millenarian revolts took place in Northeast Thailand. 1901 Provinces finally brought under central control. 1902 Sangha Administration Act brought Buddhist Church under direct state control. 1905 final abolition of slavery. 1905 Watanbe Tomoyori opens first permanent cinema. 1907 Rama V visited Europe for a second time, including the Venice Biennale. 1908 Land charters were granted to peasants, ending the Thai monarch’s de jure ownership of all land. 1909 Malay States of Kedah, Kelantang, and Trengganu were ceded by Siam to Britain (Kedah had been invaded by Siam in 1821 and there had been other conflicts in 1838. One regional language of Northern is a 19th century version of Thai and was still in 2010 known as phasaa Siam). 1910 Accession of Rama VI, King Vajravudh (1881-1925), reigned 1910-1925. 17 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Some nineteenth century gift exchanges between Siam and other Foreign Countries Between Britain and Siam in 1855 From The Dynastic Chronicles, The Bangkok Era, The Fourth Reign, vol.1, 1965, ibid, p.128, for 2nd April 1855, ‘Sir John Bowring presented the King with a watch, a small, flat diamond-studded golden case with a lid, a gold chain for the watch and a box for writing equipment used in traveling’.

Bowring, 1857, ibid, p.441, gives the translation of Thai engraved document for Queen Victoria of 20.4.1855, which mentions, ‘a finest traveller’s writing desk covered with leather bearing the name “His Majesty the King of Siam” on its back near to the gilt handle and containing superfine implements of writing suitable to my own use’.

King Mongkut’s presents to Victoria ‘consisted of a gold and enamel crown and several other objects of royal regalia’, Chula Chakrabongse, Prince, Lords of Life: The Paternal Monarchy of Bangkok 1782-1932, London, Alvin Redman, 1960, p.198.

From Britain to Siam in 1856 From The Dynastic Chronicles, The Bangkok Era, The Fourth Reign, vol.1, 1965, ibid, p.131, describes gifts presented on the visit of , April 5th, 1856. ‘The gifts the envoy presented to the King included a miniature train, a miniature steamship, a picture of Queen Victoria taken at her coronation, another picture of Queen Victoria with her eight royal children, a set of writing implements, a set of implements for mathematical calculations, a silver-plated table service, and many other things’. According to Low Moffat, A., Mongkut, King of Siam, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1961, p.193-194 , these more precisely included : item 3. two coloured engravings representing the Coronation of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, item 6 a camera and complete photographic apparatus. Among damaged articles were: item 7 Digby Watt’s Industrial Arts, 2 volumes, highly illustrated item 12. a collection of coloured diagrams illustrative of physiology, machinery, natural history etc, item 13 A complete set of charts of the Indian and China seas all of which have been discoloured or greatly damaged by the action of salt water.

According to Jumsai, Manich, King Mongkut and Sir John Bowring (from Sir John Bowring’s personal files, kept at the Royal Thai Embassy in London), Bangkok, Chalermnit, 1970, p.100, Sir John Bowring’s own copies of the list included: 1 A pair of silver inkstand richly gilt, with figures Emblematical of Science and Art 2 A pair of Globes 36 inches in diameter 3 Two coloured prints representing the Coronation of Her Majesty the Queen 4 A best improved Revolver pistol, Silver mounted in a case. 5 A gold Enamelled double Eye Glass, with watch and Gold Cable neck Chain. 6 A Camera and complete photographic apparatus. 7 Digby Wyatt’s Industrial arts 2 Volumes highly illustrated 8 Collection of philosophical apparatus, illustrative of astronomy, Electricity, Optics, Stereoscopic Object. 9 An Arithmometer. 10 A Dressing Case. 11 A Collection of Ornaments in Glass China etc. 12 A Collection of Coloured Diagrams illustrative of physiology, Machinery, Natural History etc. 13 A Complete set of Charts of the Indian and China Seas 18 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

From USA in 1856 From The Dynastic Chronicles, The Bangkok Era, The Fourth Reign, vol.1, 1965, ibid, p.133, describing the visit of Townsend Harris, May 1, 1856. ‘He presented the King with five revolvers, a pipe with an ornamental band of gold, a gun of the type known as priamthøø_ , two pictures of the President, two large looking glasses, two boxes of an ink called kroosoo, ten blank notebooks, twelve maps and two brass chandeliers. Gifts to please the King phrapinklaaw included two pictures of the President, six maps of several countries, one large looking glass, one set of electrical equipment, one gun of a type called chaadlajphakaam__n, one box of guns of a type known as myysya, four packages of equipment for guns, ten books of various stories, and one map of America. The full lists of US’ presents are in Moffat, Abbot Low, Mongkut, the King of Siam, Ithaca, Cornell U. P. 1961, p.186-188, and include: One portrait life size of Genl Washington. One Portrait life size of Genl Pierce (then US’ President) One Republican Court or society in the days of Genl Washington illustrated and splendidly bound, scarlet, turkey morocco, full gilt. One American Scenery, or Principal Views of the United States, will full description, bound in antique morocco. One illustrated description of works of art &c., exhibited at the New York Exhibition, bound Turkey morocco, gilt.- One Iconographic Encyclopedia, or The Arts and Sciences Fully Described and splendidly illustrated, bound Turkey morocco, gilt. One Webster’s American Dictionary, unabridged, bound in scarlet, Turkey, morocco, full gilt and lettd ‘Presented to his Majesty the King of Siam by Franklin Pierce, President of the United States of America’. 1 Coloured view of the city of Washington 1 do do “ “ New Orleans 1 coloured view of the city of New York from St.Pauls Church 1 do do do do do from the Bay. 1 do do do do Boston 1 “ “ “ “ Senate Chamber at Washington 1 “ “ “ “ Philadelphia 1 “ “ “ “ West Point 1 “ “ “ Crystal Palace New York 1 tinted “ “ city of New Orleans 1 view of an express railway train One map, of the United States from Atlantic to Pacific Oceans, on rollers. vol.1, p.136

Siam to USA in 1856 King Mongkut’s gifts to President Pierce were sent in July 1856, but President Buchanan was in office when they arrived, Moffat, Abbot Low, Mongkut, the King of Siam, Ithaca, Cornell U. P. 1961, p.190. They included a Daguerrotype of King Mongkut with Her Royal Highness the Princess Rambery Bhamaarabhiramy, sword, kris, dagger, spears, scissors, enameled bamboo pipe, silver articles, Siamese-made Japanese vases, great drum, drums and flageolets, gilt silk cloth, Poom cloth.

9 France to Siam in 1856 From The Dynastic Chronicles, The Bangkok Era, The Fourth Reign, vol.1, 1965, ibid, on the visit of the French envoys, 5th July 1856. 19 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

The envoy presented the following gifts from the Emperor to the King: a painting framed like a looking-glass and as tall as a person; a picture of the Emperor; a picture of the Empress, a priamthøøng gun, the bullets for which were six niw in length; a case of black-powder cartridges; two cases of scatter-shells and two cases of gunpowder; for a total of four cases; four sets of miniature carriages drawn by horses; a nickel-plated chandelier and two tiers branching out into the glass candle-holders in the shape of lotus flowers, with the second and third tiers having decorative branches but lacking the hanging, lotus-shaped candle-holders; a folding map of Paris; a folder of pictures of military uniforms; a sheet of instructions on how to play chess and a box of chess pieces; a picture- viewing box with various slides for use with it; a case containing a revolver that could fire five rounds; a box, with a glass case containing two artificial singing birds; five large and four small paper-weights made of glass;, making a total of nine; six boxes of candles to be used with the chandelier. The gifts from M. de Montigny to the King included a pony, two søøng in height, a case of liquor, and a set of uniforms. The gifts from the Emperor to King phrapinklaaw included a fire extinguisher, a painted cupboard, a revolver that could fire five rounds, a paperweight made of glass, a clock, and a microscope.’

10. From Siam to Britain in 1857 From Low, 1961, ibid, p. 204-206, Leaving Siam in the autumn of 1857, Siamese ambassadors who were received by Queen Victoria on 19th November, took with them gifts which included: Item 2. Two Royal Daguerrotype portraits, one of which is a likeness of His Majesty the King of Siam dressed in full royal robes and decorations seated on his throne of state. The other is a Daguerrotype of His Majesty with the Royal consort and two Royal children seated in Their Majesties knees. Item 34. Four painted plates shewing different views of the Coronation of the First (sic) King of Siam which took place on 15th May 1851.

From Prussia to Siam in 1861 From The Dynastic Chronicles, The Bangkok Era, The Fourth Reign, vol.1, 1965, ibid, p.253, records the visit of the Prussian expedition to Siam and Japan, 15th December 1861: ‘The envoys presented the King with a picture of the King of Prussia, a set of telegraph equipment, a sword, and a set of equipment for printing books.’

20 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Khrua in Khong Bibliography B. E. = Buddhist Era, subtract 543 to get Common Era dates.

Painting in Thailand Apinan Poshyananda, Modern art in Thailand, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1992. Boisselier, Jean, La Peinture en Thaïlande, Fribourg: Office du Livre, 1976. Brudiyakara, Prince Bidyalabh, Accounts of the Gilt Lacquer Screen in the Audience Hall of Dusit displayed in the Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple, Bangkok: Museum of Emerald Buddha Temple, n.d. Chulathat Phayakharanon, Patterns and Evolution of Mural Paintings in Rattanakosin Period, from Technical Seminar on the Evolution of Arts and Culture of Rattanakosin Bicentennial, Bangkok: Thailand Information Center, Academic Resource Center, Chulalongkorn University, 17 August B.E. 2525 (1982). Committee for the Rattanakosin Bicentennial Celebration, Rattanakosin Painting, Bangkok: 1982. Green Alexandra, ‘From Gold Leaf to Buddhist Hagiographies: Contact with Regions to the East Seen in Late Burmese Murals’, Journal of Burma Studies (Vol 15, no 2) December 2011. Ishizawa Yoshiaki, Tai no Ji’inhekiga to sekizô kenchiku, (Thai Temple Murals and Stone Construction), Tokyo, Mekon, 1989. Jaiser, Gerhard, Thai Mural Painting, Volume 1, Iconography, Analysis, and Guide; Volume 2: Society, Preservation and Subjects, Bangkok: White Lotus, 2010. Leksukhun, Santi, Temples of Gold: Seven Centuries of Thai Buddhist Paintings, London: Thames & Hudson, 2000. Listopad, John Andrew, The art and architecture of the reign of Somdet Phra Narai, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Michigan, 1995. (Chapter Six, ‘Thai Mural painting of the late seventeenth century’) Meechai Thongthiep, comp., Ramakien: The Thai Ramayana, Bangkok: Naga Books, 1993. No Na Pak Nam, Buddhaisawan Chapel, (R1, after 1795), Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983. No Na Pak Nam, Cidtrakam Law Ruang, Somded Phracaw Taksin Mahaaraad Phra Phuu Kuu Caad, (Narrative painting, King Taksin who restored the nation) Bangkok: Muang Boran 1993. No Na Pak Nam, Farang Naj Sinlapa Thai, (Westerners in Thai Art) Bangkok: Muang Boran 1986. No Na Pak Nam, Khoi Manuscript Paintings of the Ayutthaya Period, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1985 No Na Pak Nam, Khru Khongpae & Khru Thongyu, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1987. No Na Pak Nam, Masterpieces of Thai Mural Paintings,Bangkok: Muang Boran, 2001. No Na Pak Nam, Phra Acharn Nak, The Foremost Muralist of the Reign of King Rama I, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1987. No Na Pak Nam, Phochana Nukhrom Sinlapa (Dictionary of Art), 3rd ed., Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1977 No Na Pak Nam, Sinlapa Ciin Lae Khon Ciin Naj Thai, (Chinese art and Chinese in Thailand) Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1987. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Bangkae Yai, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1991. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Chong Nonsi, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1982. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Dusidaram, , Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Maithepnimit,, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Matchimawat, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Phra Sing, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1983. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Phrachetuphon, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1994. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Phumin and Wat Nong Bua, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1986. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Pradu Song Tham, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1985. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Ratchasittharam, No. 2, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1982. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Suthat Dhepwararam, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1996) 21 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

No Na Pak Nam, Wat Suwannaram, (2nd eds), Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1997. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Thong Thammachat, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1982. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Yai Intharam, , Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1982. No Na Pak Nam, Wiwadthanaakaan Laj Thaj, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1991. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Ko Kaeo Suttharam (Petchaburi), Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1986. Paritta Chalermpow Koanantakool, Dance and Painting in 19th century Siam, Bangkok: Faculty of Sociology and Anthropology, Thammasat University, Country Report Part 2, Traditional Performing Art in Southeast Asia, USM, , Malaysia, 10-13 August, 1999. Phanunphong Lawhasom; Chaiyot Isawonpan, Plian phun, plaeng phaaph: prap ruup, pbrung laay; (vary the ground, vary the picture; make ready the form, vary the lines) Bangkok: Muang Boran, BE 2549 (2006) (on the role of mirrors in changes in visual representation of mural painting between Rama II and Rama III). Phya Anuman Rajadhon, Thet Maha Chat, Bangkok: Fine Arts Department, 1990. Poshyananda, A., Western-Style Painting and Sculpture in the Royal Thai Court, 2 vols., Bangkok: Amarin Printing Group, 1993 (review by Clark, J., Art & Asia Pacific, vol.1, no.3, 1994). Subhadradis Diskul, M.C., History of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, Bangkok: the Bureau of the Royal Household, n.d. Subhadradis Diskul, M.C., Rice, C.S., The Ramakian (Ramayana) Mural Paintings along the Galleries of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, Bangkok: Government Lottery Office, 1981.(bilingual) Wiyada Thongmitr, Khrua In Khong’s Westernized School of Thai Painting, Thai Painting Series No.1, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1979. Wray, Elizabeth; Rosenfield, Clare; Bailey, Dorothy; Wray, Joe D., Ten Lives of the Buddha, Siamese Temple Painting and Jataka Tales, New York: Weatherhill, 1976, rev ed.1996. Wyatt, Donald K., Temple Murals as an Historical Source, The case of Wat Phumin, Nan, Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, 1993.

Burmese residues of Ayutthayan Art Green, Alexandra, ‘From Gold Leaf to Buddhist Hagiographies: contacts with regions in the East seen in late Burmese murals’, The Journal of Burma Studies, vol.15, no.2, 2011. Soe Thuzar Mint, The portrayal of the Battle of Ayutthaya in Mynamar Literature, Bangkok: Institute of Asian Studies, Chulalongkorn University, 2011. (types of captives) Prince , Our Wars with the Burmese: hostilities between Siamese and Burmese when Ayutthaya was the capital of Siam¸Bangkok: White Lotus, 2001 (figures for captives).

Khrua In Khong and his time Faay anurak chitrakaam faa phanang le pratimaakaam tit thii, (Somsak Daengphan, Wirachay Wirasukhsawat), Chitrakam faaphanang nay pratheet thay (Mural Painting in Thailand) series 1, volume 3, Bangkok: Kong boraankhati, Krom Silpakon (Archaeology Section, Ministry of Fine Arts), BE 2533 (1990) (restoration reports by Wannipa na Songkhla at Wat Bowonniwet) Lingat, R., ‘History of Wat Pavaraniveça’, (Wat Bowonniwet), Journal of the , vol.26, 1933. Listopad, John Andrew, The process of change in Thai mural painting: Khrua In Khong and the murals in the ubosot of Wat Somanasa Vihāra, unpublished MA thesis, Department of Art, University of Utah, 1984 No Na Pak Nam, Phochana Nukhrom Sinlapa (Dictionary of Art), 3rd ed., Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1977 (on Khrua In Khong, p.28) No Na Pak Nam, Wat Pathumwanaram, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1996. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Somanat Wihan, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 1996. No Na Pak Nam, Wat Poramayaikawas Bangkok: Muang Boran, 2003. No Na Pak Nam, Phra Thinang Songphanuat, Bangkok: Muang Boran, 2000. 22 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Samnakkaan Racha lekha thikaan, Sinlapakaam Wat Bowonniwetvihaan (The art of Wat Bowonniwet vihaan), Bangkok: Amarin, BE 2528 (1985). Saran Thongpaan, Chiwit thang sangkhom khong chaang nay sangkhom Thay phaak klaang samay ratanakosin koon p. s. 2448 (The social life of craftsmen in Central Thai society of the Ratanakosin Era before 1905), MA Thesis in Social Science and Anthropology, Bangkok: Thammasat University, BE 2534 (1991) Skilling, Peter, ‘For merit and Nirvana: the production of art in the Bangkok Period’, Ars Asiatiques, tome 62, 2007. Thathchai Yootphichay, ‘Ho Pratayphitok Wat Bowoniwet Wihana, Aakhan lek lek de mi chitrakaam “prawat khana thaamayut” samay Ratchakaan thi Saam’ (The Tripitaka Chapel at Wat Bowooniwet Wihan: a small buildling which has paintings of the ‘History of the Thammayut Sect” from the reign of Rama III) Silapa Wathanathaam, no. 31, vol 4, BE 2554 (2011). Wiroon Tangcharoen, Sinlapa Samaymay nay pratheet Thay (Modern Art in Thailand, p.26-56) Bangkok: Odseon Store, BE 2534 (1991). Wisantanee Pothisoonthorn, ed., Phra Nakhon Kiri, 2nd ed., Bangkok: Krom Silpakorn, 1987. Wiyada Thongmitr, Khrua In Khong’s Westernized School of Thai Painting, (bilingual) Bangkok: Thai Cultural Data Centre (later Muang Boran Publishing), 1979.

Photography in Thailand Anake Nawigamune, Taay ruup muang Thay samayreek (Photography in Thailand in the early period), Bangkok: Catpim Khrangreek Thay, B.E. 2530, (1987). Anake Nawigamune, Prawat kaan thaay ruup yut reek khong Thay, (The Early History of Photography in Thailand), Bangkok: Sarakadee Press, 2005. Cary, Caverlee, ‘In the image of the King: two photographs from nineteenth century Siam’, in Taylor, Nora A., ed., Studies in Southeast Asian Art: Essays in honor of Stanley J. O’ Connor, Ithaca, Southeast Asia Program, Corbell University, 2000. Sakda Srikant, Kasatri le Klong: wiwannkaan kaan thaay phaap nay prathet Thay, BE 2388-2535, (King & Camera: Evolution of Photography in Thailand, 1845-1992), Bangkok: Darnsutha Press, 1992 White, Stephen, John Thomson, life and photographs: the Orient, Street life in London, Through Cyprus with the camera, London: Thames & Hudson, 1985. (includes 1865 photographs of Siam and Cambodia)

History of Siam in 17th to 19th centuries, chiefly Activities and reports of contemporary Diplomats and Missionaries: Abeel, David, Journal of a residence in China and the neighbouring countries from 1830 to 1833, London: Nisbet, 1835. Anonymous, The Ship of Sulaiman, (1680s) tr. from Persian by O’Kane, J., London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972 Bowring, John, The Kingdom and people of Siam, 2 vols, London: Parker and Sons, 1857, reprint with introduction by David K. Wyatt, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1969. Bradley, William L., ‘Prince Mongkut and Jesse Caswell’, Journal of the Siam Society, vol.54, Pt.1, January 1966 Bradley, William, L., ‘The Accession of King Mongkut’, Journal of the Siam Society, vol.57, pt.1, January 1969. Bradley, William L., Siam Then, the foreign colony in Bangkok before and after Anna, Pasadena, William Carey Library, 1981. Crawfurd, John, Journal of an embassy to the courts of Siam and Cochin China, London: Henry Colburn, 1828, 2nd edition, London: Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley, 1830, and reprint Kuala Lumpur, London, New York: Oxford U.P., 1968. 23 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Finlayson, George, The Mission to Siam and Hué 1821-22, London: John Murray, 1826, reprinted Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1988 Gutzlaff, Karl Friedrich August, Journal of three voyages along the coast of China in 1831, 1832 & 1833 with notices of Siam, Corea and the Loo-Choo islands (to which is prefixed an introductory essay on the policy, religion, etc. of China, by the Rev. W. Ellis), London: Frederick Westley and A.H. Davis, 1834 (2nd ed.) Harris, Townsend, The Complete Journal of Townsend Harris, First American Consul and Minister to Japan, Tokyo: Tuttle, 2nd ed. 1959 Lingat, R., ‘Les trois Bangkok Recorders’, Journal of the Siam Society, Vol. 28 no.2, December 1935. Lord, Donald C.; Mo Bradley and Thailand, Grand Rapids, MI, William B. Erdmans Publishing Co., 1969. McFarland, G. Bradley, Historical Sketch of the Protestant Missions in Siam, 1828-1928, Bangkok: Bangkok Times Press, 1928. McGilvary, Daniel, A half century among the Siamese and the Lao, New York, Fleming H. Revell, 1912. Pallegoix, Jean-Baptiste, Description of the Thai Kingdom or Siam (tr. Tips, Walter E. J. from Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam, 2 vols, Paris: Mission de Siam, 1854) Bangkok: White Lotus, 2000 Roberts, Edmund, Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat, on the U.S. Sloop- of-War Peacock, David Geisinger, Commander during the years 1832-3-4, New York, Harper, 1837, reprinted Wilmington: Scholarly Resources Inc., 1972. Smythies, Michael, Descriptions of Old Siam, Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1995, Smythies, Michael, Early Accounts of Petchaburi, Bangkok: The Siam Society, 1987.

Other Histories, largely 19th century Siam Akin Rabibhadana, M.R., The organization of Thai Society in the early Bangkok Period, 1782-1873, (1969), republished Bangkok: Wisdom of the Land Foundation & Thai Association of Qualitative Researchers¸1996. Baker, Chris & Pasuk Phongpaichit, A (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009. Griswold, Alexander B., King Mongkut of Siam, New York: Asia Society, 1961 Hodges, Ian, ‘Western Science in Siam: A Tale of Two Kings’, Osiris, second series, vol.13, ‘Beyond Joseph Needham: Science, Technology, and Medicine in East and Southeast Asia’, 1998. Jory, Patrick, ‘Thai and Western Buddhist Scholarship in the Age of Colonialism: King Chulalongkorn redefines the Jatakas’, The Journal of Asian Studies, vol.61, no.3, 2002. Moffat, Abbot Low, Mongkut, the King of Siam, Ithaca, Cornell U. P. 1961. Nidhi Eoseewong, Pen & Sail: Literature and History in Early Bangkok, (1982) (ed. Chris Baker and Ben Anderson), Chiangmai, Silkworm Books, 2002 Reynolds, Craig J., Seditious Histories: contesting Thai and Southeast Asian Pasts, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006. Reynolds, Craig J., ‘Buddhist Cosmography in Thai History, with special reference to 19th century culture change’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. XXXV, no.2, February 1976, 203-220; also included in his Seditious Histories, above. Reynolds, Craig J., and Lysa, Hong, ‘Marxism in Thai Historical Studies’, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. XLIII, no.1, November 1983. Terwiel, B.J., A History of Modern Thailand 1767-1942, Brisbane: University of Queensland Press, 1983. Vella, Walter F., Siam under Rama III, 1824-1851, Locust Valley, N.Y.: J.J. Augustin, 1957. Wikipedia, online, entries for Mongkut and Chulalongkorn 24 The Asian Modern © John Clark, 2013

Wilson, Constance Marylyn, State and Society in the reign of Mongkut, 1851-1868: Thailand on the eve of modernization, (PhD, Cornell University, 1970), Ann Arbor: University Microfilms, 1971. Woodward, Hiram W., ‘Monastery, Palace, and City plans: Ayutthaya and Bangkok’, Crossroads, vol.2, no.2, 1985.(on Wat Bowonniwet, p.48-55) Wyatt David C., Thailand: A short history, New Haven, Yale University Press & Chiangmai, Trasvin Publications, 1982, 1984. Wyatt, David C., Siam in Mind, Chiangmai, Silkworm Books, 2002 Wyatt, David C., Studies in Thai History: Chiangmai: Silkworm Books, 1994