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Home , 2017 Arab League summit, Balfour Declaration, Cairo Conference (1921), Chaim Weizmann, Constantinople Agreement, Grand Mufti of Jerusalem

The Origins of the Israeli-Palestinian Dispute

Chapters 11 & 14 in James Gelvin’s “The Modern ” notes by Denis Bašić State-Building by Decree after WWI After WWI, the winning powers - and Britain -constructed , , / , , and

Guided by their own interest and preconceptions, Britain and France partitioned what had once been the and created states where states had never existed before

The wishes of the inhabitants of those territories counted for little when it came to deciding their political future desired war spoils

At the beginning of WWI, the had its eyes on two prizes

1. claim to the Turkish Straits - 40 % of the Russian export goes through the straits

2. claim to the Ottoman Palestine to protect the interest of the Orthodox Christians against Catholics whose interests were backed by France France claimed to have the “historic rights” (remember the medieval Crusader states) in the region of , including Lebanon and Palestine as a protector of Lebanon’s Maronite Christians but also due to its investments in local railroads and silk production Britain, at first, was a bit flustered about the spoils of war, for they had been the staunched defender of the Ottoman integrity just to oppose the interests of .

However, later the British appointed a special committee to make a list of the war spoils that would secure the British investment and trade routes in the region.

The Brits claimed Persia, later also Iraq due to its expected oil wealth, and Palestine due to its proximity to the . Entente Secret Treaties AGREEMENT (March 18, 1915)

France and Britain recognized Russia’s claims to the Turkish straits (Bosporus and ) and some surrounding territory. was supposed to become a free port.

In return France should get control over Syria (territory never precisely defined)

The British should get control over Persia.

What makes this agreement important is that it established the principle that Entente Powers had a right to compensation for fighting their enemies and that at least a part of this compensation should come in the form of territory carved out of the Middle East. other secret treaties

Treaty of (April 26, 1915)

Sykes-Picot Agreement (May 16, 1916)

Treaty of Saint-Jean de Maurienne (April, 1917) All these treaties applied the principle of compensation. Sometimes the treaties stipulated that compensation should take the form of direct European control over territories belonging to the Ottoman Empire. At other times, the Entente powers masked their ambitions by promising each other rights to establish or maintain protectorates or to organize zones of indirect control. The new Bolshevik government of Russia not only renounced the claims of their predecessors, but it also embarrassed the other entente powers by publishing the texts of the secret agreements signed by the previous Russian government. conflicting promises and secret treaties the British offered to shelter Muhammad ibn Saud within a “veiled (secret) protectorate” if he only stays out of conflict between the British and the Ottoman Empire. simultaneously, they promised ibn Saud’s rival, Sharif Hussein ibn Ali of Mecca, gold and guns and the right to establish an ambiguously defined Arab “state of states” in the predominantly Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire in exchange for a revolt against the Ottoman Empire. of 1915 ... was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn ‘Ali with the aim of securing independence from the ruling Ottoman Turks and creating a single unified Arab state spanning from in Syria to Aden in .

This revolt was set in motion by the coup in 1908 in which the Turkish nationalist reform party seized power from the old

Sultan Abdülhamid II. The Arab leaders felt Sharif Hussein bin Ali, King of the Arabs and discriminated against in terms of King of the Hijaz parliamentary representation and state’s 1853-1931 language policy. The Ottomans joined the in in 1914. On the other side, Sherif Hussein, as the head of the Arab nationalists, entered into an alliance with the and France against the Ottomans in 1916. The Arab forces were led by his sons, Abdullah and Faysal. The British government in immediately sent a young officer to work with the Arabs, this man was Captain Thomas Edward Lawrence, better known as Lawrence of Arabia. Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935) Australian Light-horse troops marched unopposed into on September 30, 1918. Captain Thomas Edward Lawrence and the Arab troops rode into Damascus the next day to receive an "official" surrender. At the end of the war, the Egyptian Expeditionary Force with the help of their Arab allies had seized what is today Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, large parts of the and southern Syria. The United Kingdom promised in the Hussein-McMahon Correspondence that it would support Arab independence if they revolted against the Ottomans. On the other side, under the 1916 Sykes-Picot secret agreement, the United Kingdom, France and Russia divided the area in ways unfavorable to the Arabs. Yet, further confusing the issue was the of 1917, which promised support for a Jewish "national home" in Palestine. Too many promises and secret agreements for a geographically limited space produced the seed for future conflicts.

Cairo Conference 1921

To pacify the dissatisfied Hashemite Arabs who felt betrayed and tricked by the British, they carved the state of Trans-Jordan out of Palestine and gave it to ‘Amir ‘Abdallah to rule.

For his brother, ‘Amir Faysal, a new state was constructed. That was Iraq made of three Ottoman provinces - Basra, , and Mosul.

Abdulah I of Jordan

King Abdullah I of Jordan (1882 – also known as ,(عبد ال الول) (1951 Abdullah bin al-Husayn was, successively, ‘Amir of Trans-Jordan (1921–1946) under a British Mandate, then King of Trans-Jordan (1946–1949), and finally King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (1949–1951). He is also frequently called King Abdullah since he ,(عبدال الؤسس) the Founder was the founder of Jordan. Jordan ... solved the political problem for the British in 1921; however, it created an economic nightmare. (Trans-)Jordan was a country with virtually no economic resources.

Foreign subsidies have maintained Jordan since 1921 when the British started paying Abdallah a yearly stipend of 5,000 pounds.

Foreign subsidies increased steadily for the next half century and by 1979 they provided over 50% of government revenue (the figure now is little over 20%.) Iraq

Faysal’s party at the Versailles Peace Conference 1919 T.E. Lawrence is behind Faysal to the right

was for a short ( فيصل بن حسي) (Faisal bin Husayn (1883-1933 while king of Greater Syria in 1920 and king of Iraq from 1921 to 1933. He was a member of the Hashemite dynasty. The majority of the population of Iraq were Shi’a Arabs and the foreign-imposed ruling elite - Faisal and his cronies - were Sunni Arabs.

The legitimacy and reputation of the in Iraq could have been only drawn from the fact that they belonged to the reputable Meccan clan of Banu Hashim.

The Hashemites trace their ancestry from Hashim ibn ‘Abd al-Manaf (died c. 510 CE), the great-grandfather of the Prophet Muhammad.

The British granted Iraq independence in 1932.

Faisal’s successors led the until 1958. Some Useful Movies

1. Origins of WWI (part 1 and part 2)

2. by BBC Two

3. Treaty of Versailles by Mojo

4. Blood and Oil: The Middle East in WWI Focus on Palestine & the Jewish Homeland Some statistics

Israel’s population is about 8.4 million, which is about 10% of the population of Turkey (79 mil), (79 mil) or Egypt (91 mil). There are approximately 4 million in the and Gaza (roughly the population of Chicago) Estimates for total number of Palestinians in the world run as high as 9 million. Since 1948, wars between Israel and its neighbors have claimed upward of 150,000 casualties. As a comparison, during the Iraq-Iran war from 1980-88, there were 500,000-1 million deaths and 1-2 million wounded. See: Israel-Palestine: Population statistics The essence of the dispute

The so-called Arab-Israeli dispute has gone on for such a long time and has been a subject to so much heated debate that it is easy to lose sight of the fundamental issues involved. The dispute is, simply put, a real estate dispute.

ZIONISM is a national movement that defined a religious community - - as a national community. The word "Zionism" itself is derived from the Tziyyon), one of the ,ציון :word "" (Hebrew names of , as mentioned in the Bible. It was coined as a term for Jewish nationalism by Austrian Jewish publisher Nathan Birnbaum in his journal Self-Emancipation in 1890. (1860-1904)

... is perhaps the most important figure in the early .

Herzl received a secular education and acquired doctorate in law.

As a journalist for a Viennese paper, he went to Paris to work there as a correspondent and to report on the Dreyfus Affair, which captured attention of Europeans in 1894. Dreyfus Affair

was a political scandal which divided France during the 1890s and early 1900s. It involved the wrongful conviction of Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus for treason. Dreyfus was put on trial in 1894 and was accused of espionage, found guilty and sentenced to life in prison on Devil's Island. In September of 1899, he was offered a pardon from the president of France, which he declined. It was not until 1906 that Dreyfus was exonerated of the charges and readmitted into the army. He was also made a knight in the Legion of Honor. He served his nation with distinction beyond his natural retirement age. Herzl and Zionism The Dreyfus Affair demonstrated to Herzl that if France could play host to virulent anti-Jewish sentiments, Jews could not be secure anywhere. Though initially an anti-Zionist, after the Dreyfus Affair, Herzel himself started advocating that Jews needed a homeland of their own in which they would form a majority of citizens. He imagined this “Jewish home” (not yet state) in Argentina or in the western . Other Zionists were not so ambivalent and wanted the Jewish national home to be built in Palestine, the place remembered in Jewish holy texts and rituals. World Zionist Organization

In 1897, Herzl organized the first Zionist Congress in , . The Zionist Congress created the World Zionist Organization (WZO), which continues to speak for the World Zionist Movement. Herzl became the first president of the WZO. The Congress also issued the Basel Program, which not only called for the establishment of a “Jewish home” in Palestine, but specified the tactic to achieve the goal. The Basel Program stipulated that that goal should be achieved through diplomacy. Balfour Declaration 1917

While Herzl and other tried to achieve the support from a variety of powers (including the Ottoman Empire), the Zionist movement achieved its first real success in 1917 when the British issued the Balfour declaration. The Balfour declaration stated, in part,

“His Majesty’s Government view with favor the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” The British government and the Balfour Declaration

Historians disagree as to why the British would give the promise they gave in the Balfour Declaration (see Gelvin, ch.11, p. 188) : 1. Some assert that the British did so for strategic reasons. Because the Jewish settlers in Palestine would be far outnumbered by the Muslim Arabs, they would remain dependent on the British and be more than willing to help the British preserve the security of the nearby Suez Canal. 2. Others attribute the Balfour Declaration to a British overestimation of Jewish power in the U.S. and Russia. Britain wanted to maintain support in the U.S. for the Entente side. It also wanted to keep Russia, which had just experienced a revolution, in the war. Thinking that Jews had a great deal of influence over the American president, , and within the Bolshevik movement, the British figured that they had nothing to lose. As we know, the British underestimated the effects of the Balfour Declaration. Their wartime promise had consequences far beyond those they anticipated at the time. The British government and the Balfour Declaration 2

3. Close, personal relationships of the WZO president with the British officials. Weizmann became a in 1910, and while a lecturer at he became famous for discovering how to use bacterial to produce large quantities of . Acetone was used in the manufacture of explosive propellants critical to the Allied effort in WWI. First Lord of the Admiralty became aware of the possible use of Weizmann's discovery in early 1915, and joined Churchill in encouraging Weizmann's development of the process. The importance of Weizmann's work gave him favor in the eyes of the British Government, this allowed Weizmann to have access to senior Cabinet members and utilize this time to represent Zionist aspirations. After the during World War I, Weizmann was director of the British Admiralty laboratories from 1916 until 1919. In April 1918 at the head of the Jewish Commission, he returned to Palestine to look for "rare minerals" for the British war effort in the . Weizmann's attraction for British Liberalism enabled Lloyd George's influence at the Ministry of Munitions to do a financial and industrial deal with Imperial Chemicals to seal the future of the Zionist homeland. (See: Wilson, Trevor, ed. (1970). The political diaries of CP Scott, 1911-1928, pp. 333-34) Faysal-Weizmann Agreement

Chaim Weizmann’s greatest achievements, as a president of the WZO, is the Balfour Declaration in 1917.

Weizmann also made an agreement with Amir Faysal in January 3, 1919, who was at that time the King of Hejaz. Chaim Weizmann (left) and Amir Faysal I (Weizmann also wearing Arab outfit as a sign of friendship) The agreement committed both parties to conducting all relations between the groups by the most cordial goodwill and understanding, to work together to encourage immigration of Jews into Palestine on a large scale while protecting the rights of the Arab peasants and tenant farmers, and to safeguard the free practice of religious observances. The Muslim Holy Places were to be under Muslim control. Faysal-Weizmann Agreement

The Zionist movement undertook to assist the Arab residents of Palestine and the future Arab state to develop their natural resources and establish a growing economy. The Kingdom of Hejaz undertook to support the Balfour Declaration of 1917 calling for a Jewish national home in Palestine. Disputes were to be submitted to the British Government for arbitration. Faysal-Weizmann Agreement

Faysal conditioned his acceptance on the fulfillment of British wartime promises to the Arabs, who had hoped for independence in a vast part of the Ottoman Empire. He appended to the typed document a hand-written statement:

"Provided the Arabs obtain their independence as demanded in my [forthcoming] Memorandum dated the 4th of January, 1919, to the Foreign Office of the Government of Great Britain, I shall concur in the above articles. But if the slightest modification or departure were to be made [regarding our demands], I shall not be then bound by a single word of the present Agreement which shall be deemed void and of no account or validity, and I shall not be answerable in any way whatsoever." Palestinian Arabs & the Balfour Declaration

The Palestinian Arabs themselves had rejected the Balfour Declaration outright. According to Arthur Goldschmidt Jr. (author of A Concise History of the Middle East Westview Press, 1979), they made up over 90% of Palestine and refused to accept that a homeland be created for another people on their territory. Furthermore, they resented not being consulted by the British about a Declaration that neglected the political rights of the non-Jewish majority in Palestine. Faysal-Weizmann Agreement

The Faysal-Weizmann agreement survived only a few months. The outcome of the peace conference itself did not provide the vast Arab state that Faysal desired mainly because the British and French had struck their own secret Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 dividing the Middle East between their own spheres of influence, and soon Faysal began to express doubts about cooperation with the Zionist movement. Within a year he was calling on Britain to grant the Arabs of Palestine their political rights as part of his Syrian Kingdom. Behind the Scene

Weizmann called Palestinians "treacherous", "arrogant", "uneducated", and "greedy" and complained to the British that the system in Palestine did "not take into account the fact that there is a fundamental qualitative difference between Jew and Arab". Chaim Weizmann to , The Letters and Papers of Chaim Weizmann (Weisgal, ed., 1977) Series A, Volume VIII, p. 197-206.

After his meeting with Faysal, Weizmann reported that Faysal was "contemptuous of the Palestinian Arabs whom he doesn't even regard as Arabs".* Chaim Weizmann to , ibid, p. 210. (* Palestinians considered themselves either Palestinians, Syrians, or Ottomans.) Racism Behind the Scene

In preparation for Faysal-Weizmann meeting, the British had written to Faysal that "we know that the Arabs despise, condemn and hate the Jews", but that the Jewish race is "universal, all-powerful, and cannot be put down".

In 1917 Weizmann worked with Lord Balfour on the Balfour Declaration. Although the Balfour Declaration stipulated that "nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine", Weizmann said, “with regard to the Arab question - the British told us that there are several hundred thousand Negroes there, but this is a matter of no consequence.” Balfour Declaration & Aliyot

As a result of the Balfour Declaration, the British, as mandatories in Palestine, allowed the immigration of Jews into the country. However, Jewish immigrations to Palestine started before the Balfour Declaration. The first immigration “aliya” (pl. aliyot) started in the time of Baron de Rotschild’s initiative in 1882 as he tried to create a settler plantation colony in Palestine, similar to the French settler plantation colonies in . During the second and third “aliyot”, which took place during 1904-1914 and 1918-1923, 65,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine from . Moshavot & Kibbutzim

Influenced by socialist and romantic back-to-the-land ideas that were then popular in , these new immigrants established agricultural settlements including collective farms - moshavot (sg. moshav) and communal farms - kibbutzim (sg. ). the settlers also resurrected the Biblical language of Hebrew for use as their national language. the most important for the future of the region was, however, the new adopted labor policy, which is condensed in two slogans “conquest of land” and “conquest of labor”. Conquest of land

The slogan “Conquest of land” refers to the need the Zionists felt to make their imprint on the land of Palestine by “taming the wilderness” though settlement activity. Conquest of labor

The slogan “Conquest of labor” refers to the need the Zionist felt to remake the Jewish people by having Jews fill all jobs in the economy. While in Europe, these Jews were allowed to participate only in certain urban occupations (trade, medicine, pharmacy, clerkship, academics, etc.) They believed that only by conquering the entire economy, Jews could become a true nation. Conquest of labor cont’d.

Although the idea of the “conquest of labor” initially had its utopian, socialist and romanticist roots, there were practical reasons for Jewish settlers to shun Arab labor. The Zionist slogan “a land without a people for a people without land” did not make much sense, for Arabs were there and they were willing to work on land for much lower wages than the new Jewish settlers. The expansion of the labor force to include low-wage workers would drive wages down and discourage the immigration of new settlers. Well, Zionists felt that the success of their project depended on severing the economic links connecting the two communities.

Thus, after the Zionists bought land, often from absentee Ottoman landlords, they frequently displaced Palestinian farmers whose services were not longer required. Arabs of the Ottoman Syria

Before WWI most educated Palestinians viewed themselves as Ottomans.

After WWI, when the Ottoman identity was no longer a viable option, some Palestinians were attached to while others viewed themselves as Syrians.

The Palestinian community was hardly as well organized and as unified as the Zionist community.

Arab community of Palestine was traditionally divided into Muslim and Christian communities. Furthermore, the Arabs of Syria, being under the French mandate used to get their education in France and felt in ease with the French culture while the Arabs of Palestine under the British mandate through their education in Britain came to regard the British institutions (not the French ones) as a model to be emulated.

In addition to that, the inhabitants of Palestine faced another problem that no other inhabitants of the former Ottoman Syria faced - Zionist settlements.

Thus, the developed much later after Zionism and in a response to Zionism, however, that does not mean that it is any less legitimate than Zionism. Escalation of tensions

The escalation of tensions between the Palestinian and Jewish community happened during the late 1920’s and 1930’s.

The escalation was due to the dramatically intensified Jewish immigration to Palestine during the rise of and Fascism in Europe.

From 1931-1935 the Jewish population of Palestine rose from 175,000 to 400,000.

In other words it grew from 17% to 31% of the total population. By 1931, Zionist land purchases had led to the ejection of approximately 20,000 Palestinian families from their land.

Close to 30% Palestinian farmers were landless.

Another 75-80% did not have enough land for subsistence. Great Revolt - 1936

In 1936 Palestine exploded in violence.

This revolt Palestinians call the Great Revolt and it is the most traumatic event in modern Palestinian history after the 1948 war.

To put down , the British launched a brutal counterinsurgency campaign employing tactics all too familiar to Palestinians today - collective punishment of villages, “targeted killings” (assassinations), mass arrests, deportations, and the dynamiting of homes of suspected guerrillas and the sympathizers. The revolt and the British reaction to it ravaged the natural leadership of the Palestinian community and opened up new cleavages in that community.

Many wealthy Palestinians fled having faced the extortionate demands of rival Palestinian gangs.

Many wealthy Palestinians were imprisoned by the British or forced to exile.

The Palestinian society never recovered.

The roots of what Palestinians called the nakba (calamity) of 1948 can be found in the Great Revolt. Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husayni

(1895-1974) of Jerusalem (1921-1948) Hajj Muhammad Amin al-Husayni

... a member of the al-Husayni clan of Jerusalem, was a Palestinian and Arab nationalist and a Muslim leader in Palestine. Al-Husayni was also the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem over the period from 1921 to 1948. Like many other Arab leaders of his time al-Husayni was known for his anti-Zionism and fought against the establishment of a National home for the Jewish people in the territory of the British Mandate of Palestine, particularly during the Great Arab Revolt. He fled Palestine in 1937 and took refuge in during World War II and helped recruit for the Waffen-SS. In 1941 al-Husayni met in and asked him to oppose, as part of the Arab struggle for independence, the establishment of a . During the 1948 Palestine War, his faction was represented by the Army of the Holy War, which had been founded as a secret society by Amin’s brother, Jamal al-Husayni, in 1936. He opposed King Abdullah's ambitions for the Palestinian territory captured by the Arabs during the war. After being sidelined successively by the Arab Nationalist Movement and the Palestine Liberation Organization, he lost most of his remaining political influence. Al-Husayni died in Beirut, Lebanon in 1974.

Grand mufti al-Husayni before the Guard of Honor of the 13th Waffen-SS-Division “Handschar” For further reading, see Lepre, George (2000). Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943-1945. Schiffer Publishing The White Paper

In the wake of the Great Revolt, in 1937, the British proposed dividing Palestine into two separate territories, one Zionist, one Palestinian. In 1939, they backed away from and issued a dubious document called the White Paper, which was not satisfactory to either side. The advocated putting restrictions on (but not ending) Jewish immigration, closer supervision of (but not ending) land sales, and independence within 10 years. Both community rejected the document. The bombing of the was as shocking to contemporaries in 1946 as the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001. British prime minister Clement Attlee declared in the House of Commons, “On July 22nd, [1946], one of the most dastardly and cowardly crimes in recorded history took place.” The Jewish Agency, the body officially recognized by the British as representing Palestine’s 450,000 Jews, expressed its “feelings of horror at the base and unparalleled act perpetrated today by a gang of criminals.”

The “gang of criminals” responsible for bombing the King David Hotel was a Jewish underground group known as “The National Military Organization” or, in Hebrew, Zwei Leumi. Its leader was a thirty-three-year-old Polish Jew called [future prime minister of Israel], for whose capture the British had posted a £2,000 reward, dead or alive. Just as Osama bin Laden is a hero for fundamentalists Islamists today, Begin was seen by many Jews in Palestine and in the as a fearless freedom fighter combating an alien tyranny. (from Baker, James, “The Bombing of the King David Hotel,” in History Today, Vol. 56, # 7, 2006) In the aftermath of WWII

By 1947, at the time when India was about to achieve independence and the cold war was in its initial stages, the British had stationed more soldiers in Palestine than many thought prudent. Their soldiers and diplomats targeted by the Zionist splinter groups, their economy in shambles, the British decided to forward the Palestinian issue to the hands of newly established . The General Assembly of the UN voted to terminate the British mandate and partition Palestine between Zionist and Palestinian communities. First Palestine War 1947-49

In the wake of the UN vote to partition Palestine, a civil war broke out between the two communities. The civil war was followed by the intervention of surrounding Arab nations on behalf of the Palestinians. The First Palestine war became to be called the War of Independence by Israelis and Nakba (Calamity) by Palestinians. The First Palestine War Consequences for Israelis

As a result of the war, the state of Israel was created and its borders corresponded to the ceasefire lines. Israel quickly received international recognition. No peace treaty was signed between Israel and its neighbors only armistice agreements. No Arab state recognized Israel until Egypt did in 1979. The First Palestine War Consequences for Palestinians About 720,000 Palestinians became refugees. Modern scholars agree that this refugee population emerged as a result of: escape from war zones, expulsions (particularly in the North), and frightening them with terror. In the case of the village of Dayr Yassin alone, upward of 240 men, women, and children were butchered and stuffed in the village well. Acts like this were hardly kept secret, for, as Lenin said, the purpose of is to terrorize. Most Palestinian refugees ended up in the West Bank (of the , which was occupied by Jordan until 1967), the (which was occupied by Egypt until the same year), and neighboring Arab countries.

Those Arabs who remained in Israel were subject to martial law until 1966. The First Palestine War Influence on Arab states The Arab defeat in the First Palestine War came to symbolize a host of grievances the Egyptian, Syrian, and Iraqi military officers fueled against their government. They accused those governments of engaging the war half- heartedly (which they did) and blamed their defeat on the incompetence and corruption of their governments. They also equated their defeat with the inability or unwillingness of Arab governments to promote the sort of economic and social development that would have assured success of the battle field as well. Taking matters into their own hands, these officers launched coup d’etat in Syria (1949), Egypt (1952), and Iraq (1958).