Studying the Ottomans:

Section 2: Ottomans in the Modern World (19th -early 20th C.)

WWI and Aftermath. End of Empire, Birth of Modern (2:) politics of dismemberment -- ‘Secret Agreements’ Nov. 19-23

Pledges to Arabs: - Britain encouraged Sherif of Mecca to organize , undermine Ottoman attempts unity

1915-16 “Hussayn-McMahon” correspondence: - outlined agreement: -Hussayn would rally Arabs in exchange for Arab independence, British alliance (political, economic)

[see ‘Additional Readings’] World War I

Correspondence ‘Secret’: took place between 14 July – 10 March, 1915 Hussayn made it clear: this was about recogniztion of ‘Arab Caliphate of Islam’ – nation defined by ‘Arabness’

Initially: - claimed Basra, Baghdad as ‘ancient Arab homeland’

- subsequently agreed to ‘temporary’ British authority, as long as Arab interests respected World War I

- also wanted Adana and northern region including Alexandretta; wilayets Damascus, Aleppo (approximately)

- AND, most significantly: wilayet of Beirut

- relinquished claims to former in face of Britain’s response that these areas were ‘not purely Arab’ in population World War I

- effectively, British attempted NOT to engage in detailed discussion of boundaries: at first ‘deferred’, then left ambiguities

- ultimately: Hussayn agreed to terms

- But Which Boundaries? Never Clear…. Map A: interpretation EXCLUDING Beirut

Ambiguity of McMahon-Hussayn Correspondence as reflected in conflicting Interpretations, conflicting ‘agreements’ …. Map B: interpretation INCLUDING Beirut

I Ambiguity of McMahon-Hussayn Correspondence as reflected in conflicting Interpretations, conflicting ‘agreements’ …. World War I

Text on Map A:

---Line west of which Britain said ‘should be exluded from the proposed limits and boundaries of any future independent Arab State (McMahon 25 oct. 1915

(Shaded areas): areas which the Sherif of Mecca declared to be ‘purely Arab provinces’ and wished to see as part of ‘the pure Arab kingdom’ (Hussayn 5 nov. 1915) World War I

[from McMahon-Hussayn Correspondence: text Map A]

On 25 Oct 1915 the British High Commissioner in Cairo, Sir H McMahon, informed Hussein that Britain was ‘prepared to recognize and support the independence of the Arabs….’.

But, he added, the littoral would have to be ‘entirely excluded from the future Arab State’. World War I

In his reply on 5 Nov 1915, Hussein insisted on the inclusion of the Vilayet of Beirut. But made no mention of the Mutassarilik of Jerusalem.

But on 14 Dec 1915 McMahon replied that any such inclusion ‘will require careful consideration’.

On 1 Jan 1916, Hussein warned McMahon ‘the people of Beirut will decidedly never accept such isolations’.

At no point in the correspondence was any mention made of southern , Jerusalem or the Jews. World War I

1916 Arab revolt launched (as promised): - later given impetus by Col. T E Lawrence “Lawrence of Arabia” [lecture Nov. 26] - aided by Amir Abd al-Aziz Ibn Sa'ud, - married daughter of Imam of Wahhabi movement

- formally allied Saud family with Wahhabist movement

- also allied with warrior Ikhwan ‘the Brotherhood’, Ikhawan ‘The Brotherhood’ (c.1920s) World War I

Ibn Saud: agreed to engage regional pro-Ottoman princes in battle -- ‘switching’ from earlier pro- Turkish position

- received loan 20000 Br. Pds, monthly stipend 5000 Pds; 100000 weapons, ammunition

- given separate, secret agreement by British to recognize right to area in middle of Arabia (Nejd) also Hasa – access to Persian Gulf Areas promised to Ibn Saud and his Family (Nejd, Hasa) –

In return for loyalty to Britain – In perpetuity World War I

“ Agreement”, 1915: between Britain, and Russia - initiated by Russia to assure rights to Constantinople, Straits of

- France expressed desire to annex as well as Gulf of Alexandretta

- discussion occurred as to whether that included ‘Palestine’ World War I

- confirmed that it did but that Holy Places would not be included (governments to be determined later)

- with respect to , spheres of influence between Russia and Britain agreed to

“Sir E. Grey points out that it is most desirable that the understanding now arrived at between the Russian, French, and British Governments should remain secret.“

In effect, much of later ‘Sykes-Picot’ agreement already in place World War I

“London Agreement”, 1915 (with Italy): - Allies wanted Italy to join the war

In Exchange For: - Russia’s agreement to commit certain number troops should Austria-Hungary exert pressure on Italy

- ‘just share of the Mediterranean adjacent to the province of Adalia’ (southwestern )

- share of any indemnity imposed post-war World War I

Article 16: ‘

“The present arrangement shall be held secret”

[see ‘London Agreement 1915’, ‘Resources’] World War I

Greece-British discussions 1916 (not formal agreement): - Allies wanted Greece to enter the war; particularly wanted assistance at Gallipoli

- Greece ‘neutral’ initially; internal politics led to change in government, formally entered war June 1917

- wanted parts of western Anatolia with large Greek population; initially promised ‘Asia Minor’ World War I

“Sykes-Picot” Accord 1917 (Britain, France and Russia): - added eastern part to the area reserved for Russian annexation

- much of south-central Anatolia came under French administration World War I

Key ‘issues’: - Palestine divided up into areas of ‘Allied’ influence

- Fertile Crescent partitioned

- ‘excluded’ territory promised under McMahon correspondence,

- effectively established ‘Arab’ state outside of Palestine Sykes – Picot Agreement Sykes-Picot Agreement (r) – ‘Fertile Crescent’ (l) I

Map (right) shows overlap of Sykes Picot accord with lands (left) Arabs understood were to be “Arab” World War I

Arabs saw themselves as betrayed:

- contradictions between their understanding of Hussayn-McMahon correspondence (and that of the British)

- conflict between their understanding and Sykes-Picot Agreement World War I

Then Came: The Balfour declaration

- followed on history of Jewish ‘Zionist’ negotiations with British (with respect to ‘protecting’ Middle East territories)

- was not an internationally approved document or even official

- only letter expressing intent: at most promise British government would try to facilitate goal World War I

- neither more nor less (in terms of status) than letters with Hussayn

- yet: British used it to extract ‘homeland’ from the ,

- seen by Arabs as ultimate betrayal

[see ‘Balfour Declaration’, ‘Resources’] World War I ‘Declaration’ original part of informal correspondence November 1917:

"His Majesty's Government views with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object.

It being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” World War I

Finally: compounded by fact that Palestine was declared Mandated Territory for both (new) Jewish settlers and Palestinians (‘Arabs’)

- initiated Arab nationalist grievances against British in particular, West in general

- issue threefold: - ‘Mandated Territory’ per se -Syria - Jewish ‘issue’

[see ‘Mandate for Palestinian’, ‘Additional Readings’] World War I

Point #3: (‘Arab Opposition to Mandate’)

“Considering the fact that the Arabs inhabiting the Syrian area are not naturally less gifted than other more advanced races and that they are by no means less developed than the Bulgarians, Serbians, Greeks and Roumainians at the beginning of their independence,

we protest against Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations placing us among the nations in their middle stage of development which stand in need of a mandatory power.” World War I

AND: President Wilson's Fourteen Points, of which the most controversial and ultimately provocative article was…

Article XII. The Turkish portions of the present should be assured a secure sovereignty,

but the other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, … World War I

1) Syria:

- rejected ALL claims by and rights granted to France

- demanded ‘constitutional monarchy’ under King (Emir) Feisal: in recognition of his “glorious struggle” for Arab independence World War I

2) Jewish ‘commonwealth’:

- Opposed ALL ‘pretensions to create a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine’

- Opposed further Jewish migration into ‘Arab’ territory

- Respected rights and responsibilities of ‘Jewish compatriots’

[see ‘Arabs Opposition to Mandates’, ‘Additional Readings”] The Secret Partition of Turkey: combining effects of Sykes-Picot and Anglo-Russian Agreements [see ‘’, ‘Resources’