ANTHROPOLOGIA INTEGRA 3/2012/2 ČASOPIS PRO OBECNOU ANTROPOLOGII A PŘÍBUZNÉ OBORY JOURNAL FOR GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND RELATED DISCIPLINES

Italian City-states and Catholic Missions in Mongolian World of the 13th and 14th Centuries

Vladimír Liščák Department of East Asia, Oriental Institute, Academy of Sciences, Pod Vodárenskou věží 4, 182 08 Praha 8

Received 16th of July 2012; accepted 6th of November 2012

ITALSKÉ MĚSTSKÉ STÁTY A KATOLICKÉ MISIE V MONGOLSKÉM SVĚTĚ 13. A 14. STOLETÍ

ABSTRAKT Italské městské státy – Benátky, Janov, Pisa, Florencie, Milán, Siena, Lucca – se ve 12. a 13. století rozvíjely s rychlostí neobvyklou pro poklidný středověk. Rozšíření evropského trhu, růst obchodu s Východem, nájezdy do bohatých oblastí Sýrie, Palestiny, Malé Asie a Bal- kánu přispěly ve 14. století k rozkvětu italských měst, která se nacházela na křižovatce hlavních tras ve Středomoří. Obchodníci ze Západu ochotně využívali cesty přes Malou Asii a Írán, přičemž se postupně přesouvali dále ke zdrojům „jemného koření“. V těchto zemích souběžně postupovali jak janovští obchodníci, tak františkánští a dominikánští misionáři. Zejména janovské kolonie, faktorie a hlavní obchodní stanice se staly základnami těchto řádových misií.

KLÍČOVÁ SLOVA Mongolská říše; italské městské státy; pronikání do střední a východní Asie; františkánské a dominikánské misie na Východě

ABSTRACT The Italian city-states of the 12th and 13th centuries – , , Pisa, Florence, Milan, Siena, Lucca – have developed and gained strength with the speed, which was unusual for a leisurely . The expansion of European market, growth of trade with the East, plundering raids on the rich regions of , Palestine, Asia Minor, and the Balkans contributed, in the 14th century, to the flourishing of the Italian cities, located at the crossroads of major routes in the Mediterranean. Western merchants were willing to use ways via Asia Minor and Iran, gradually moving farther and farther to the sources of “fine spices”. In these countries, side by side, were advancing both Genoese merchants and missionaries of Franciscan and Dominican orders. The , factories and leading trading posts were supporting bases of these order missions.

KEY WORDS Th e ; Italian city-states; penetration into Central and East Asia; the Franciscan and Dominican missions in the East

INTRODUCTION In the fi rst half of the , the Venetians, Genoese, Pi- sans, Catalonians, Marseillais substantially strengthened their In the beginning of the 13th century, during the rise of the positions in the Aegean Islands, and Cilician Arme- Mongol Empire in the East, saw the ascent of numerous nia1. Especially active were the Venetians, who settled down (Repubbliche Marinare), the most nota- ble of them being Venice, Genoa, Pisa and Amalfi . Th ese ci- ty-states, being involved in the , took advantage of 1 Cilician , Th e Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Classi- cal Armenian: Kilikio Hayots Tagavorutyun, 1080/1198–1375), was political and trading opportunities. Venice and Genoa soon an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages became main gateways of Europe in the trade with the East, by Armenian refugees fl eeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia. It was oft en controlling most of the commercial transactions with located outside of the Armenian Highland and centred in the Cilicia the and the Islamic Mediterranean world, region northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta, in what is today south- and establishing colonies as far as the . ern . – See Der Nersessian (1962): 630–631.

Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 27 Italian City-states and Catholic Missions in Mongolian World of the 13th and 14th Centuries in , Euboea, the Cyclades Islands and on the shores of In Genoa and Venice, in the 12th and 13th centuries, new the Sea of Marmara.​​ However, the trade contacts of the Wes- forms of business enterprises, which were well adapted to the terners with Mongolian East at this time were limited to only practice of international trade, were created. They represented a preliminary reconnaissance. a sort of the joint-stock companies, in which, under certain The Fourth Crusade (1201–1204) resulted in the conquest and conditions, both persons financing the business expedition looting of . The Venetians, being the main trans- and its immediate participants have their share. Such com- porter of crusaders, gained much booty and territorial gains at panies (known as commenda in Genoa, later as colleganzia in the expense of the Byzantine Empire. They mastered three ei- Venice) often accounted for dozens of participants who could ghths of the territory: a large part of the capital and Adrianopo- sell their shares.4 Both Genoa and Venice had an internal lis (now Edirne), important ports of Durres and Dubrovnik on structure, perfectly suited for conducting the trade transac- the Adriatic coast, Koroni (Corone) and Methoni (Modone) in tions of vast scope. All power in these Italian trading repub- the (the “eyes of Venice”), Gallipoli on the Euro- lics belonged to the merchant patricians who were getting the pean shore of , Heraclea (ancient , lion’s share of income from the overseas trade. present-day Karadeniz Ereğli) in Western Anatolia, and almost In Genoa of the 13th and 14th centuries the government was in all Greek islands, including Crete (Candia) and Euboea (Ne- the hands of the merchant families of the (or D’Oria), groponte). In such a way they won the territorial base for the Fieschi, Spinola, Pallavicini, Lomellino, and Negro. In their dominant position in the Mediterranean trade. hands were organs of municipal government, the Navy, shipy- In the coming decades, Venice has used its military triumph ards, customs. They also have been the in the overseas to set up a trading and colonial empire in the Eastern Medi- colonies, ambassadors at European courts, as well as the co- terranean. The chain of coastal forts stretched from Dalma- mmanders of military fleets and caravans of merchant ships. tia, Greece and Crete to the Black Sea and trade routes now The Genoese patricians delivered the papal court the cardi- directed up to the heart of Asia. The main rival of Venice at nals, archbishops, bishops, masters and priors of religious that time became the other Italian trading city, Genoa. In orders, the offspring of the Genoese noble families occupied 1261, with the help of the Genoese, Byzantine Emperor Mi- prominent positions in the papal chamber, the financial de- chael VIII Palaeologus (r. 1259–1282) surprisingly conquered partment of the successors of Saint Peter.5 Constantinople back, and Venice had to concede part of the The same pattern was in Venice, where the patrician houses colonies and trading privileges to Genoa.2 of the Dandolo, Morosini, Mocenigo, Contarini, Zeno, and Soranzo mandated in the Great (Major) and Minor Councils of the Republic, sent the flotillas to overseas countries, ruled ITALIAN TRADING REPUBLICS over the Venetian colonies and strongpoints and, together with their rivals, the Genoese, supplied Rome with church The Italian city-states of the 12th and 13th centuries – Venice, persons, closely related to the oligarchy of the City of Saint Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Milan, Siena, Lucca – have developed Mark. and gained strength with the speed, which was unusual for a leisurely Middle Ages. The expansion of European market, growth of trade with the East, plundering raids on the rich EXPANSION OF GENOA TO THE EAST regions of Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, and the Balkans con- tributed to the flourishing of the Italian cities, located at the In the early 1260s, political situation has changed dramatica- crossroads of major routes in the Mediterranean. th In the 13 century, they have become major centres of han- 4 Power (ed.) (2006): 83. How extensive was the wealth of the dicraft production. Florentine cloth, silk fabrics of Lucca, Venetian and Genoese magnates, we can see in the following ex- Genoese velvets, the products of Milanese armourers, Ve- amples: In 1268 the Doge of Venice Renier Zen (оr Raniero Zeno, netian glass – all these products became famous not only in r. 1253–1268) stated in his will that the capital invested by him in Italy but also far beyond. Working mostly on imported raw 132 colleganzias is 22, 935 Venetian lire, adding at the same time that materials, the Florentines, Lombardians, Genoese, and Vene- the total value of its movable property is equal to 38,848 lire. – See tians expanded the scope of their business activity. In France, Luzzatto (1949): 371. At the beginning of the 13th century Venetian England, Aragon, Castile, Portugal, Germany, the influence lira corresponded to 33.65 grams of gold. Thus, in weight units, the of Italian merchants and bankers were constantly growing. In capital of Renier Zen invested in commercial enterprises amounted to 772 kg of gold. By itself, this figure is very impressive, but the true Genoa and Venice, the main source of wealth and power has meaning of it will be much clearer, if we consider that in 13th to 14th 3 been a transit trade between Western Europe and the East. centuries people with average incomes could live on two Venetian lire a year. – See ibid.: 419. 2 See Geanakoplos (1959). 5 A Genoese Sinibaldo Fieschi (1195–1254) ruled Christian Eu- 3 Of course, they were not the only mediators. Their major rival rope, for eleven years, as Pope Innocent IV (r. 1243–1254), for wel- was Pisa, and in addition, many non-Italian cities, including Nar- fare of his native city. His nephew Ottobuono de’ Fieschi (c. 1205– bonne, Marseille, Montpellier, Barcelona, Dubrovnik, were actively 1276) became Pope Adrian V (r. July to August 1276). – See Sayous involved in the transit trade to the East. (1937).

28 Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 V. Liščák lly as a result of a series of interrelated events. First, in 1261 the , and in agreement with a local leader they the Byzantine Empire has been restored, and the Genoese, acquired a land allotment on the eastern shore. The major who contributed to a coup d’état in Constantinople, imme- overseas colony of the Genoese – Caffa (now Feodosiya) has diately invaded the Black Sea basin. Second, there was a final there soon emerged.10 The Genoese established a flourishing separation of khanates (ulus) of the Mongol Empire, and in trading settlement, which virtually monopolized trade in the 1261–1262 the Golden Horde and the new-born empire of il- Black Sea area and served as the chief port and administrative -Khan Hulagu (r. 1256–1265) came together in the struggle, centre for the Genoese settlements around the Sea with one of fraught with real benefits for the European West. Europe’s biggest slave markets. John III Ducas Vatatzes (r. 1221–1254), Emperor of Nicaea, In 1274, the Genoese settled in Soldaia (present-day purified his possessions of Asia Minor from the “Latin” Kni- in ), driving the Venetians who had settled in the har- ghts, crossed the Dardanelles and established himself in Thra- bour only four years before the Treaty of . In the ce, at the gates of Constantinople. The closest successor of first decades of the 14th century, the Genoese flag was alrea- John III – Michael Palaeologus – in early 1261, with the active dy flying over dozens colonies in the Black Sea and the main support of local people, captured Constantinople. His main harbour of the Sea of ​​ – Tana (now Azov). In the 14th allies were the Genoese, on whose behalf an important pact –15th centuries, there were 39 colonies of Genoa on the eas- was concluded. tern shore of the Black Sea and the coastal area, In March 1261, the Treaty of Nymphaeum, a trade and defen- the southernmost of them being in Sebastopoli (present-day ce pact between the Empire of Nicaea and the Republic of Ge- ).11 noa, was signed in Nymphaeum.6 The Genoese obtained the In the last quarter of the 13th century, all grain from the sou- right of customs-free trade on land and at sea, they were gi- thern Russian steppes and Kuban went to and Italy ven special quarters in Smyrna (present-day İzmir), Salonica through the Genoese. Caffa has become a centre of the slave (Thessaloniki) and Constantinople, and special outlets on the trade. By the medium of the Genoese, the Golden Horde has Aegean islands of and Lesbos. All the passages in the sold live goods – the captives taken in raids on Russian, Po- Black Sea were declared closed to all non-Genoese and non- lish, Lithuanian and Caucasian lands.12 -Byzantine vessels (with the exception of those from Pisa). The main advantage won by the Genoese in the result of In their colonies, the Genoese had unlimited rights and were “appropriation of the Euxinus” (as mentioned by Nice- subordinated only to the Genoese consuls.7 phorus Gregory, the Byzantine chronicler of the first half of Pera, a suburb of the Byzantine capital,8 located on the north 14th century) lay in the fact that they were able to settle on the shore of the Golden Horn, became the main base area of ​​Ge- initial sections of the trade route walking from Caffa to the noa in the Middle East. In essence, Michael Palaeologus gave Volga region, Khwarezm, Central Asia, Mongolia and China. the Genoese keys to his empire. The precise limits of the Ge- The coup in 1261 extremely aggravated the already very tense noese colony were stipulated in 1303, and they were prohibi- Genoese–Venetian relations. The last third of the 13th century ted from fortifying it. The Genoese however disregarded this, and the 14th–15th centuries was an era of continuous heavy and through subsequent expansions of the walls, enlarged the wars between Genoa and Venice, complicating the political area of their settlement.9 situation in the Mediterranean. These wars, to a large extent, The Genoese immediately after the coup of 1261 orientated to contributed to the success of the gains by the Ottoman Turks the north. In 1266, their agents entered Crimea, then under in the South-Eastern Europe, disorganizing the whole system of transit trade relations between East and West in the 15th 6 Nymphaeum (part of present Kemalpaşa) was the de facto capi- century. tal city of the Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261), before the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. A clear view on the consequences of the Treaty of Nymphaeum is given by the Romanian historian Brătianu 10 In 1204–1261 and again 1296–1307, the city of Caffa was ruled (1929): 111. by Genoa’s chief rival, the Republic of Venice. In the late 13th cen- 7 The city-state of Genoa, unlike ancient Rome, bestowed the title tury, traders from the arrived and purchased the of on various state officials, not necessarily restricted to the town from the ruling Golden Horde. Under Genoa, Caffa was gov- highest. Among these were Genoese officials (Consoli del Mare) sta- erned, since 1266, by the Genoese consul, who in turn, since 1316, tioned in various Mediterranean ports, whose role included helping was in charge of all Genoese Black Sea colonies. – “I Genovesi nel Genoese merchants and sailors in difficulties with the local authori- Mar Nero” (2002). ties. 11 Zevakin – Penčko (1938). At the end of the 14th century, about 8 The quarter, known also as , first appears in Late Antiquity four dozen colonies were in Crimea. In Soldaia a cluster of 18 small as Sykai or Sycae (from the old Greek name for the place, Peran en colonies has been established. – See Brătianu (1929): 198 sq. Sykais, literally “the Fig Field on the Other Side”). At present, Galata 12 The Mongols were not the only supplier who delivered slaves is a quarter within the borough of Beyoğlu in , and is known to the Genoese. Circassian feudal lords and the Genoese them- as Karaköy. selves were engaged in this business, as well. The main consumer 9 These walls, including the mid-14th-century (origi- of live goods was Egypt, but also to Italy were continuously directed nally Christea Turris, “Tower of Christ”, and completed in 1348), sur- transports of slaves. – Cf. Zevakin – Penčko (1938): 176–177; Heyd vived largely intact until the 19th century. (1936), vol. I: 558–561.

Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 29 Italian City-states and Catholic Missions in Mongolian World of the 13th and 14th Centuries

ITALIAN COLONIES IN THE TRANSIT ROUTES one of the most influential advocates of a broad penetration TO THE EAST of Genoa to the East, proceeded to implement his other plans. In these plans, a pivotal role played Ayas (Laiazzo, Ajazzo or Western merchants were willing to use ways via Asia Minor Lajazzo), main harbour of Cilician Armenia, on a direct route and Iran, gradually moving farther and farther to the sources to Tabriz.15 In 1289 Benedetto was given a conce- of “fine spices”. In these countries, side by side, were advan- ssion for this harbour. Some time later, new Genoese naval cing both Genoese merchants and missionaries of Franciscan base – Portus Palorum – has been created near Ayas.16 Bene- and Dominican orders. The Genoese colonies, factories and detto Zaccaria received the right to free passage of goods and leading trading posts were supporting bases of these order a Cilician part of this transit road was put under the control missions.13 of the Genoese.17 A starting point of all Genoese roads leading to the Black One of the major junctions in that area was Sivas, the key to Sea and the Iranian-Indian territories was Pera, “Genoa of a mountain pass in the Anti-Taurus, on the way from Anatolia Bosphorus”, the largest trading centre in the Mediterranean. to Greater Armenia.18 From Sivas the Genoese entered Grea- In the first half of the 14th century, this Genoese colony in the ter Armenia and in the 1280s their agents established in Er- Golden Horn surpassed, in its turnover, Constantinople or, zincan (in the eastern Anatolian region) and Nakhichevan19. more precisely, the Greek part of it, ruled by powerless Byzan- Many Genoese were settled in , the capital of the tine emperors. Pera was the main base of the Genoese fleet, (1204–1461), at that time. In 1306 they through which various products originated in Eastern Euro- acquired here the castle of Leonkastron and a special quarter, pe (leather, beef, furs, wax, honey, hemp etc.) were exported in which no local could reside without the permission of the to Italy. Pera supplied Thrace, Bulgaria, Moldova, Genoese consul.20 and the Golden Horde with Italian, French, Flemish cloth, silk Even these key points on the way to Iran were important, they fabrics from Lucca, linen cloth from Reims, Genoese velvets, could not compare to Tabriz, the capital of the il-Khans and Greek, Cypriot and Sicilian wines. Spices, precious Iranian the main crossing of the transit routes of Southwest Asia. The and Syrian cloth, goat hair, raisins, dried figs, dyes, alum, raw first evidence of the presence of Western merchants in Tab- silk, camlet etc. were transported from Pera to the East. riz refers to a testament of Venetian merchant Pietro Viglio- Smyrna (present-day İzmir) in the western extremity of Ana- ni (or Vilioni, Vioni), dated on 10 December 1264. Viglioni tolia was much inferior in importance of Pera. Transit trade arrived in Tabriz from Acre with German and Italian fabrics, here was negligible, and the Genoese stronghold, which in and bought in Iran different eastern products, including sugar 1261 existed in this city, had a rather strategic importance. and pearls. He was not the sole representative of the Western But in 1275, the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeolo- trading world in Tabriz. His will is certified by several sig- gus has granted the Genoese brothers Benedetto I Zaccaria natures, and the most of the witnesses were clearly .21 (c. 1235–1307)14 and Manuele (Manel) Zaccaria (d. 1309/10) But later the Venetians recede into the background, and only the town of (Focea, present-day Foça), situated on in the 1320s their position in Iran are considerably stronger. the Asia Minor coast, some 50 kilometres northwest of the Although first evidence about the large Genoese colony in Gulf of Smyrna. There were huge deposits of alum within this Tabriz dates back to 1304, certainly many Genoese settled in lordship (signioria), and the Byzantine emperor provided the Tabriz already in the 1270s and 1280s. It is interesting that Zaccarias with a monopoly on its export. Thus Phocaea has they combined their trading activities very well with the become a large base of Genoa. Its importance has increased service at the court of il-Khans Abaga (r. 1265–1282) and Ar- particularly in the 1280s, when Benedetto I Zaccaria, who was ghun (r. 1284–1291). Genoese interpreters were in staff of the

13 Unfortunately, the Genoese merchants, in contrast to the mis- 15 Bournoutian (1997) sionaries, have left very little evidence for their tireless work. Nor 16 See map 1 in Golubovich (1913). diaries or reports of agents of the Genoese trading houses have pre- 17 Langlois (1861): 4. served, and only in the notarial archives of Genoa and its colonies 18 The first mention of Sivas in the Genoese notarial acts refers in Famagusta, Pera and Caffa, in purely business documents, can to 1274. At the end of the 13th century, in Sivas was already a large be found the data on the penetration of Genoa to the East. – Lopez colony of the Genoese with their consul, under the Genoese authori- (1943): 168. However, over the last century, there were published ties in Pera. many different notarial documents from the Genoese archives, al- th lowing a clearer idea of the​​ course and particularities of the Ligurian 19 In the 13 century, during the reign of the Mongol ruler Güyük penetration to the East in the Genoese magazine Atti della Società Khan (r. 1246–1248), Christians were allowed to build churches in ligure di storia patria and some Italian, English, Russian, Greek and the strongly Muslim town of Nakhichevan, however the conversion Romanian media. to Islam of Mahmud Ghazan Khan (r. 1295–1304) brought about a reversal of this favour. Nevertheless, the 14th century saw the rise of 14 Benedetto I Zaccaria was, at different stages in his life, a dip- Armenian Catholicism in Nakhichevan. – See Hewsen (2001): 266. lomat, adventurer, mercenary, and statesman. He first appeared as a Genoese ambassador to the Byzantine court in 1264. This was in 20 Brătianu (1929): 99–100. response to the alliance of Michael VIII with the Republic of Venice. 21 Archiv. Veneto, XXVI, 161–165; Brătianu (1929): 185; Heyd – See Miller (1911); Lopez (1933). (1936), vol. II: 110.

30 Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 V. Liščák embassies of il-Khans to the European courts, and sometimes rian Girolamo Golubovich (1865–1941) at the beginning of the Genoese even served as ambassadors and on behalf of the 20th century.29 This map corresponds to the culminating their Mongol rulers were negotiating with the West. period in the history of the monastic missionary work – 1320s These diplomats-merchants were, particularly, prominent fi- and 1330s, but in its part relating to Asia Minor and Iran it gures of Tabriz – such as Buscarello de and Tomma- almost entirely evidenced its earlier stage – 1280s and 1290s. so d’Anfossi. The name of Buscarello de Ghisolfi22 is found in The missions always are imposed on the Genoese colonies news of the many embassies of il-Khan Arghun and in notari- and were seated at key points of the main transit routes of al acts of Genoa and Caffa.23 This Mongol-Genoese politician Southwest Asia. negotiated in Crimea and Kuban, and his descendants owned From the late 13th century, when the Franciscans (members of the town of Matrega ().24 Tommaso d’Anfossi the Order of Friars Minor) intensively penetrated to the East, was a member of a famous Genoese banking company and there were established vicariates on the newly administered helped as an interpreter in the court of Arghun. Probably as territory.30 The first was the Vicariate of “Northern Tartary” a signs of his profession, he was nicknamed Banker. He was (Vicaria Tartariæ Aquilonaris), established in 1274 at the de- in close contact with Sa’ad ad-Dawla (c. 1240–1291), a Jewish cision of the Second Council of Lyon in the territory of the physician and statesman, the head of the finance department Golden Horde, with its centre in the Genoese trading colony of il-Khan Arghun.25 of Caffa. This vicariate was formed of two custodies – Khaza- The most important Genoese undertaking in Mongolian Iran ria (Custodia Gazariæ), including Crimea, lower Danubia and in the 1280s was the equipment of the “secret” fleet on the Tig- lower Transnistria, and Sarai (Custodia Sarayæ), the eastern ris. Around 1288 the Genoese sailors and shipbuilders arrived part of the Golden Horde, including the .31 in Baghdad, where they built two large galleys designed for In the years 1279–1283, the Vicariate of “Eastern Tartary” (Vi- remote oceanic voyages. 26 In the equipment of this fleet par- caria Tartariæ Orientalis) has been founded in the Ilkhanate ticipated also a Genoese Domenicano Doria, probably the au- and its subordinate countries.32 Its original centre was Tabriz, thor of the first maps, known as the portolan charts. He could from 1318 it was Sultania (Soldania). This vicariate consisted surely rely on the experience of Persian cosmographs.27 of three custodies – Constantinople (Custodia Constantinopo- In 1280s, the Genoese had their own ships in the Caspian Sea, litana), Trapezunt (Custodia Trapezundis) and Tabriz (Custo- about which Marco Polo stated that there began to flow in dia Thauris). only recently.28 In 1270s and 1280s, the Genoese have lived in In late 13th or in early 14th century, the third eastern vicariate many cities on the trade routes leading from Tabriz to Hor- of the Order of Friars Minor – “Tartary or Cathay” (Vicaria muz, such as Shiraz, Kerman and Yezd. By 1290, they have Tartariæ seu Cathay) – has been established. This vicariate, built a network of bases that have been used by Catholic mi- including whole of China, Mongolia and Central Asia, came ssionaries in Iran. into being thanks to John of Montecorvino (1246–1328/1330), since 1307 the Archbishop of Khanbaliq 汗八里 and summus archiepiscopus in toto dominio Tartarorum. THE FRANCISCANS AND DOMINICANS ON THE The nature of relations between Genoese merchants and mo- ROAD TO THE EAST nastic missionaries can be judged about from the Genoese notarial records and reports of custodies of the eastern vicari- The “blood bonds” of the Genoese trading colonies and ba- ates, and also from reports by abbots of monasteries, founded ses of monastic missionaries are most eloquently evidenced by the Franciscans and Dominicans in Crimea, , Asia in the map of the “Franciscan East” (Carta della Terra Santa Minor, Iran and other eastern countries. These contacts were e dell’Oriente francescano), compiled by the Franciscan histo- very close and mutually beneficial.33 The missionaries have often acted as intermediaries between the Genoese consuls 22 Little is known about Buscarello, except for his work as ambas- sador, and that he was a member of the powerful Ghisolfi family. He 29 Golubovich (1913). was a Mongol ambassador to Europe from 1289 to 1305, serving the Mongol rulers Arghun, Ghazan and then Öljeitü. – Cf. Paviot (1991). 30 Golubovich (1913): 125, 262, 444. 23 Grousset (1936): 712. 31 Chronologically, the foundation of this vicariate coincides with the birth o the Genoese trading areas in the northern Black Sea coast. 24 Dessimoni (1877). Caffa, the centre of the “Northern Tartary” vicariate, with its Geno- 25 Phillips (1998): 192. ese consuls and the Franciscan custodies, was the hearth of a double, 26 The fleet, however, did not set sail due to disputes between merchant and monastic, expansion to the Golden Horde lands. – See crew members, in which most sailors perished. In 1301 the rival Heyd (1936), vol. II: 172. cliques reconciled and their leaders, the sailors of the major fami- 32 A part of Iran and whole of India, attached to the vicariate of lies of Dorias and Grimaldis sold part of their assets to renew the Eastern Tartary, remained behind the frames of the Golubovich’s fleet. Nevertheless, the ships not set in the end. – Brătianu (1929): map. India was attached to Sultania after 1318, when the Domini- 188–189; Ferrand (1922): 307. cans have established their own archiepiscopate (archiepiscopatus 27 La Roncière (1925): 54. Soltamensis) in this town. – Cf. Iriarte (1982): 207. 28 Polo (2006): 26, 328. 33 Brătianu (1927); Dessimoni (1894).

Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 31 Italian City-states and Catholic Missions in Mongolian World of the 13th and 14th Centuries of overseas colonies and the sovereigns, on whose lands the FRANCISCAN MISSIONS IN THE EAST Genoese were settled.34 The monastic missions of the turn of the 13th and 14th centu- In his book of travels, Odoric of Pordenone (1285?–1331) ries came up with merchant “missions”. However, the unrest frequently mentions the Franciscan settlements (loca) in pla- and confusion of the Franciscan Order have come so far away ces, where he was passing through. The activities of Roman that it nearly led to the collapse of this monastic community. Catholics (especially the members of the Franciscan and Do- The progress of this struggle is described by Angelo Clareno minican Orders) in the Mongol empire have survived only da Cingoli (c. 1255–1337), one of the greatest leaders of the in a small number of documents. The information contained Spirituals, in his Chronicon seu Historia septem tribulationum in them is undoubtedly valuable, but fragmentary. However, Ordinis Minorum.35 Clareno was associated with the eastern they may still give some idea of ​​the expansion of Catholic mi- missions, by reason of which the Friars Minor were drawn ssionary activities in this vast area, as well as of various missi- into the inner confusion in the Franciscan East. on localities. The Dominicans did not fail to use this situation. Their pat- The collection of these documents of high value is located in ron became Pope John XXII (r. 1316–1334), a great enemy of the Department of Anglo-Saxon and Latin manuscripts of the the Spirituals. He set up his residence in Avignon rather than former British Museum Library in London (since 1973 an Rome, continuing the Avignon Papacy of his predecessor. independent British Library). Here are stored, among others, John XXII involved himself in the politics and religious mo- also documents of Franciscan missionary activities in the East vements of many European countries in order to advance the during the Middle Ages. A large part of these documents was interests of the Church. This made him a very controversial published in the second volume of Biblioteca bio-bibliografica pope at the time. John XXII also created an extensive admi- della Terra Santa e dell’Oriente francescano by Girolamo Golu- nistrative and financial system which have not only collected bovich37, among them also the anonymous work of a Minorite many taxes, but also made ​​various credit transactions. Apo- (Franciscan friar) about the Franciscan missionary outposts stolic Chamber (Reverenda Camera Apostolica) was closely in the East around 1320.38 associated with the largest trading houses in Florence, Sie- This work has been written not later than in 1329 and re- na, Milan, Genoa, Venice, Montpellier, Barcelona, ​​Marseille, presented a list of the Franciscan and Dominican missionary Bruges, Douai, London, Hanseatic cities. Giovanni Cattaneo, bases (loca) in different cities and settlements of the East, so- the advocate of Curia, was also the Avignonese representative metimes with specific information about places and people of a number of Genoese companies with which his patrician involved in them. The list in this document involves mainly family had connections, and examples of this kind were not monasteries in “Northern Tartary” (Vicaria Tartariæ Aqui- rare.36 lonaris), i.e. in the territory of the Golden Horde. Eighteen The Dominicans, who have never experienced addiction to permanent monasteries are specified (only seventeen of them the teachings of the Spirituals, and who provided active as- are listed). The emphasis on “permanent” or “immobile” in- sistance to John XXII in his financial activities, were hand- dicates the existence of moving missions, which are recorded somely rewarded by the pope. He has carved out to the Do- in other sources. The term “monastery” was apparently used minicans just that part of East Asia, through which the main because in permanent missions were also the friars, who fo- through roads to the “subtle spices” have passed. On April llowed the rules of the Catholic monasteries. However, the 1, 1318 Pope John XXII signed the bull “Redemptor noster” purpose of these “monasteries” was largely missionary acti- (Our redeemer), which was concerned with the division of vities.39 spheres of missionary activities of the Franciscan and Domi- The text of the document also mentions the Franciscan settle- nican orders. The Dominicans received the newly founded ments in China and “India”: four loca in China (Catay) and archbishopric Sultania. In such a way this bull withdrew the one in the Quanzhou 泉州 (Zayton) in southeast China, lo- Mongol Ilkhan’s dominions and “India” from the archdiocese cated in Great India (magna India), which according to con- of Khanbaliq, transferring them to a Dominican province. temporary geographical knowledge and ideas included the After this reorganization, only “Cathay” and “Khazaria” re- southern China, as well. Besides the Franciscan missions in mained to the Franciscans, whereas Khazaria included not the “Northern Tartary”, that is in the Golden Horde, the docu- only Crimea, but all possessions of the Golden Horde. Thus ment mentions also the Dominican missions in Caffa (Capha) the Dominicans have received the vicariate of Eastern Tarta- and Tana (Thana). It refers also to twelve Franciscan missions ry under their administration, with generously added India and three Dominican missions in the territory of “Eastern and Ethiopia. Indian lands and Indian spices were in great Tartary” (the Ilkhanate and its subordinate countries). concern of the Pope, the Dominican Order, and Italian and French trading houses. 37 Golubovich (1913). 38 Ms. Anonymi Minoritæ De locis Fratrum Minorum et Predica- 34 Dessimoni (1877): 578–580. torum in Tartaria (London, British Library, Cotton MS Nero A IX, 35 Clareno (2005). ff. 100v–101v). 36 Renouard (1941): 7–25. 39 Malyšev (2006).

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CONCLUSION gentis, et multi de populo istis annis sunt conversi… (…). Item in Catay quatuor loca. In Zayton, que est in magna India, John of Montecorvino, Jourdain de Séverac, Odoric of Porde- unus locus. none, John Marignola are some of the most famous travellers, Loca fratrum Predicatorum duo tantum: videlicet in Capha, who in the late 13th and in the first decades of the 14th century ubi dimisimus duos fratres sacerdotes, et duos clericos, et visited countries and seas of South and East Asia and lived in duos conversos; et in Thana, ubi dimisimus tres fratres. distant lands of “the edge of the world”. They were the imme- In Tartaria Orientali fratres Minores habent xii monasteria, diate followers of the famous Marco Polo, the authors of the infrascripta, videlicet: In Soldania. In Taurisio duo loca. In interesting stories of those countries. Salmastro, ubi b. Bartholomeus fuit martirizatus. In Carachi- Direct links of the East and West were interrupted in 1340s to sia, ubi apostolus Thadeus fuit martirizatus et ibi ostenditur 1360s, when the Mongol Empire, the large and unstable poli- corpus suum. In Arzerono. In Thephelisio. In Porsico. In Carpy. tical system, which emerged in Asia as a result of conquests of In Tarphexunda. In Summisso (Sumnusso?, Simmisso?). Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) and his immediate successors, Loca Predicatorum tria, videlicet: in Taurisio unus. In Mar- finally collapsed. However, in those fifty years (roughly 1290 ga. In Diacorogon. to 1340) when from southern Europe to eastern Asia a route passed over through Iran and India, relatively close contacts ON THE SEATS OF THE FRIARS MINOR AND THE between the Mediterranean and Eastern countries led to sig- FRIARS PREACHERS IN TARTARY nificant shifts in the material and spiritual life of the medieval world. In Northern Tartary the Friars Minor (= the Franciscans) The four above-mentioned Western envoys, who brought to have eighteen permanent monasteries, in towns and villages Europe the incredible news of the Eastern countries and seas, mentioned below, namely: in , in the neighbourhood played an important role in this process. They were sent to the of Danubia. In Maurum castrum. In (Cersona), East by Popes and superiors of the Franciscan and Domini- where Blessed Clement was in exile and founded 70 temples… can Orders, their fellow-travellers and companions often were (…). In Cimbalo, in Barason, in Soldaia, in Capha two seats, agents of the Italian trading houses. in Thana, in Cummageria two seats, in Saray, in Saint John, The works of these authors significantly changed Europeans’ where is the grave of Coktogan, son of the Emperor42, in Ugek, view of the world. While in the mid-13th century there was the in Delena (Selena?), in Georgia (Yveria) two seats, where the conviction in Europe that the Christian world takes up most king of that nation and many of the people were converted [to of the orbis terrarum (inhabited, attainable world), already in Christianity] in those years… (…). 1332 the so-called Pseudo-Brocardus40 states that Christians Also in China (Catay) four seats, in Zayton, which is in Great do not form a tenth or even twentieth of the population of India, one seat. Earth. Furthermore, he has stated that Asia is much larger The Friars Preachers (= the Dominicans) have only two sites: than Europe, that it progresses far to the north, and the circu- in Capha, where we sent two friars priests, two clerics and two mpolar regions are inhabited. converts, and Thana, where we sent three friars. In Eastern Tartary the Friars Minor have twelve monasteries, mentioned below, namely: in Sultania (Soldania), in Tabriz SUPPLEMENT41 (Taurisio) two seats, in Salmastro, where Blessed Bartholomew was martyrized, in Carachisia, where the apostle Thaddeus was De locis Fratrum Minorum et Predicatorum martyrized and buried there, in Erzurum (Arzerono), in Tiflis in Tartaria (Thephelisio), in Porsico, in Carpy, in Trebizond (Tarphexunda), in Summisso (Sumnusso?, Simmisso?). In Tartaria Aquilonari fratres Minores habent monasteria The seats of the Preachers are three, namely: one in Tabriz (Tau- immobilia 18, in civitatibus et villis infra scriptis, videlicet: risio), in Maragheh (Marga), in Diacorogon. in vicina iuxta danubin. In Mauro castro. In Cersona, ubi beatus Clemens fuit exulatus, et ibi fundavit lxx ecclesias… In addition to this document, there are several reports, which (…). In Cimbalo. In Barason. In Soldaia. In Capha duo loca. refer to the Franciscan missions in the East, especially in the In Thana. In Cummageria duo loca. In Saray. In Sancto Jo- vicariate of “Northern Tartary”, on the lands of the Golden hanne, ubi est sepulcrum Coktogani filii Imperatoris. In Horde.43 Ugek. In Delena (Selena?). In Yveria duo loca, ubi rex illius

40 This work entitled Directorium ad passagium faciendum per Phillippum regem Franciæ in terram santam anno 1332 is partly at- 42 Coktogan or Cotogont is also known from other Franciscan tributed to the German Dominican named Brochard (Burkhardt), sources. He was probably Kutugan, son of Möngke-Timur, the Gold- but mostly to Guillaume Adam (d. c. 1341), the French Dominican en Horde khan in 1266–1280. missionary and archbishop. — Brocardus (1906). 43 See Golubovich (1913): 266–269, 272; Fedalto (1973): 470; 41 According to Malyšev (2006). Malyšev (2006): 188.

Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 33 Italian City-states and Catholic Missions in Mongolian World of the 13th and 14th Centuries

Vicariate of “Northern Tartary” (Vicaria Tartariæ Aquilonaris)

1286 1320 1334 1390 Kerqueti – – – Capha Capha (S. Francisci) Cafa (S. Francisci) Cafa (S. Francisci) – Capha (S. Mariæ) Cafa (S. Mariæ) Cafa (S. Mariæ) – Soldaia Soldaya Soldaia – Cimbalo Cimbulum Cimbalo – – – Ylice Solhaten – Sulcata Solcath

Custodia GazariæCustodia – Barason Barasson Carassu – Maurocastro Maurum castrum – Vicum Vicina Vicena – – Cersona – –

– Thana Tana Thana Saray Saray Saray Saray – S. Johannes S. Johannes – – – – Comuch – – – Tarchis – – – Mamucci – Cummageria (2 loca) Maieria (2 loca) Mager – Ugek Ugek Ugueth Custodia Sarayæ Custodia – – – Acsaray – Selena – – – – Veler – Iberia Yverie (2 loca) Vierie (2 loca) –

Explanation of the toponyms mentioned Qarasuvbazar), now Bilohirs’k in Crimea, east of Simferopol. (in alphabetic order): Capha (Cafa) – medieval Caffa (now Feodosiya, Crimean Ta- tar: Kefe), in southeastern Crimea, the mission of St. Francis and St. Mary. Acsaray – unknown location. While Malyšev44 placed it to the Carpy – Golubovich locates it in the area of modern Kerpe, steppe part of Crimea close to Simferopol, Golubovich45 iden- Kandıra district, in western Turkey, on the Black Sea coast, tified it with New Sarai, and the map by Henry Yule (revised 50 km north of İzmit47. by Henri Cordier)46 draw it – in accordance with the Catalan Carachisia – Probably it is a place in the northwest corner of Atlas (1375) – in the coast of the Caspian Sea, in the Iran, near the town of Chaldoran, the place of the Monastery delta of the Terek River. of St. Thaddeus. The monastery is known also under the Per- Barason (Barasson, Carassu) – most likely the medieval Ita- sian name Qareh keliseh (“Black Temple”), from which appa- lian name of Karasu-Bazar or Karasubazar (Crimean Tatar: rently originates the name of Carachisia. Cersona – the ancient city in southwestern Crimea, Cherso- nesus Taurica (also known as Korsun in Old East Slavic), in 44 Malyšev (2006): 189. the south of present-day Sevastopol. 45 Golubovich (1913): 565–566; chart 2. 46 See Yule – Cordier (1914): 84 + map. 47 Golubovich (1913): chart 2.

34 Anthropologia Integra vol. 3 no. 2/2012 V. Liščák

Cimbalo (Cimbulum) – the medieval Italian/Latin name “Sarai Berke”, the capital of the Golden Horde in 1331–1395, (also Cembalo) of present-day (Crimean Tatar: Ba- one of the largest cities of the medieval world; near modern lıqlava), in southwestern Crimea. village of Tsarev, about 85 km east of Volgograd. Comuch – Kazi-Kumukh (Lak: Gazi-Gumuchi), present-day Selena (Delena?) – There are several versions of its localiza- Kumuch (Lak: Gumuchi or Gumuk), a village and the admini- tion: a) in the area of the Lower Volga or Ciscaucasus; b) on strative centre of Laksky District in Dagestan. In the Middle the west coast of the Caspian Sea near Baku; c) in Georgia; d) Ages Kumukh was a large trading centre. in Crimea; e) in the Delta (today the Romanian port Cummageria (Maieria, Mager) – medieval Italian name of an of Sulina)52. unknown location on the Taman peninsula, perhaps in the Soldaia (Soldaya) – the medieval Italian name of present-day territory of medieval , or Matrega, now Taman on Sudak (Crimean Tatar: Sudaq), on the southern coast of Cri- the coast of the Taman Bay, at the passage from the Black Sea mea. to the Sea of Azov. Solhaten (Sulcata, Solcath) – turkified form of the Italian Diacorogon – probably Dehkhargan between Tabriz and Ma- name of Solcati (Italian: solcata = furrow, ditch), now Staryi ragheh, in the 14th century seat of a bishopric. Today Azarsha- Krym (Crimean Tatar: Eski Qırım), in eastern Crimea. hr in northwestern Iran. Summisso (Sumnusso?, Simmisso?) – probably refers to to- Iberia (Yverie, Vierie) – old name for Georgia, known also as day’s city of on the Turkish Black Sea coast, in the 13th Caucasian Iberia; originally the ancient Georgian kingdom of to 15th centuries one of the Genoese trading posts. Kartli (4th century BC – 5th century AD). Tana (Latin: Thana, Italian in full: Tana nel Mare Maggiore, Kerqueti – a distorted version of the city name of Kyrk-Yer after Tanaïs, name of the Don River) – the Ve- (Crimean Tatar: Qırq Yer), now Chufut-Kale (Crimean Ta- netian and later Genoese trading colony at the mouth of the tar Çufut Qale), in southwestern Crimea, about 2.5 km from Don into the Sea of Azov; Azaq of the Golden Horde, present- Bakhchysarai. -day Azov. Mamucci – unknown location. While Malyšev48 placed it as Tarchis – present-day Tarki (Kumyk: Targhu), an urban loca- Mamuk or Michach / Michak into modern Dagestan, Golu- lity of the city of Makhachkala, Dagestan. bovič49 maps it twice: a) in modern city of Shamakhi (Azer: Ugek (Ugueth) – place probably in the Lower Volga region. Şamaxı, Russian: Shemakha) in Azerbaijan, northwest of Editors and commentators incorrectly placed it halfway be- Baku, b) around modern Bingöl city (to 1950 known as Ça- tween Bulgar and Samara.53 It was due to the erroneously rea- pakçur, according to its Armenian name of Chapaghjur) in ding of Sarai as Samara.54 eastern Turkey. Veler – unknown location. This may be a distorted name of Maurocastro (Maurum castrum) – “Black Castle” (from the Iberia (see below). Greek Maurokastron), the medieval Italian name (also Mon- Vicum (Vicina, Vicena) – unknown location in the Danube castro) of present-day Ukrainian Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, at Delta (iuxta danubin); Golubovich55 locates it within the pre- the mouth of the Dniester into the Black Sea. sent-day town of Tulcea in ’s Dobrogea. Porsico – unknown location, maybe in northern Iran, near Ylice – unknown location. Edessa. S. Johannes – the mission of St. John is not exactly located. According to some sources it was about 5 km west of Old Sa- rai.50 Salmastro – This site is usually located west of Tabriz, in References northwestern corner of Lake Urmia. Golubovich directly 51 identifies it with the city of Salmas. However, this does not Bournoutian, Ani Atamian (1997): “Cilician Armenia”, in: Richard G. Ho- correspond to the statement in the text, that in this place St. vannisian (ed.): The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Bartholomew was martyrized. According to the Armenian vol. I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 283–290. traditions this event occurred in the former Armenian Ada- Brătianu, George Ioan (1927): Actes des notaires génois de Péra et de Caffa de makert city, now in the territory of eastern Turkey (present- la fin du treizième siècle (1281–1290). Bucarest: Cultura Nationalǎ. -day Başkale), near the Iranian border, southeast of Lake Van. Brătianu, George Ioan (1929). Recherches sur le commerce genois dans la mer Saray – a Turkic word of Persian origin (sarai), meaning “pa- Noire au XIIIe siecle. Paris: P. Geuthner. Brocardus (1906): Directorium ad passagium faciendum, published in: Recueil lace”: a) “Old Sarai”, or “Sarai Batu”, the capital of the Gol- des historiens des croisades, Documents latins et français relatifs à l’Ar- den Horde in 1254–1282; near to the modern village of Selit- ménie. Documents arméniens (RHC DArm), tome 2. Paris: Imprimerie rennoye, about 80 km north of Astrakhan; b) “New Sarai”, or Nationale, 365–517.

48 Malyšev (2006): 189. 52 Golubovich (1913): 565–566; chart 2. 49 Golubovich (1913): chart 2. 53 See Golubovich (1913): 570; chart 2; Soranzo (1930): 502–503. 50 Cf. Golubovich (1913): 170–171; chart 2. 54 Malyšev (2006): 186. 51 See Golubovich (1913): chart 2. 55 Golubovich (1913): chart 2.

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