Driving Into Prehistory: Our Tour of Amazing Places $3.95

EXCAVATING THE HUNLEY • BATTLEFIELD ARCHAEOLOGY EMERGES american archaeologySUMMER 2001 american archaeologyVol. 5 No. 2 a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy Driving into Prehistory: Our Tour of Amazing Places $3.95

american archaeology a quarterly publication of The Archaeological Conservancy Vol. 5 No. 2 summer 2001

COVER FEATURE 31 DRIVING INTO PREHISTORY BY TAMAR STIEBER We take you on a tour of unforgettable Southwestern archaeological sites.

12 INSIDE THE H. L. HUNLEY BY ANDREA COOPER The famous Civil War submarine is undergoing a historic excavation.

19 ARCHAEOLOGY GOES TO WAR BY ANITA STRATOS A small group of battlefield archaeologists is investigating some of America’s most important wars. 24 A CITY SEARCHES FOR ITS ROOTS BY MICHAEL BAWAYA An excavation helps Tucson define its past. 38 new acquisition: HOWIRI PUEBLO SAVED 2 Lay of the Land The site links the prehistoric people of Chaco 3 Letters Canyon with modern Tewa-speaking pueblos. 5 Events 40 new acquisition: ARIZONA COMPANY DONATES SITE 7 In the News This prehistoric agricultural complex demonstrates Paleo-Indian Site Found in Virginia • the Hohokam’s ingenuity. Oldest Maya Sweat House Discovered in Belize • 41 new acquisition: Conference Studies CONSERVANCY OBTAINS EASEMENT Mississippian Symbolism PROTECTING PETROGLYPHS The site is famous for its variety of images. 44 Field Notes 46 Expeditions 42 point acquisition: SAVING ALATE MISSISSIPPIAN TOWN 48 Reviews The Parchman Place site may help researchers answer questions about the Mississippians.

COVER: Spider Rock at sunset in Canyon de Chelly National Monument. 43 point acquisition: Spider Rock towers 800 feet above the canyon floor. A RARE AGRICULTURAL SITE photograph by William Stone Prehistoric garden beds are saved from destruction. american archaeology 1 Lay of the Land

Telling the Whole Story

When we consider the looting of ar- portant part of the whole story. When about the importance of these small chaeological sites, we usually think of hobbyists and collectors, or just unin- items that are often moved without grave robbers seeking elaborate burial formed tourists, collect or move these malice. Every artifact has a story to tell. goods such as Mimbres pots or Hope- items, the story is distorted. well effigy pipes—items that bring The same is true of prehistoric thousands of dollars on the black mar- Indian ruins. Small pottery sherds ket. We seldom think of less dramatic often cover the sites, and visitors love artifacts such as Civil War bullets or to collect them (often leaving them metal arrow points from the Indian behind in a neat pile). But even the wars. But as our article “Archaeology plainest sherd contains unique infor- Goes to War” amply illustrates, these mation, and by mapping them in situ

items are of immense scientific impor- archaeologists are able to tell the age POORE tance. Archaeologists are now plotting and function of different parts of the the location of every bullet, every ar- site. Moving or collecting the sherds D A R R E N rowhead, every cartridge, in order to skews the sample and contaminates recreate the battle. Even the smallest, the scientists’ research. seemingly insignificant item is an im- We need to educate everybody MARK MICHEL, President origin. ethnic or MORE THAN JUST A TOUR... , nationality THE CROW CANYON EXPERIENCE. , color

LET CROW CANYON BE YOUR GUIDE FORA ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATION PROGRAMS race, WEEKLY: JUNE THROUGH SEPTEMBER UNIQUE AND INTIMATE ADVENTURE any of THROUGH TIME. ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST: A COURSE FOREDUCATORS JULY 29-AUGUST 4, 2001 applicants EXPERIENCE THE ARCHAEOLOGY AND to CULTURESOF THE AMERICAN SOUTHWEST MONUMENT VALLEY ON HORSEBACK open OCTOBER 4-9, 2001 are AND THE WORLD WITH RENOWNED AND

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CROW CANYON ARCHAEOLOGICAL CENTER 23390 ROAD K CORTEZ, COLORADO 81321 (800) 422-8975 WWW.CROWCANYON.ORG

2 summer • 2001 Letters

Credit Where Credit Is Due I would like to suggest that, wherever I read with interest John Graves’s possible and appropriate, your articles Editor’s Corner letter in the Spring issue, which mention where site collections are The City of Tucson, Arizona is involved questioned why the Texas Historical curated in order to raise awareness in a very ambitious undertaking. Commission did not credit Glen that archaeology is not just about dig- Our feature “A City Searches For Its Evans for first discovering the Fort St. ging. I would also encourage you to Roots,” tells of Tucson’s Rio Nuevo Louis site in “La Salle, La Belle, and consider including articles on the Project, a downtown redevelopment the Lone Star State” (Fall 2000 issue). curation process and issues. The site of such broad scope that it’s expected In fact, Herbert Bolton is credit- protection process which the to take 10 years and $320 million ed with first locating the site in the Conservancy so successfully accom- to complete. 1920s; however, he had no solid plishes in effect provides in situ cura- One of the most striking aspects archaeological proof. Evans under- tion of unexcavated material for the of the Rio Nuevo Project is its inten- took excavations at the site in 1950 benefit of future generations, and I tion to connect the city’s future to its and Kathleen Gilmore worked there wholeheartedly support that work! past. Archaeology is an important tool in the early 1970s, but the quantity James Royle, Jr. in establishing this connection. The of French artifacts recovered from the San Diego, California Rio Nuevo Archaeological Project is site was insufficient to prove its iden- revealing the city’s rich historic and tity. The materials could have been Deciphering Maya Hieroglyphs prehistoric past, which stretches obtained through trade between the I was deeply intrigued by the Can- back several thousand years. It’s esti- Spanish and the French. The Texas cuen article in your Winter 2000- mated that approximately $2 million of the project’s budget will be spent Historical Commission’s 1996 recov- 2001 issue. It is amazing how many on archaeology. ery of the eight iron cannons, which new sites are being found in Central It’s encouraging to see how suc- were buried by the Spanish when America. It was remarkable how cessful the city has been in engaging they found the French fort in 1689, Arthur Demarest was prompted to the public in this archaeological conclusively proved the site to be Fort explore the site due to the translation project. Several thousand people St. Louis, corroborating what Bolton, of hieroglyphs at the Dos Pelas site. have visited site and expressed Evans, and Gilmore had long argued. I believe that deciphering more their approval of the work. James Bruseth, Director, and more of the Maya hieroglyphs The residents of Tucson are Archaeology Division, will reveal more secrets about the learning about their predecessors— Texas Historical Commission, Maya’s disappearance. Have any of the Early Agricultural people, the Austin, Texas the archaeologists developed any the- Hohokam, the Pima, the Spanish— ories on whether Cancuen was pri- and in the process they’re learning The Importance of Curation marily a trade center or did it have about themselves. I am a longtime supporter of The strong ties with any other dynasties? Archaeological Conservancy and a Craig Southern regular reader of American Arch- Fayetteville, Arkansas Michael Bawaya, Editor aeology, and I want to thank you for the fine magazine. As immediate past-president Sending Letters to American Archaeology of the San Diego Archaeological American Archaeology welcomes your letters. Write to us at 5301 Central Avenue NE, Center, I am keenly aware of the need Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or send us e-mail at [email protected]. to educate the general public and We reserve the right to edit and publish letters in the magazine’s Letters department as space permits. Please include your name, address, and telephone number with all agencies about the need to properly correspondence, including e-mail messages. curate archaeological collections. american archaeology 3 WELCOME TO ® THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 CONSERVANCY! Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 • (505) 266-1540 www.americanarchaeology.org he Archaeological Conservancy is the only national non-profit organization that identifies, Board of Directors acquires, and preserves the most Earl Gadbery, Pennsylvania, CHAIRMAN significant archaeological sites in the Olds Anderson, Michigan • Cecil F. Antone, Arizona • Janet Creighton, Washington t Christopher B. Donnan, California • Janet EtsHokin, Illinois • Jerry EtsHokin, Illinois United States. Since its beginning in W. James Judge, Colorado • Jay T. Last, California 1980, the Conservancy has preserved James B. Richardson, Pennsylvania • Peter O. A. Solbert, New York more than 210 sites across the nation, Rosamond Stanton, New Mexico • Vincas Steponaitis, North Carolina ranging in age from the earliest habita- Dee Ann Story, Texas • Stewart L. Udall, New Mexico tion sites in North America to a 19th- Conservancy Staff century frontier army post. We are build- Mark Michel, President • Tione Joseph, Office Manager ing a national system of archaeological Erika Olsson, Membership Director • Shelley Smith, Membership Assistant preserves to ensure the survival of our Martha Mulvany, Special Projects Director • Yvonne Woolfolk, Administrative Assistant irreplaceable cultural heritage. Heather Wooddell, Administrative Assistant

Why Save Archaeological Sites? The Regional Offices and Directors ancient people of North America left Jim Walker, Southwest Region (505) 266-1540 virtually no written records of their 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 • Albuquerque, New Mexico 87108-1517 cultures. Clues that might someday Paul Gardner, Midwest Region (614) 267-1100 solve the mysteries of prehistoric 295 Acton Road • Columbus, Ohio 43214-3305 America are still missing, and when a ruin is destroyed by looters, or Alan Gruber, Southeast Region (770) 975-4344 leveled for a shopping center, 5997 Cedar Crest Road • Acworth, Georgia 30101 precious information is lost. By Rob Crisell, Eastern Region (703) 979-4410 permanently preserving endangered 1307 S. Glebe Road • Arlington, Virginia 22204 ruins, we make sure they will be here for future generations to study and enjoy. ® How We Raise Funds: Funds for american archaeology the Conservancy come from membership dues, individual PUBLISHER: Mark Michel contributions, corporations, and EDITOR: Michael Bawaya (505) 266-9668, [email protected] foundations. Gifts and bequests of SENIOR EDITOR: Rob Crisell money, land, and securities are fully ASSISTANT EDITOR: Tamara Stewart tax deductible under section 501(c)(3) CREATIVE & PRODUCTION DIRECTOR: Kathleen Sparkes, White Hart Design of the Internal Revenue Code. Planned giving provides donors with Editorial Advisory Board substantial tax deductions and a James Bruseth, Texas Historical Commission • Allen Dart, Old Pueblo Archaeology Center variety of beneficiary possibilities. Hester Davis, Arkansas Archeological Survey • David Dye, University of Memphis For more information, call Mark John Foster, California State Parks • Lynne Goldstein, Michigan State University Michel at (505) 266-1540. Megg Heath, Bureau of Land Management • Susan Hector, San Diego County Parks Gwynn Henderson, Kentucky Archaeological Registry • John Henderson, Cornell University The Role of the Magazine: American Archaeology is the only popular John Kelly, Washington University • Robert Kuhn, New York Historic Preservation magazine devoted to presenting the William Lipe, Washington State University • Mark Lynott, National Park Service rich diversity of archaeology in the Bonnie McEwan, San Luis Historic Site • Giovanna Peebles, Vermont State Archaeologist Americas. The purpose of the Peter Pilles, U.S. Forest Service • John Roney, Bureau of Land Management magazine is to help readers appreci- Kenneth Sassaman, University of Florida • Dennis Stanford, Smithsonian Institution ate and understand the archaeologi- Kathryn Toepel, Heritage Research Associates • Richard Woodbury, University of Massachusetts cal wonders available to them, and to raise their awareness of the National Advertising Office destruction of our cultural heritage. Richard Bublitz, Advertising Representative; 22247 Burbank Boulevard, By sharing new discoveries, research, Woodland Hills, California 91367; (800) 485-5029; fax (818) 716-1030 and activities in an enjoyable and [email protected] informative way, we hope we can make learning about ancient America American Archaeology (ISSN 1093-8400) is published quarterly by The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517. Title registered U.S. Pat. and TM Office, © 2001 by TAC. Printed in the as exciting as it is essential. United States. Periodicals postage paid Albuquerque, NM, and additional mailing offices. Single copies are $3.95. A one- year membership to the Conservancy is $25 and includes receipt of American Archaeology. Of the member’s dues, $6 is How to Say Hello: By mail: The designated for a one-year magazine subscription. READERS: For new memberships, renewals, or change of address, write to Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517, or call (505) 266- Central Avenue NE, Suite 402, 1540. For changes of address, include old and new addresses. Articles are published for educational purposes and do not Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; by necessarily reflect the views of the Conservancy, its editorial board, or American Archaeology. Article proposals and artwork should be addressed to the editor. No responsibility assumed for unsolicited material. All articles receive expert review. phone: (505) 266-1540; by e-mail: POSTMASTER: Send address changes to American Archaeology, The Archaeological Conservancy, 5301 Central Avenue NE, [email protected]; or visit our Web Suite 402, Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517; (505) 266-1540. All rights reserved. site: www.americanarchaeology.org American Archaeology does not accept advertising from dealers in archaeological artifacts or antiquities.

4 summer • 2001 Museum exhibits • Tours • Festivals Meetings • Education • Conferences Events

■ NEW EXHIBITS historical and archaeo- Los Angeles County Museum of Art logical study. The new Los Angeles, Calif.—“The Road to Aztlán: schooner, Louis McClure, Art from a Mythic Homeland” explores the named after a major contributor, nature of ancient interactions between the will become a harbor-side American Southwest and portions of Mexico educational exhibit illustrat- as revealed in shared features of art, archi- ing how the lake was used tecture, agriculture, and religious beliefs and for commerce during the ceremonies dating back to as early as 1200 19th century and teaching B.C. (213) 857-6000 (Through August 26) visitors about the history and archaeology of the Champlain Red Earth Museum Valley. (802) 475-2022 (Open to Oklahoma City, Okla.—The new exhibit the public June 21) “Earth & Water: Lifeways of the California MUSEUM Indians” explores the artistic and cultural ■ CONFERENCES & FESTIVALS similarities and differences between north, Native Voices 2001: EITELJORG central, and southern California tribes from American Indian Lecture Series prehistoric to modern times. A large collec- Selected Mondays at 6 P.M. through Octo- tion of baskets, cradleboards, shell orna- ber 29, Hotel Santa Fe, Santa Fe, N.M. Eiteljorg Museum of ments, clothing, and other historic and pre- Southwest Seminars presents this free pub- American Indians and historic artifacts from the various tribes will lic series of lectures by native peoples and be on display. (405) 427-5228 (Through scholars. The series is underwritten by Western Art September 3) Hotel Santa Fe, a Picuris Pueblo enterprise, Indianapolis, Ind.—The and the New Mexico Endowment for the Canadian Museum of Dickson Mounds Museum Humanities. For a list of speakers and dates Civilization’s traveling exhibi- Lewistown, Ill.—A major new exhibit from see www.SouthwestSeminars.org or call tion “Iqqaipaa: Celebrating the collections of the Illinois State Mu- (505) 466-2775. Inuit Art, 1948–1970” pre- seum, “Pueblo Pottery of the American sents a fascinating glimpse of Southwest” features a large, rarely seen col- Fort Ancient State arts created by the indigenous lection of early historic pottery from the Memorial Celebration people of the Canadian Arctic, pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico. (309) June 9–10, Oregonia, Ohio. Visit this now known as Nunavut. The 547-3721 (Through October 21) 2,000-year-old Hopewell site for a celebra- delicately carved bone, ivory, tion of Native American heritage with story- and stone works—many of Lake Champlain telling, traditional dances, and food, games, which have never been shown Maritime Museum vendors, demonstrations, and hands-on ac- in the United States—are the Vergennes, Vt.—“The Burlington Schooner tivities for the entire family. (513) 932-4421 works of a people who were Project” will build a reproduction 1862-class forced to abandon their sailing canal boat at Burlington Harbor, San Diego Museum of Man’s nomadic lifestyle in the modeled after the General Butler and the 18th Annual Indian Fair 1940s. (317) 264-1724 O. J. Walker, two historic shipwrecks located June 9–10, San Diego, Calif. Breathtaking (June 9–September 30) within a mile of the proposed construction Native American dancers, skilled artisans, site that have been the subject of intense mouth-watering traditional fare, and quality

american archaeology 5 Events CIVILIZATION OF MUSEUM

arts and crafts draw thousands CANADIAN of visitors to this lively annual Indian Fair. (619) 239-2001

Canadian Center for American Archeology’s Museum of 2001 Archeology Day June 30, Kampsville Archeological Center, Civilization Ill. Families experience a full day of archaeo-

Hull, Quebec, Canada—More logical excavations, site tours, demonstra- FOUNDATION than 300 Viking and indigenous tions, displays, and lectures showcasing re- artifacts, photos, scale models, gional prehistory, prehistoric technologies, ILLIAMSBURG artists’ impressions, and and the center’s research and educational W maps combine in “Full Circle: programs. Call (618) 653-4316 or visit the

First Contact—Vikings and center’s Web site at www.caa-archeology.org COLONIAL Skraelings in Newfoundland THE and Labrador” to tell the Museum of Northern Arizona’s Colonial Williamsburg fascinating story of the first 2001 Heritage Programs encounter between the Vikings Flagstaff, Ariz. The Hopi Marketplace: Family Programs and the native people they June 30–July 1; Navajo Marketplace: Au- Mid-June through August, Williamsburg,Va. called the Skraelings at the gust 4–5; Zuni Marketplace: September In the restored capital of colonial Virginia, site of L’Anse aux Meadows 1–2; Festival of Pai Arts: September 22–23. America’s largest outdoor living history in northern Newfoundland. Marketplace and Festival weekends give museum, families experience a key period Viking objects found in visitors a chance to enjoy traditional Native in Williamsburg’s history by participating indigenous archaeological American dance, music, and food, buy art- in 18th-century activities and reenactments. sites and early indigenous work directly from artists, and view art Visit www.colonialwilliamsburg.org or call carvings representing demonstrations. (520) 774-5213 (757) 220-7286 for activities and dates. Europeans provide insights into the relationships between Coronado Summer Festival 2001 Pecos Conference people whose ways of life July 28–29, Coronado State Monument, August 9–12, Flagstaff, Ariz. A reception at developed on opposite sides Bernalillo, N.M. Native Americans will the Museum of Northern Arizona kicks off of the globe. This traveling demonstrate pottery making and firing, the conference on Southwest archaeology, exhibition was produced by weaving, jewelry making, traditional danc- with tours of local sites held on the 12th. the Newfoundland Museum. ing, and music throughout the weekend, For more information contact David Wilcox (800) 555-5621 (Through which will include art and craft sales. (505) at [email protected] or visit the Web September 3) 867-5351 site [email protected]

6 summer • 2001 in the Paleo-Indian Site Found in Virginia NEWS Charcoal from a hearth suggests a pre-Clovis occupation.

ecent excavations at the Brook Run site in Culpeper RCounty, Virginia, have uncovered what may be one of the earliest dated Paleo-Indian sites in the Mid-Atlantic region. Lithic artifacts and charcoal found in a hearth have been dated to approximately 9500 B.C.Pieces of charcoal found in another hearth are believed to have been burned between 13,000 and 15,000 years ago, suggesting a pre-Clovis occupation. “There are very few Clovis sites with intact deposits in this region of the country. They’re usually TRANSPORTATION

OF plowed or eroded,” says Eric Voigt,

DEPT. senior archaeologist with the Louis Berger Group, Inc., the company

VIRGINIA excavating the site. “Brook Run is pretty unique.” These jasper tools were found at the site. The tools will be analyzed under a microscope to determine Since the site has yielded only wear patterns, which indicate what they were used for. one pre-Clovis date, Voigt down- plays that aspect of the excavation. jasper in the area. We were finding of the time. A Neutron Activation The Brook Run site was discovered nodules the size of bowling balls, and Analysis will identify the chemical in 1998 when the Virginia Depart- we couldn’t figure out why people signature of the jasper found at the ment of Transportation (VDOT) would bring it to the site.” site, and researchers hope to com- conducted an archaeological identi- On the last day of the excava- pare it with other jasper artifacts to fication survey in preparation for tion, the archaeologists found a see if the stone that was mined at the expansion of a state highway. seam of jasper around 100 feet long Brook Run was used or traded Early work at the site uncovered and 11 feet deep. At the very bot- throughout Virginia. 12,588 prehistoric artifacts, includ- tom of the seam were bifacial dig- Today VDOT is redesigning ing 73 prismatic blades, which are ging tools, indicating the people at the highway to preserve the unexca- often indicative of Paleo-Indian oc- Brook Run were mining jasper. vated portions of the site within cupation. Most of the lithic materi- Analysis of the artifacts found the right of way. The site will be als were jasper. at Brook Run is now underway. Re- backfilled, landscaped, and pro- “The whole time, we’re trying to searchers will test carbonized plant tected by the state. figure out where the jasper comes remains and pollen to learn more —Martha Mulvany from,” says Voigt, “because there’s no about the environmental conditions

american archaeology 7 in the Archaeologists Discover NEWS Ancient Cemetery Analysis of more than 300 remains reveals details of prehistoric life and death in the Bay Area.

major excavation at a cemetery site in Fremont, A California, has revealed the presence of 303 human remains THOMPSON dating between about A.D. 500

and 800. Archaeor Archaeological RICHARD Consultants has finished its exca- This bifacial obsidian blade was found at the site. The obsidian is believed to have come from a vation of the site and plans to quarry 100 miles to the north, suggesting a trade network with Indians from that area. complete analysis of the remains by December 2002. So far, 109 burials have been 700. They are believed to have Tw o prehistoric peoples, the analyzed at the Fremont cemetery, coexisted, though sometimes not so Meganos and the Ohlone, are buried the largest percentage of which peacefully, with the Ohlone Indians at the site. They are distinguished are women over the age of 45. who lived in the area. by their particular burial postures: Christine Marshall, an osteologist Based on the recommenda- The Meganos were stretched out with Archaeor, is studying the tions of Native American groups, for burial, while the Ohlones were health of the population. Several Archaeor carefully exposed, studied, interred in a curved position. Com- of the burials show evidence of and removed each burial to its parison of other distinguishing traits death by violence. laboratory for later analysis. The has shown the Meganos tended to Researchers believe that the remains will eventually be reburied be taller and more robust than the Meganos people came from the lower at the Ohlones Indian Cemetery Ohlone. Further analysis may indi- Sacramento Valley into the San Fran- in Fremont. —Tamara Stewart cate other differences. cisco Bay area between A.D. 500 and Oldest Maya Sweat House Discovered in Belize The ancient structure’s location suggests its importance. rchaeologists from Boston University uncovered a When the archaeologists uncovered the sweat house A 2,900-year-old Maya sweat house, the oldest to be during the recent excavation, they weren’t certain what it discovered, at the Cuello site in northern Belize in the was. Someone remarked that excavating the structure, spring of 2000. which measured about 13 feet by 10 feet, was like being in Norman Hammond, a Boston University archaeologist, a sauna, and they suddenly realized they had discovered a led investigations at the site from 1975 to 2000 that pib na—a sweat house—used for actual and ritual cleansing. showed Cuello to be the oldest Maya settlement in the Dating to around 900 B.C., the Cuello sweat house lowland region, its occupation beginning in 1200 B.C. had a domed roof and an outside firebox chamber. Hot and spanning the next 16 centuries. The crew uncovered embers and stones were raked inside the house through remains of elite residences or public buildings surrounding a channel that went under an arched opening in the an enclosed courtyard on three sides. What once stood on plastered stone wall. Up to six bathers could have sat the eastern side remained a mystery. on benches with their legs stretched above the channel. “This was an important gap in our knowledge of this According to Hammond, the sweat house, built some 500 earliest Maya community core,” says Hammond. “The east years before the next oldest example that has been found, was the most important orientation in later Classic Maya bore a clear resemblance to the elaborate royal bathhous- culture, because it was where the sun rose. So we decided es found at Maya cites such as Tikal and Piedras Negras to look for the buried east side, and see what was there.” in Guatemala. —Tamara Stewart

8 summer • 2001 Scientists Say Radiocarbon in the Dates for Some Paleo Sites Are Wrong NEWS

Due to cataclysmic events, dates may be off by thousands of years.

fter more than 10 years Ages. They say evidence gathered utter confusion,” says C. Vance of research, two scientists from a broad range of sources, Haynes, Regents Professor Emeritus A have found what they believe including ice core and sea sediment in geoarchaeology at the University to be hard evidence that a supernova data, irradiated Pleistocene cherts of Arizona. He adds that many, if or a giant solar flare blasted the Great scarred by high-speed neutron not most, radiocarbon dates of Lakes region about 12,500 years ago, particles, and astronomical data Paleo-Indian artifacts are corrobo- devastating all life forms in the vicin- support their conclusions. rated by stratigraphic testing and ity and effectively resetting the radio- The radiocarbon record from are “remarkably consistent with active clock for carbon-bearing tree rings, corals, and marine sedi- their radiocarbon ages elsewhere Pleistocene (Ice Age) remains. ments indicate that three cataclysmic in the continent.” Despite radiocarbon dating of events occurred about 41,000, Dennis Stanford, chairman of some South American Paleo-Indian 33,000, and 12,500 years ago, Fire- the anthropology department at the sites to around 32,000 years ago, stone and Topping state in the March Smithsonian’s National Museum of archaeologists have traditionally issue of Mammoth Trumpet, pub- Natural History, agrees with Haynes, assumed people first arrived in the lished by the Center for the Study of saying that he does not see any major New World about 13,000 years ago, the First Americans. Neutrons from problems with radiocarbon dating since radiocarbon dates of North these events would have transmuted when the limitations are understood American Paleo-Indian sites are residual nitrogen in organic remains and poor samples are removed. generally within this time period. to radiocarbon, resulting in artifi- Haynes says it’s possible that Some researchers believe that cially high radiocarbon levels and some unknown event may have dating of Pleistocene sites by meth- accounting for the anomalous dates. occurred about 13,000 years ago ods such as thermoluminescence, The closer the archaeological sites that caused the extinction of Pleis- geoarchaeology, and sedimentation to the Great Lakes, the scientists con- tocene fauna. Both he and Stan- often indicate that many radiocar- tend, the greater this effect and thus ford say that they look forward to bon dates for northeastern sites are the greater the dating error, in some learning how nuclear physicists too young. This inconsistency cases by tens of thousands of years. react to the theory. prompted William Topping, an The researchers state that, depending With the support of the archaeologist and geological con- on location and overburden, dates for National Science Foundation Physics sultant in Michigan, to seek an many North American Paleo-Indian Division and the U.S. Department explanation. Four years ago, Top- sites should be changed by as much of Energy, among others, Firestone ping contacted Richard Firestone, as 40,000 years. and Topping are currently conduct- a nuclear chemist with Lawrence “The repercussions of these cos- ing new measurements of uranium Berkeley National Laboratory. mic events go beyond changing the ratios and analyzing cherts and sedi- According to Firestone and age of artifacts to forcing a reexami- ments, hoping to find evidence for Topping, Paleo-Indian artifacts nation of fundamental archaeological other isotope anomalies. from the Great Lakes region and theories, and have widespread ramifi- “Once the cosmic ray events are surrounding areas show depleted cations toward our understanding of fully verified, we will look for sam- levels of the uranium isotope 235U the geology and climatology of the ples from a broader variety of materi- and elevated levels of the plutonium Ice Ages,” says Firestone. als and geographical locations to isotope 239Pu, which they say could “If Firestone and Topping’s characterize the extent and nature of only result from an enormous neu- theory is correct, all radiocarbon the events,” says Firestone. tron bombardment during the Ice chronologies would be in a state of —Tamara Stewart american archaeology 9 in the Conference Studies NEWS Mississippian Symbolism Scholars conclude that some symbols speak of warfare and astronomy.

outhwest Texas University re- copper, shell, clay, and wood arti- cently sponsored the Mississip- facts to establish patterns and styles. Spian Iconographic Conference, Ethnographic sources were then which brought together scholars in checked for possible interpretations. anthropology, art history, folklore, Most scholars agree that Cahokia and ethnography for a weekend fo- was the place of origin for much of cused on deciphering the symbolic the Mississippian symbolism. Be- language of the prehistoric Missis- cause linguistic evidence indicates sippian culture. Kent Reilly, a pro- that some variant of Southern fessor of anthropology at Southwest Souian was spoken at Cahokia, the Texas University, chaired the confer- researchers can use the large body of ence, which he believes is the only Southern Siouan ethnographic in- one of its kind in the country. formation in their interpretations.

The Mississippian culture ex- “We can now assign meaning to DYE

isted from about A.D. 900 to 1600 a number of symbols, and recognize DAVID in the Mississippi Valley and the This Mississippian pipe, which may represent that some have astronomy and cos- other great river valleys between a cosmic hero, was found at the Shiloh site in mological identifications, and some Illinois and east Texas. The major Tennessee. It is an exquisite example of fired relate to themes of warfare and the Mississippian sites of Cahokia clay sculpture. journey to the realm of the dead,” in Illinois, Etowah in Georgia, said Reilly. “We also believe that Moundville in Alabama, and Spiro forms and symbols such as human many of the symbols were used by in Oklahoma are characterized dancers dressed as falcons. Mississippian elites as public and by massive temple mounds and The scholars analyzed the cos- visual validations of their status.” spectacular artifacts with common tumes and symbols represented in —Tamara Stewart New Technique Discovered for Dating Ancient Iron Artifacts Researchers say the method is more reliable and less expensive. esearch at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory has “With other AMS dating versions, researchers could Rproduced a new technique for dating ancient iron date iron artifacts found out of context, but it wasn’t often artifacts that may change accelerator mass spectrometry done because it was so expensive and difficult,” explained (AMS) carbon dating of iron. Researchers Andrea Cook, Jeff Cook, who now teaches at High Tech High School in San Wadsworth, and John Southon discovered the technique. Diego. “Now we can date an artifact without destroying This radiocarbon dating method measures the rate at most of it, and with a technique that is much less expen- which atmospheric radiocarbon, which is ingested by plants sive and more reliable.” and animals during their lifetimes, decays after an organ- While this technique has obvious applications for dat- ism’s death. AMS allows researchers to determine the ing Old World Iron Age artifacts, it can also tell researchers remaining radiocarbon in a sample by counting atoms how prehistoric cultures such as the Hopewell of eastern rather than measuring the rate of decay. The new tech- North America produced their iron. Preliminary data indi- nique, which uses a different method to prepare samples, is cate the technique can also date rust, which researchers much simpler, and therefore requires less material and is were previously unable to do. —Tamara Stewart significantly less expensive than the traditional method.

10 summer • 2001 in the Coalition Forms to Save Important Site NEWS Officials are deciding how to preserve a 4,500-year-old site in Kansas City.

n 1999, volunteers from the Kansas City Archaeological Soci- Iety were sifting through dirt that was removed to build a shelter house at Line Creek Park in Mis- souri. The volunteers found thousands of artifacts and construction of the shelter house—which was to host simulated archaeological digs for children—was stopped. A coalition of government offi-

MUSEUM cials, Native Americans, and histori-

CREEK ans is now working to preserve this

LINE site, which dates to about 2500 B.C. and is thought to have one of the (Above) This point is one of thousands of richest deposits of artifacts in the artifacts found by volunteers in 1999. The great Kansas City area. majority of the artifacts are Middle Woodland. There is evidence that this area (Left) This cooking vessel was found in pieces was occupied by several prehistoric in August 1987. The vessel is also believed cultures, including Archaic, Wood- to be Middle Woodland. land, and Mississippian peoples, over the course of several thousand the nonprofit organization. “I years. The site was first investigated believe this group has a much in the 1870s by archaeologist Edwin greater vision for this park Curtis of Harvard University’s than it’s ever experienced.” Peabody Museum, as well as by Officials have discussed other researchers. The most recent the site’s educational value. work done there was in 1969–1971 The park contains a small muse-

SCHURKAMP by researchers from the University um building that housed arti-

TRISH of Kansas. Five years ago a multi- facts, but it was closed due to million-dollar community center structural problems. equipped with an ice rink and other Gary Brenner, an amateur facilities was built on the site. recommended a noninvasive study archaeologist with the Kansas City “There was extensive research of the site, which Aust said may Archaeological Society, believes the done on the site before the commu- begin by fall. A nonprofit organi- community center should be con- nity center was placed there,” said zation, which is under the jurisdic- verted into a museum. Sandra Aust, a Kansas City Parks tion of the Parks and Recreation “It’s unfortunate that what’s and Recreation commissioner. Department, has been formed to taking place now didn’t happen ten A group of consultants, consist- make decisions regarding the future years ago,” said Brenner, referring to ing of historians, archaeologists, and of the site. the time prior to the construction of museum specialists, was hired to as- “I think the group is very open the community center. sess the situation. The consultants to all kinds of options,” Aust said of —Michael Bawaya

american archaeology 11 INSIDE THE H. L. Hunley By sinking a Union ship in the Civil War, the Hunley made naval history. Now the excavation of this Confederate submarine is making archaeological history.

By Andrea Cooper

he dark of night, and the task ahead, were bone- chaeologists last year. It’s being excavated and conserved chilling. Some 137 years ago, nine volunteers for in the Warren Lasch Conservation Center at the former the Confederate States of America operated the Charleston Naval Base. Confederacy’s secret weapon, the H. L. Hunley sub- Most archaeological projects have an element of ro- marine. With no modern navigation system to mance and mystery about them. But the Hunley has cap- Tguide them, members of the crew planned to spear a tor- tivated people who never thought about archaeology be- pedo into the Union sloop-of-war, the USS Housatonic. fore: One recent afternoon, a Charleston hotel clerk gave No matter that two previous Hunley crews had died while guests an update about the excavation as easily as if he in training on the sub, nor that a submarine had never be- were reporting the weather. TNT made a movie about the fore sunk another vessel in battle. Hunley, starring Donald Sutherland. A lookout on the Housatonic apparently saw the Part of the Hunley’s allure lies in the sheer bravery of Hunley coming, but thought it might be a porpoise. The the crew, who fought in a hand-cranked, claustrophobic Hunley managed to plunge its forward spar into the vessel about the height of a first-grader, with only a single Housatonic’s hull, releasing a torpedo that sent the Union candle to indicate when there was no longer enough oxy- ship into the depths of the sea. Whether by luck or skill, gen to breathe. the Hunley directly hit the Housatonic’s powder magazine, Part lies in the legends, such as the photograph creating an even more powerful explosion than the tor- thought to be ship captain Lieutenant George Dixon— pedo alone could produce. The Hunley had made naval the only photo available of any of the crew—discovered history. With a flash of blue light, the crew signaled vicin a gold locket that once belonged to his fiancé. Dixon’s tory to Confederates on shore. fiancé also gave him a gold coin as a good-luck piece. That was the last time human eyes saw the H. L. When Dixon was shot at the Battle of Shiloh, the bullet Hunley—until 1995. That’s when a dive team led by nov- ricocheted off the gold piece in his pants pocket, saving elist Clive Cussler, in conjunction with archaeologists his leg and possibly his life. Dixon always carried the gold from the South Carolina Institute of Archaeology and coin with him. It may still be on board the Hunley. Anthropology at the University of South Carolina, found And part of the Hunley’s attraction lies in the human the mysterious sunken vessel using sonar and global posi- remains on board. The lack of oxygen in the sub creates tioning systems. The Hunley was raised by a team of ar- conditions for a high level of artifact recovery, says South

12 summer • 2001 CONFEDERACY T H E O F U S E U M M C O U R T E S Y • 1 8 6 3 C H A P M A N W I S E C O N R A D ARCHIVES N A T I O N A L C O U R T E S Y S K E T C H L A K E S I M O N

• Carolina state senator Glenn McConnell, head of the Hunley Commission, one of the (Top) A painting of the Hunley by governmental bodies overseeing the project. Conrad Wise Chapman, circa 1863.

C E N T E R “The range of possibility is from jumbled bones to hair, skin, and flesh.” For archaeologists, the Hunley provides an unprecedented opportunity to learn from (Above left) Horace Hunley, after whom

H I S T O R I C the largest iron artifact ever recovered, and to study technology that was decades ahead the submarine was named. Hunley of its time: World War I German U-boats are believed to be modeled after the Hunley. financed the construction of the vessel.

N A T I O N A L “The Hunley is the most difficult composite iron artifact ever undertaken, and it is by far the most complex object ever recovered,” says Robert Neyland, project direc- (Above) After torpedoing the USS

C O U R T E S Y tor and chief archaeologist. “We look at it as important because of the technology Housatonic, the Hunley sank for the we’re discovering in the submarine. We also have a certain amount of historical infor- third and final time. This sketch of the P H O T O mation we can prove or disprove archaeologically.” boat by Simon Lake is from a descrip-

H U N L E Y Neyland is on loan to the Hunley from the Naval Historical Center, the U.S. tion by Charles Hasker, one of the Navy’s underwater archaeology branch. A slender man with thinning brown hair and crew that survived the first sinking. glasses, he has worked on shipwrecks in the Mediterranean and the Netherlands, among others, and would clearly rather be excavating than talking to reporters. He gives the clamoring local and national media a total of three hours of interview time per week, but for him, the excitement is in the lab. “It’s a unique situation to be able to bring the archaeological site into the laborator y,

american archaeology 13 (Above) The Hunley is carried in its truss to the Warren Lasch Conservation and do the excavation in the laboratory with all the tools Center in North Charleston on August 8, 2000. there,” he says. “We’re bringing in geologists and micro- biologists and macrobiologists. I think we’re going to (Below) The Hunley is lowered into a 99,000-gallon tank of fresh water at have a very, very complete story. We’re also using some the center later that day. The submarine is placed at a 45-degree angle, the very advanced technologies that will have an influence same angle at which it rested on the ocean floor. on archaeology.” In 1999, Hunley archaeologists held an international symposium on their plans, receiving guidance from specialists in archaeology, metal conservation, human remains, and engineering. The advancements included the complex strategy required to lift the Hunley off the ocean floor. On a good day, the murky waters four miles off Charleston Harbor allowed only a foot or two of visibil- ity. As divers assessed the boat’s structural condition, stinging jellyfish wrapped their tentacles around them. An ultrasonic device was used to measure the hull’s thickness. Eventually, a team assembled from the Department of the Navy, the National Park Service, Oceaneering Interna- tional Inc. (which does all deep-sea recovery for the navy), the Hunley Commission, and Friends of the Hunley, among others, created and funded the massive structure that raised the vessel.

The contraption must have looked like a skyscraper GEOGRAPHIC on its side, under the sea. Bookending the sub were two

18-by-12-foot custom-engineered suction piles, so-called N A T I O N A L because they suck themselves into the sediment. The suc- • tion piles served as a foundation for an elaborate truss, H U N L E Y

akin to a bridge, lowered onto the Hunley. T H E

Nylon slings wrapped underneath the boat. Attached O F to each sling was a load cell, which gauges weight, moni- F R I E N D S tored by a computer at the dive site. The load cells gave ©

14 summer • 2001 (Top) Scientists lifting the first plate from the hull of the H. L. Hunley submarine.

(Middle) Doug DeVine of Pacific Survey/Epic Scan reviews a laser scan image of the first hull plate removed from the Hunley.

(Bottom) A digital image of the Hunley.

the precise weight on each strap. Through two-way com- munication, engineers on land could instruct divers to tighten or loosen a strap to adjust the load balance. To provide a cushion for the journey, divers placed a polyurethane foam that hardens quickly under the Hun- ley, giving it a kind of form-fitting body cast. On August 8, 2000, a crane lifted the Hunley, truss and all, to the surface. It was loaded onto a barge and greeted by thousands of well-wishers, receiving a hero’s welcome after an eight-hour recovery journey. “The vessel was found tilted towards starboard at a 45-degree angle. We raised it exactly in the position it lay on the sea bottom,” explains Hunley senior archaeologist Maria Jacobsen, a native of Denmark recruited by Ney- land for this project. “We wanted to preserve the stratigraphy inside the sub, in order to understand the filling-in sequences and what happened to the Hunley as it lay on the sea bottom.” The Hunley resembles a sick whale being nursed back to health in its custom lab at the Warren Lasch Conserva- tion Center. Most crucial in the lab design was the steel tank and water pumping system. The Hunley is saturated with salt, a highly corrosive material. If the sub were to dry out, the salt would crystallize and expand, with disastrous consequences to the boat’s structure. “It’s a bit like leaving a bottle of water in your freezer,” Jacobsen says. So the tank is filled with fresh water that is chilled to 40 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit. A thin layer of greenish, concrete-like material called concretion glazes the ship. Without this protection, the hull would be vulnerable to rapid corrosion. Like any patient, the ship is monitored minute by minute with probes and electrodes. An over- head crane can raise and lower the boat as needed. Prior to excavation, lasers successfully mapped the hull in three dimensions, saving archaeologists the work of

GEOGRAPHIC mapping it by hand. “It gives us an accurate architectural drawing” that could one day be used to create holographic

N A T I O N A L images or virtual reality tours of the sub, Neyland says. • No detailed plans of the Hunley’s interior exist. Ar- chaeologists are proceeding gingerly in the excavation, H U N L E Y

T H E not knowing exactly what they’ll find. The team prepared

O F by filling a model sub with sand and creating an artificial concretion layer. Using x-rays, they successfully pene- F R I E N D S © trated the model sub’s steel plates and saw some objects.

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© F R I E N D S O F T H E H U N L E Y • N A T I O N A L GEOGRAPHI C tower’s construction, but only that. A third method, fiber-optic cameras, didn’t provide a big enough picture to be useful. The team decided to do a preliminary excavation through the largest of three holes in the submarine, located in the stern starboard section of the ballast tank. By studying the stratigraphy, the team determined the sub had probably not moved much in the last 136 years. Archaeologists also determined how the submarine was constructed, looking behind the plates and at the backing. With this information in hand, the team decided to drill out rivets and lift the hull plates. That plan produced another problem: How could they prevent the sediment inside from col- lapsing, possibly harming artifacts in the process? The solution was thermal plastic. When a hull plate is lifted up, a plastic shoring device is in- serted in its place, keeping the sediment intact. By early March, three hull plates from the central compartment had been removed, providing the first access to the hull. Two weeks later, the team found the first human remains: six ribs. Doug Owsley, who heads the Smithsonian Insti- tution’s physical anthropology department and is in charge of identifying and preserving the crew’s remains, calls the ribs “very well preserved.” Typically, bones aren’t found in underwater excavations. However, “based on GEOGRAPHIC the sand and shells we’re removing from the crew’s quar- N A T I O N A L

• (Above) Conservators Paul Mardikian and Philippe de Vivies ters, we’re thinking the crew apply protective wrappings to the iron hand crank in the and their possessions would H U N L E Y submarine. have been covered up rela- T H E

O F tively quickly, and that en- (Right) This glass apothecary bottle was found close to the hances the chances of good F R I E N D S

© wooden bench in the forward section of the boat. preservation of organic matter,” Neyland says. From the On the real ship, scientists tried several non-invasive concretion, geologists have determined that the sub was methods to coax the Hunley into revealing its interior. probably buried in 20 to 30 years—a very short time in X-rays were unsuccessful, says Jacobsen. While the x-rays geological terms. penetrated the outer concretion and hull plates, they could- At press time, the archaeologists had found the par- n’t go much farther: The Hunley is 3½ feet wide and filled tial remains of eight of the nine crew members, including with sediment, an ideal substance for blocking x-rays. The six skulls. CAT scan images of the skulls detected brain opposite problem arose with sonar, an acoustic pulse sent tissue. through the submarine. Sonar travels through different ma- “The crew members’ remains being discovered at terials at different speeds and would ideally provide some their proper stations indicated both a recognition and ac- answers. But while sonar can penetrate through sediment ceptance of their fate,” observes Warren Lasch, the leader and concretion, it had difficulty crossing through metal in of the Friends of the Hunley. the sub’s central compartment. Together, x-rays and sonar Skeletal remains make it possible to reconstruct and yielded some information about the forward conning identify the faces of the crew.

american archaeology 17 Wes Hall, Ralph Wilbanks, and Harry Pecorelli observe the excavation. The three men are members of the team that discovered the Hunley in 1995.

depressors also make excellent scrapers, particularly near metal, because wood won’t scratch metal. There is not a shovel in sight. Each level of excavation is about five centimeters deep. By sampling sedi- ments, scientists can determine how fast the submarine filled and what organisms may have grown inside the vessel. The team anticipates completing the excavation this summer. There is some time pressure: Artifacts raised from sea must be cared for immediately, or they could fall apart. The final stage of the Hunley’s journey will be conservation, led by Senior Conser- vator Paul Mardikian, a French native whose previous experience includes conservation of American Civil War artifacts. Conservation, which involves using caustic chemicals to remove the salt from the GEOGRAPHIC metal, could take up to 10 years. Archaeol- N A T I O N A L

ogists must also store, stabilize, and study • the recovered artifacts. The Hunley and its artifacts will then go on display somewhere H U N L E Y T H E

in South Carolina. The cities of Charleston, O F North Charleston, and Mount Pleasant are

competing for the honor. F R I E N D S © The Hunley has intrigued people for more than 100 years. (Jules Verne wrote his “At this point, we’re confident we’ll be able to positively identify the re- classic submarine adventure novel, 20,000 mains and hopefully even be able to create 3-D [computerized and clay] Leagues Under the Sea, just a few years fol- models of what these men looked like,” Neyland says. lowing the Hunley’s demise.) After this final Following the excavation, the remains will be buried with full military leg of the Hunley’s journey, researchers may honors and laid to rest with previous Hunley crews in Charleston’s Magno- finally be able to answer the age-old ques- lia Cemetery. tion about why the boat sank. For archaeol- Among the various artifacts that have been discovered are tobacco ogists, the work is equally significant. pipes, a corked glass bottle, two pocketknives, a military hat, and a plank “Hunley is raising the bar for under- thought to be the bench on which the crew sat to crank the submarine’s water archaeology and conservation,” says propeller. Strangely enough, the dog tag of a Union soldier was also found. Michael McCarthy from the Western Aus- It was apparently worn by one of the crew. tralian Museum’s Department of Maritime It was assumed that the hand crank that powered the Hunley was op- Archaeology. “Not only is she viewed as a erated by eight men, but archaeologists now believe it was seven. One sailor significant object of history, but also a sig- apparently operated the bellows that drew air into the submarine. nificant research and science project. This “After excavating seventy-five percent of the H. L. Hunley, the subma- is perhaps the find of the century.” rine continues to amaze us with its advanced technology,” Neyland says. Tools used to excavate the sediment resemble those of a dentist: tiny ANDREA COOPER writes for Newsweek, The New metallic scrapers, scoops narrower than a teaspoon. Jacobsen says tongue York Times, and other national publications.

18 summer • 2001 Archaeology The battle of Little Bighorn was a turning point for Douglas Scott. The archaeologist had the audacity to use a metal detector while excavating the famous Goes to War 700-acre battlefield in Mon- Battlefield archaeology tana, and in doing so he both revised the history of Custer’s is advancing as a small Last Stand and changed the science of battlefield archaeology. group of researchers use When investigating the sophisticated equipment to battles that helped shape Amer- ica, researchers are informed by investigate the conflicts oral and written history. But oral histories can become inac- that formed America. curate as memories fade or as the stories are passed through By Anita Stratos the generations, while military records can be slanted for various reasons, such as to conceal an officer’s poor judgment. These accounts are often rid- dled with large gaps in their se- quence of events, sometimes raising more questions than they answer. Entombed in battlefields is information in the form of military and personal artifacts, and human and ani- mal bones—information that can provide the elusive details of military conflicts. Prior to the excavation of Little Bighorn in 1984, battlefield archaeology languished. The science’s conventional method was to conduct a visual survey consisting of a line of people, each 50 feet apart, walking across the field in search of surface artifacts. Usually, very little was found. It was assumed the battlefields had been heavi-

BARNARD ly looted, making excavations

S A N D Y largely fruitless. Because of their vast size and the widespread Volunteer Irwin Lee uses a metal detector to search for artifacts around Marker 7 at Custer battlefield, the scattering of artifacts, it would main battlefield at the Little Bighorn site. Markers like this were placed where soldiers fell. Archaeologists have taken decades for archaeol- surveyed many of the markers to determine whether a soldier or soldiers had been buried there. ogists to locate artifacts with traditional excavation methods.

american archaeology 19 This map shows where artifacts were found on the Little Bighorn battlefield, which covers approximately 700 acres. The black marks represent markers that show where the soldiers fell during the battle. The red and magenta marks show where Indian cartridges and bullets were found. The yel- low and blue marks show where where the soldiers’ cartridges and bullets were discovered.

has been used in the investigation of war crimes in the former Yugoslavia. Once the excavation at Little Big- horn was completed, Scott estimated how many of the 5,000 recovered artifacts would have been found by the conventional means of shovel testing. Using his computer, he overlaid a topographical map of the area with tradi- SCOTT tional rectangular grids. He then plotted in the points, roughly ten yards D O U G L A S Though a few archaeologists had experimented with apart, where shovel tests would have been done. He con- the use of metal detectors in battlefields during the 1950s cluded the tests would have found only about 10 artifacts. and 1960s, the machines were stigmatized as the tool of The size of Little Bighorn would have required digging looters. “We had the bias when we walked onto [Little Big- horn battlefield] in May of 1984 that metal detectors were bad things,” Scott, a supervisory archaeologist at the Mid- west Archaeological Center, explained. “But that’s like equating the shovel to the pot hunter.” In the first few hours, a crew of metal detector operators unearthed over 100 artifacts, persuading Scott and archaeologist Richard Fox, who codirected the excavation, of the efficacy of the machines. “We had incredible results,” Scott said. The excavation yielded new information indicating that, while some of the traditional views of the famous battle were accurate, others were not. One of the accepted theories was that most of the soldiers, fearing capture and tor- ture, had committed mass suicide. However, a few skull fragments found during the excavation showed those soldiers died in combat. Scott said the excavation also “refined” the number of combatants, which was the subject of debate. It’s believed that about 1,500 Indians attacked 210 soldiers. “Scott treats a battle like a huge crime scene,” said fel- low battlefield archaeologist Charles Haecker. He uses the same analytical techniques as a police investigator. Because of this, Haecker explained, “We now can reconstruct the various tactical positions of the combatants through time and space.” Indeed, the methodology implemented at Little Bighorn

Douglas Scott carries two of tools of his trade: surveyor pin flags and a BUNSELMEYER global positioning system instrument. C Y N T H I A

20 summer • 2001 SERVICE P A R K N A T I O N A L Charles Haecker (in gray baseball cap) and his crew plot the locations of hundreds of boxes were broken open and their contents artifacts at Apache Pass, Fort Bowie National Historic Site, in southeastern passed around. After the battle, some of the boxes were Arizona. In 1862, Geronimo and the Chiricahua Apaches ambushed the used as fuel for the campfires, but others just rotted in California Volunteers here. place, leaving thousands of nails. Along with correcting historical misconceptions, 40,000 test holes to obtain those few artifacts, an effort so Haecker believes that battlefield archaeology can reveal great the excavation would still be in progress. “how soldiers react to the extreme stresses of combat.” In addition to metal detectors, battlefield archaeolo- “Published accounts of a battle have generals pushing gists are employing a variety of other tools to advance their units around like faceless automatons, but the archaeologi- science. Haecker, who is with the National Historic Land- cal discoveries get it down to an individual level. They put marks Program in Santa Fe, New Mexico, used false im- a face on it,” he said. “When we find shattered musket agery infrared aerial photography and a proton magne- parts, slivers of bone, and chewed bullets, it really brings to tometer at Pecos National Historical Park in New Mexico life the sheer terror that went on in the battle.” to discover the site of a previously unknown 1862 Union The Battle of Little Bighorn has been romanticized army encampment. The camp, found just off the Santa Fe and fictionalized; however, the evidence shows it was sim- Trail, was occupied by the First Colorado Volunteers before ply brief and brutal. The soldiers deployed and fought in and after the Battle of Glorieta Pass, a Union victory and a “skirmish order,” which eventually broke down, as did the turning point of the Civil War in the New Mexico territory. command order. An Indian who witnessed it was quoted as False imagery infrared aerial photography can perceive saying: “The battle lasted as long as a hungry man took to the imperceptible, revealing the minutest variations in the eat his lunch.” color of the vegetation caused by soil disturbance, which is a consequence of underground anomalies such as a founda- A NEW ACCOUNT OF THE RED RIVER WAR tion or a trench. A proton magnetometer also detects un- In Texas, four Red River War battle sites were located and derground anomalies by measuring the magnetic field of a excavated between 1998 and 1999 under the direction of given area. The magnetometer and infrared photography Brett Cruse, an archaeologist with the Texas Historical indicated where army tents had been placed and where Commission. Cruse’s goal was to locate and document wagons had circled for protection. sites of the better-known battles that took place between “There’s enough disturbance there even though the the U.S. Army and various tribes of the Southern Plains camp was occupied almost 140 years ago,” Haecker said. Indians in 1874. A number of the sites were known This information helped to explain the large number through military records, but their precise locations had of nails that had been found by metal detectors within never been determined. three circles 20 meters in diameter. Haecker theorized that Having found the general area of each battle, Cruse the nails were from ammunition and ration boxes that were and his team used metal detectors to locate artifacts and es- stored within the wagon circles. Just prior to the battle, tablish the boundaries of the battlefields. They then faced

american archaeology 21 (Above) An archaeological crew conducts a metal detector and longitude markings on the map, Cruse survey at Camp Lewis, a Civil War encampment at Pecos calculated the latitude and longitude of the National Historical Park in New Mexico. sabers. However, once out in the field, it (Right) These metal arrow points and fired and unfired car- was difficult to find the exact spot. Miscal- tridges were found at the Battle of Red River site in Texas. culating by even a few degrees could result in missing the target by several miles. But the problem of how to map these large Cruse found the spot by programming the areas; the site of the Battle of Red River, the latitude and longitude into the GPS unit, first battle of the campaign, covered approx- which directed him to the site. Within 30 imately 35 square miles, and artifacts were minutes of reaching it, he and his team scattered throughout rough terrain that in- began finding cartridges, bullets, and ar- cluded canyons. tillery shrapnel. The solution was a hand-held global “When we began to find cartridges of positioning system (GPS), which, by using the right time period, we knew we had lo- satellites orbiting the earth, can identify located the battle site,” said Cruse. cations with a margin of error of less than Cruse expects the history of the Red one meter. The location of each artifact was River War to be modified as he analyzes the recorded by the GPS unit, and the informa- data. Gatling gun cartridges were found at tion was then fed into a computer-mapping the site, the first evidence of these guns program called Surfer. Cruse had already being used west of the Mississippi River. programmed topographical maps of the Red Cruse’s findings question military reports River Battle site into Surfer, and the artifacts’ stating that there were several hundred well- locations were incorporated into these maps. armed Indians fighting in these battles. He Each type of artifact, be it bullets or buttons, has discovered that the army was equipped was either color-coded or assigned a symbol, with new Springfield .45 rifles and carbines, resulting in a precise map showing the loca- while the Indians were apparently using tions and identifying the types of all artifacts whatever arms they acquired over the years. on the battle site. This map, augmented by Rifle balls from old muzzleloaders and car- military records, produced a clear picture of tridges from Henry repeating rifles and the Red River battle. The distribution of Sharps 50-caliber rifles were found, but the military artifacts revealed the advance of the most commonly found cartridge was the U.S. Army as well as Indian defense posi- Spencer. These cartridges hadn’t been man- tions and retreat routes. ufactured for at least eight years prior to the GPS played a crucial role in the investi- battle. It appears that the Indians were gation of another Red River War conflict, being very conservative with their ammuni- the Battle of Sweetwater Creek. Based on tion, and the number of cartridges found military records, it was believed that the bat- led Cruse to surmise that there were fewer

tle took place somewhere in what is now Indians than military reports stated. COMMISSION northwest Wheeler County. Cruse found an “At the battle sites we have investi- 1875 military map showing military supply gated, the ratio of military cartridges to In- routes, but there was no mention of the bat- dian cartridges is generally about five to HISTORICAL

tle site. The map included a tiny sketch of a one,” Cruse stated. T E X A S pair of crossed sabers, which was thought to Artifact patterns also indicate that the

be the general battle area. Using the latitude Southern Plains Indians were not, as history C O U R T E S Y

22 summer • 2001 portrayed them, hostile aggressors. There was no evidence of them attacking the army. The army, however, attacked Indian camps, and small groups of warriors briefly fought back, giving their families a chance to escape; then the warriors retreated, scattering to disperse the army. REVISITING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR “This is the largest field artillery engagement in the Amer- ican Revolution,” observed archaeologist Garry Stone. “We’re talking about tons and tons of ordnance.” The engagement took place in 1778 at Monmouth Battlefield in New Jersey. Stone, who is also the historian for the Shore Region Office of the State Park Service, is overseeing the excavation of three square miles of the battlefield. As with other battlefield excavations, the archaeology is expanding on the historical documents and occa- sionally rewriting them. “There are clues in the ground that the documents don’t even hint at,” he said. In 1778, the Continental Army’s prospects were im- proving. The British had abandoned Philadelphia and SIVILICH were marching across New Jersey to their base in New D A N York City. Knowing that the British army was larger than his, General George Washington tried unsuccessfully to limit the battle to an action between his advance force Ron LaBarca, president of U.S. Radar, operates a Surface Penetrating and the British rear guard. Radar unit at Monmouth Battlefield. SPR is used to find underground Together, the archaeological and historical records en- anomalies. LaBarca said the machine is capable of detecting objects able Stone and his crew to “choreograph” the battle. Six 30 feet below the surface. thousand artifacts have been unearthed so far, including concentrations of grapeshot, howitzer shell fragments, and At one point during the raging battle, Washington re- musket balls. These concentrations of ammunition help lieved Major General Charles Lee of his command due to Stone determine troop positions, retreat routes, and areas Lee’s insubordination. The place where this occurred, called used as field hospitals. In order to interpret the battle, the Point of Woods, had for years been marked by a granite ammunition must be identified as having been fired by boulder with a bronze plaque, courtesy of the Sons of the British, American, or French guns. This, in the case of American Revolution. By finding large concentrations of musket balls, is relatively easy when the musket balls are spent ordnance, the excavation, supported by a rereading of still spherical and their diameters identify the calibers of the the accounts of the battle, proved that the boulder is in fact guns that fired them. But an impacted or chewed musket about two-thirds of a mile west of the actual meeting place. ball can resemble a flattened piece of gum. Battlefield archaeology is a young science—approxi- Avocational archaeologist Dan Sivilich, who has mately two dozen battlefields have been excavated in Amer- worked with Stone at Monmouth for over 10 years, de- ica—but it’s rapidly maturing. veloped a formula whereby the original diameter of a “Historians and historical archaeologists tend not to nonspherical musket ball can be calculated. Sivilich mea- collaborate toward a common research goal,” Haecker sured the diameters and recorded the weights of hundreds noted. of round musket balls, determining that a certain diame- Archaeologists often fail to place their findings within ter equals a certain weight. By weighing a nonspherical a larger historical context while some historians resist the musket ball, he can calculate the original diameter of the notion that archaeology can disprove the written record. ball and then deduce which gun fired it. His formula, But artifacts don’t lie. Battlefield archaeology, Haecker said, used with other archaeological and historical information, is “taking the written data one step further.” enables researchers to conclude that a given cluster of impacted musket balls came from, for example, British ANITA STRATOS is a freelance writer and a member of BRAVO, an Brown Bess muskets, or French Charlevilles (which were amateur archaeological organization excavating Monmouth Battlefield. used by the Americans).

american archaeology 23 A City Searches for

By Michael Bawaya

he top of “A” Mountain affords a superb view of 21st- and retail. There will also be several museums, theaters, an century Tucson, the climax of some 11,000 years of ethno-botanical garden, an equestrian center, an aquarium, local history. Paleo-Indians roamed the area thousands and plenty of parking. Rio Nuevo’s aim is to invigorate the of years ago, hunting giant Ice Age mammals. About downtown area. But as project director John Jones says, T 3,000 years ago, farmers established villages along the “There’s a historical context for everything we’re doing.” banks of the Santa Cruz River. Hohokam villages subse- The Rio Nuevo Master Plan states that “Tucson quently emerged around ballcourts and platform mounds evolved as a community of cultures immediately connected which may have been used for ceremonies. All of these peo- to the mountains, the Sonoran Desert, and its rivers.” It ples were drawn to this riparian oasis at the foot of “A” also notes that Tucson’s population is expected to increase Mountain, which is now called Rio Nuevo. 33 percent during the next 20 years, and the growth of the This birthplace of Tucson will soon undergo a dramatic city has weakened these connections, which the project en- transformation. The city has embarked upon the Rio deavors to strengthen. Nuevo Project, an ambitious 10-year, $320-million down- Toward that end, a dozen or so men and women are town redevelopment that’s expected to accomplish the neat excavating near the base of “A” Mountain (named for the trick of taking Tucson both forward and back. Every day large, volcanic stone “A” placed on its peak by University and every dollar may be necessary, as the multifarious proof Arizona students in 1913), searching for the legacies of ject’s scope ranges from housing and hotels to restaurants past inhabitants. The Rio Nuevo Archaeological Project,

24 summer • 2001 Its Roots

Tucson has undertaken a massive redevelopment project that celebrates its history. An excavation is playing a crucial role in helping the city define its past.

which began last November, is a fundamental component Santa Cruz, immediately to the east, having dried up over of the redevelopment. J. Homer Thiel, a tall, slender, thir- the last 100 years. tyish archaeologist is directing the excavation. Because Over the centuries, the early farmers, the Hohokam, COLBERT Rio Nuevo hosted a number of occupations over the and the Pimans inhabited the site. Between 500 and course of several thousand years, Thiel, who specializes in 1,500 years ago it was the site of a large Hohokam village. C O N N I E the historic period, is assisted by Jonathan Mabry, who In 1697, Father Eusebio Kino, a Spanish explorer and Je- presides over the prehistoric aspect of the excavation. suit priest, found a Pima village here, and in the 1770s Thiel and Mabry are employed by Desert Archaeology, the Spanish established the San Augustín Mission. Thiel Inc., a contract archaeology firm, and they’ve worked to- and his team are excavating the mission complex, which gether for a number of years. once included a convento (a two-story priest’s residence The Rio Nuevo Archaeological Project is often de- and trade school), a chapel, a granary, and other build- scribed as a search for Tucson’s origins. Grand as this en- ings, all of which were surrounded by a wall to protect the deavor sounds, it looks utterly prosaic. The excavation is residents against Indian attacks. The Spanish built a pre- taking place on a barren patch of dirt, once a landfill, sidio on the other side of the river. which Thiel’s team patiently works. In prehistoric times “There was always a division between the church and the land produced corn, beans, and squash, cottonwood, the military,” Thiel explains. mesquite, and willow trees. But now it is desiccated, the The mission was abandoned by the 1840s. Between

american archaeology 25 HIESEY A D R I E L

This aerial photograph of the site shows evidence of historic and prehistoric and a small section of the south wall. Backhoe stripping un- occupations. The 200-year-old compound wall was built upon a more than covered the foundation of the granary, used to store crops 2,000-year-old agricultural village. The circular features bordering the wall during the occupation of the mission. The granary is about are pithouses from the village. 55 feet long and 25 feet wide. Ellen Brennan is strolling around the site, carrying a 1862 and 1880, the chapel collapsed, but the convento white backpack. Brennan is a technician with Geo-Map remained in relatively good condition until the late Inc., the company surveying the site, and her backpack 1890s. Archaeologists had hoped to find the remains of contains a component of a sophisticated Global Positioning the convento’s foundation, but they were destroyed in the System (GPS) that enables her to map the site as she walks 1950s, when the city turned its birthplace into a landfill. it. GPS (which is offered in rental cars to help visitors get In 1982, when the banks of Santa Cruz River were being around in unfamiliar cities) uses satellite timing signals to straightened, three to four feet of dirt was dumped onto pinpoint locations on earth. Its margin of error is a mere the mission site, which may have helped preserve its ar- one to two centimeters. chaeological resources. The archaeologists have plenty of maps. There’s an 1862 field map, various Government Land Office maps, WORKING THE SITE and archaeological maps from previous excavations, not to The workday at the San Augustín Mission site starts at mention a variety of aerial photographs. Geo-Map furnishes 7 A.M.It’s a chilly December morning, and the crew dresses the archaeologists with a master map that incorporates per- in layers. Jackets and sweaters are shed as the day warms. tinent information from all the others. The company can Because of the cold, Thiel, who lives two blocks away, also produce a three-dimensional rendition of the site. catches a ride to the site instead of walking. “Once we gather the data, it’s up to the archaeologists He and his crew are following in the footsteps of other to tell me what they’d like to see and what they need,” says researchers. Minor excavations in 1949, 1950, and 1953 lo- Jim Holmlund, the president of Geo-Map. cated two cemeteries and portions of the wall that enclosed For example, the archaeologists wanted to know pre- the mission. In 1956, William Wasley of the Arizona State cisely where the convento foundation had once been. So Museum led an excavation that uncovered the church and Geo-Map digitized a 1940s aerial photo that showed por- convento foundations, exposing their reddish-orange adobe tions of the foundation as well as landmarks that still exist, brick floors. plotted the locations of the landmarks, and fed this and Thiel began with the hope of finding intact portions of other information into the GPS system, which directed the the mission complex. His crew soon uncovered a portion of archaeologists to the very spot. the stone foundation of the west compound wall, which ex- Though archaeologists are well served by technology, tends for 315 feet. They also found the southwest corner a sharp eye can be as valuable as the most advanced

26 summer • 2001 NC. I G E O - M A P , equipment. Crew chief Allen Denoyer lacks a degree in ar- heads, an iron wok from China. Thiel stands over a nine- chaeology, but he has such an eye, one that can detect the foot-deep well used by Chinese farmers. The railroad, along subtlest differences in the color and texture of the dirt. with the Chinese laborers who laid much of the track, ar- “You train your eyes for what you’re interested in,” he rived in Tucson in 1880. Some of these laborers stayed to says, pointing to a virtually imperceptible change of color farm, renting land from Leopoldo Carrillo, a prominent in the soil. “There are certain characteristics that features Mexican businessman who moved to Tucson in the 1850s. have.” The maker’s marks on bottles found in the well date it to Some days he sees more clearly than others, and the 1880-1900. The marks don’t include dates, but those come light plays a crucial role. courtesy of the book Bottle Makers and Their Marks, which “The angle, the colors; they look different from the Thiel, like any self-respecting bottle collector or historical morning to the afternoon. The middle of the day is best, archaeologist, keeps close at hand. They’ve also found five when the sun is shining straight down. Or if it’s slightly intact soy sauce jugs and about a dozen broken ones, as well overcast, that’s the best of all.” as two wine jars, rice bowls, bone toothbrushes from Denoyer’s skills, which are lauded by the crew, are France, and seafood from the Pacific Ocean in the well. also the result of more than 10 years of experience and a All the artifacts are sorted by material type: ceramics, store of “intuition.” metal, glass, etc. Thiel estimates that two to three years There are times when, examining the dirt, he may will be spent analyzing them, at which point some of the sense a feature that even he can’t see. artifacts will be displayed at local museums, and the rest, “I can feel it,” Denoyer says. “I can’t explain why I along with project notes and photographs, will be curated know it.” at the Arizona State Museum in Tucson for use by future Dan Arnit, the crew’s backhoe operator, has found a researchers. rusted cast-iron cobbler’s anvil, which he holds aloft as if it Digging up Tucson’s history can be exciting, though it were a trophy. The excavation has reclaimed thousands of also has its hazards. artifacts, each speaking of its time and culture, that had “You have to be worried about killer bees, hantavirus, been lost to the earth: two Early Agricultural period scorpions, rattlesnakes, Gila monsters—if you’re stupid knobbed stone trays, Hohokam pot sherds, Piman arrow- enough to grab one,” Thiel observes.

american archaeology 27 # 2 5 3 5 D I V . A Z S O U T H E R N S O C I E T Y , HISTORICAL A R I Z O N A

And then there’s sunstroke and dehydration, the latter being a common problem. What’s even worse than grabbing a Gila monster is cut- ting a utility line. Excavating in the shadow of the city’s sky- line means negotiating gas, electric, and water lines. “In some cases the lines aren’t marked,” he says, “and you discover them with a backhoe.” Fortunately, Arnit, who is renowned for being able to spot archaeological features, has as keen an eye for detecting utility lines. At one point he came dangerously close to striking a 10-inch water main. Had he cut it, the site would have quickly become a wetland.

SOLVING THE MYSTERY OF THE HOHOKAM? Jonathan Mabry, a compact and energetic man who recently turned 40, has been working in archaeology for 25 years. “I’m one of those few people who grew up to be what he wanted to be when he was a kid,” he says. Mabry stands beside an ancient pithouse, a number of which have been found a few feet below the modern surface and a foot below the Spanish-period surface. The culture that built those ancient pithouses hasn’t been officially named because, he says jokingly, “No one has had the

(Top right) San Augustín’s convento, circa 1885. The archaeologists hoped to find the convento’s foundation, but it was destroyed.

(Top) The remains of the mission’s west compound wall, which was one of the first features uncovered by the excavation.

(Above) A reconstructed pithouse and (right) a pithouse foundation. The excavation identified COLBERT 45 pithouses, which are estimated to be as

much as 2,500 years old. C O N N I E

28 summer • 2001 temerity to name it.” But the period, which spans from 3,700 to 1,900 years ago, is called the Early Agricultural and Mabry has temerity enough to informally refer to its people as the first farmers of the Sonoran Desert. “For a long time the big question was, where did the Hohokam people come from,” Mabry says. One theory has it that they migrated from Mexico about 1,500 years ago. Another theory assumes they de- scended from the first farmers. The Hohokam are famous for their irrigation technology, and the discovery of an Early Agricultural canal estimated to be 2,000 to 2,500 years old, one of the oldest found in the United States, suggests a connection between the two peoples. The results of the dating are from a geomorphological study that matched the silt in the canal with the silt of pithouses that were known to have

Homer Thiel holds a celadon-glazed bowl and a stoneware rice wine bottle from China. The artifacts were found in a well used by Chinese farmers.

flooded during that time. A few 3,000-year-old canals have been found several miles north near the Santa Cruz. Identifying the canal is an achievement, but it’s only half of the job. Next comes the “retrodicting.” This word may never find its way into a dictionary, however, that doesn’t stop archaeologists from using it. It is the opposite of predicting; in this case, it means examining the canal to envision how it once functioned. Determining the canal’s size, engineering, and how much water it carried reveals the sophistication of the first farmers’ irrigation technology. With this information the archaeologists can deduce how large and productive the farms were, which in turn suggests the size of the community.

ASSESSING THE DIG The Rio Nuevo Archaeological Project has four major phases. The first phase consisted of testing for Early Agri- cultural villages east of the San Augustín site. Phase two, the San Augustín Mission, ended in February. Phase three, the COLBERT Clearwater site, located north of San Augustín, began in

C O N N I E May. This fall Thiel will lead the final phase, the search for Jonathan Mabry examines a cross section of a Hohokam canal that is esti- the remnants of the presidio, an excavation that will be con- mated to be 700 to 1,200 years old. The Hohokam’s irrigation technology ducted on the lawn of the county courthouse downtown was remarkable. and below a nearby parking lot.

american archaeology 29 A BACKHOE VIRTUOSO The experienced, formally educated, and capable ar- early 1980s Arnit advocated stripping large areas to ex- chaeologists working at Rio Nuevo marvel at the skills pose features. Whereas the standard backhoe blade has of Dan Arnit. Arnit is a backhoe operator, and his job is pointed teeth, Arnit built a flat blade that allowed him to move dirt from the site in order to expose archaeo- to remove dirt without gouging the surface. He began logical features. Southwest ar- with a two-foot-wide blade chaeology has a 50-year-old and has since graduated to an tradition of using construction eight-foot blade. Blunt and equipment, and many backhoe powerful as a backhoe is, it re- operators have worked on ar- quires a delicate touch when chaeological sites, but Arnit is stripping the ground at an ar- highly unusual in that he chaeological site. works exclusively on archaeo- “If you strip too much, logical digs, and that somehow, you can strip a feature away,” from the perch of his machine, says archaeologist Allen he can scrutinize the ground Denoyer. “You say, one more and discern features that elude strip to make it clear, and archaeologists. then it’s gone.” His coworkers are just Arnit’s touch is so delicate short of reverential, calling him that, without disturbing the “a master,” “the best backhoe operator in the state.” feature, he makes it distinct. He “floats” the blade over One could say that Arnit, the owner of Innovative the ground, removing, he says, as little as an eighth of Excavating, Inc., has pioneered new uses of the back- an inch of dirt. hoe in archaeology. “It’s mainly just my eyes and my knowledge,” ex- “I created this style, this type of excavating,” plains Arnit, who has worked archaeological sites for al- he says. most 20 years, despite having no formal training in the COLBERT Backhoes were used to dig trenches, but in the science. —Michael Bawaya C O N N I E The San Augustín dig was a productive one. More than which will include re-creations of the chapel, the convento, 51,000 artifacts were recovered and 45 Early Agricultural and some of the pithouses in their original locations. As few pithouses identified, 21 of which were completely or par- archaeological resources as possible will be disturbed by the tially excavated. Pima artifacts were found in middens—the construction of the center or any other portions of the Rio first Piman artifacts discovered in downtown Tucson. A Nuevo Project. number of Hohokam features were identified, including a “With the remains of a 2,500-year-old village found in large canal estimated to be 700 to 1,200 years old. the same location as the Spanish mission from the 1700s, The dig also succeeded at another of its goals, which Tucson can claim truthfully to be one of the oldest contin- was to engage the public. Forty-two volunteers worked on uously inhabited settlements in the U.S.,” Mabry declares. the excavation, and approximately 2,500 people visited the With many of its residents born elsewhere, Tucson may site. The great majority of them applauded the project, appear to be another example of our mobile, rootless, at though one man wished that they were breaking ground for times disconnected society. But the Rio Nuevo Archaeolog- a new Home Depot. An “open house” was held in early ical Project, at least to a degree, proves otherwise. In addi- February, which drew more than 1,000 visitors. A local tion to his archaeological duties, Thiel is creating a geneal- newspaper mistakenly reported that the event was to begin ogy of everyone who lived in Tucson prior to 1856. An the day before, and “500 people unexpectedly showed up,” archive of images portraying life during the mission period Thiel says. There was one tour guide to direct the crowd. is also being amassed. “It became an unexpected training session for the open “There are some families in Tu cson who can trace their house,” he remarks. “It actually went quite well.” roots back to the original soldiers at the Spanish presidio The results of the fieldwork in this phase of the archae- here,” says Mabry. “There are Native Americans living here ological project, as in the others, informs the redevelopment that can trace back their ancestors two or three thousand planning. The San Augustín site was backfilled in April. years, we’re finding.” The mission foundation and the interiors of all pithouses So much for rootlessness. were covered with a special fabric to protect them. The city plans to build an interpretive center for the mission here, MICHAEL BAWAYA is the editor of American Archaeology.

30 summer • 2001 Summer Travel Special Driving into Prehistory by Tamar Stieber

I was running late, as usual. With Albuquerque 60 miles behind me, I pulled off Tossing hiking boots into my car, I slammed the hatchback westbound Interstate 40 at exit 102. Electronic signs STONE over hastily packed duffel bags filled with clothing and toi- beckoned me to try my luck at the casino to the right. I

W I L L I A M letries. The back seat held notebooks and pens enough to turned left, passing beneath the highway. Ahead lay miles write the Cliffs Notes version of War and Peace, while a dis- of barren, inhospitable-looking country that nonetheless orderly hodgepodge of maps, guidebooks, protein bars, and has sustained the Acoma people for centuries. Nearing water bottles sat next to me up front. Thus I departed from Old Acoma, the road steepened markedly. Taking a hair- my home in Santa Fe, New Mexico, to Albuquerque, pin curve to the left, I found myself looking down into an where I would begin the first loop of a 1,000-mile archae- enormous valley encircled by mesas far in the distance. ological road trip through Indian Country. Closer in, lone sandstone monoliths erupted from the dry My first stop was Acoma Pueblo, inhabited earth like benign red giants from the underworld. This is continuously since at least A.D. 1150. Encompassing indeed sacred country, I thought. 365,000 acres of stark, stunning high desert, the pueblo I arrived at the visitors center in time for the last tour counts approximately 6,000 members, perhaps 30 of of the day. They were closing early for an all-male religious whom reside on the ancient mesa-top village of their an- ceremony on the mesa. Paying $9 for the tour and another cestors—Sky City. A hardy bunch, they live in centuries- $10 to bring my camera, I boarded a shuttle bus which de- old adobe houses without electricity or running water. posited me on the mesa-top in less than five minutes.

A full moon at dusk at Pueblo del Arroyo, in Chaco Culture National Historical Park. The pueblo was built between A.D.1065 and 1140. More than half of it was excavated by the National Geographic Society from 1923 to 1926.

american archaeology 31 ing east as tradition dictates, marked my entry onto the Navajo Reserva- tion—a vast territory encompassing 7,400 square miles across northwest- ern New Mexico and northeastern Arizona. From an elevation of 7,750 feet, I began a slow descent to U.S. 191, where I swung northward to Chinle, just 30 miles away, and then on to the physical, historical, and spiritual center of the Navajo Na- tion, Canyon de Chelly. The Navajo have always called it tseyi—“in the rock.” The Spanish spelled it chegui (shay-GUI or SHAY- gui), which American settlers later anglicized to “de Chelly” (d-SHAY). The name may vary, but Canyon de Chelly’s steep red sandstone cliffs have probably changed very little since humans first settled there about 2,000 years ago. Reaching 1,000 feet up at the far end of the canyon, these walls protect 1,000-year-old cliff ACKA dwellings and tell tales of the site’s J E R R Y earliest inhabitants through petro- J Unlike those at most pueblos, the kivas at Acoma Pueblo are above ground and are entered glyphs and pictographs. from the roof. Ladders provide the means of entry. After a comfortable night’s sleep at the Thunderbird Lodge—an A short, squat man with large aviator glasses and a droll manner met the bus. He elegantly rustic motel located inside introduced himself as Orlando Antonio, one of the 30 mesa-top residents. the park just beyond the visitors Citing facts and figures as he walked, Antonio led us through dirt streets to center—and a breakfast of huevos San Esteban del Rey, a 360-year-old Spanish mission that took 11 years and, ac- rancheros at the lodge’s buffet-style cording to Antonio, hundreds of Acoma lives to build. As we approached the restaurant, I walked to the gift shop grounds, Antonio requested that we take no pictures of the mission or the ceme- next door, the meeting place for a tery fronting it. He also asked me not to take notes inside the mission itself. $37 half-day guided tour of the “It’s oral history,” he stated, offering no further explanation. canyon. I was accompanied by the Antonio related a bitter history of subjugation by the Spanish going back to guide supervisor, David Bia. 1599, when Don Juan de Oñate sent a military expedition to avenge the death of Over the next four hours, we his nephew, which occurred a year earlier. Oñate ordered the pueblo destroyed, stopped at a dozen different sites in survivors enslaved, and one foot hacked off all men over 25. Reconstruction the canyon—really several canyons of came with Father Juan Ramírez, who arrived from Spain in 1629 to oversee con- which Canyon de Chelly on the struction of the cavernous adobe mission. Pointing to the enormous log vigas on south and Canyon del Muerto to the the ceiling, Antonio noted that his ancestors carried those and all other building north are the largest and most trav- materials up the steep slopes of the mesa—an unimaginable labor. eled. Bia, a Navajo, first showed us Back on I-40, I drove through Grants and across the Continental Divide en examples of Basketmaker (200 B.C.– route to my next stop, Canyon de Chelly National Monument. A.D. 750) and Puebloan (A.D. 750– Heading northwest to Chinle, Arizona, I said adíos to New Mexico at Window 1300) rock art, including a figure- Rock as the waning sun cast a warm-hued gamut of colors upon the sandstone. eight he described as an “Anasazi A moonless night cloaked the alpine beauty of Defiance Plateau en route calendar” and a hump-backed flute to Ganado and Hubbell Trading Post, where I would return in daylight. As I player. drove into a darkening forest, the octagonal outline of a log hogan, its door fac- In Canyon del Muerto, Bia

32 summer • 2001 A Navajo pictograph panel at Standing Cow Ruin at Canyon de Chelly National Monument. The panel depicts the musket-bearing Spanish cavalry of the Narbona expedition (1804–1805).

work on bridge tables conveniently, if incon- gruously, set up in front of the ruin. With Hubbell Trading Post next on the agenda, I kept my wallet safely tucked away. Though designated a “national historic site,” the 122-year-old Hubbell Trading Post is still an active marketplace. The main trading area, called the “bullpen,” looks very much today as it did a century ago. Every surface is covered with all manner of provisions: food, fabric, and feed; housewares, hardware, and harnesses. What doesn’t fit on counters and shelves hangs from the ceiling. The “Jewelry Room” features a large, if disorderly, selection of Navajo silver and turquoise as well as pottery, basketry, fetishes, and other trinkets costing anywhere from a few bucks to a few grand. A third room displays an eye-popping array of hand-woven Navajo rugs spread out on the floor, draped over tables, hanging on walls, and folded in piles. My sole purchase was a book about the trading post to fill in the gaps left after a free guided tour of founder John Lorenzo Hubbell’s

pointed out Ledge Ruin, a two-story cliff dwelling the ACKA J Puebloans built more than 900 years ago, and Ante- E R R Y

J lope House and Standing Cow ruins, centuries-old pueblos named for the pictographs Navajo artists painted there. The Navajo first settled in Canyon de Chelly in the 1700s following three centuries of an intermittent Hopi presence. They found fertile earth and refuge from enemies, the latter for only a short time. A mural painted above Standing Cow depicts the 1805 massacre of more than 100 men, women, and children by Spanish soldiers. Our last stop was White House, the largest and best-preserved site in the canyon. Built between A.D. 1060 and 1275, White House is really two sepa- rate structures—a cliff house with 21 rooms and a 60-room pueblo on the canyon floor. Artifacts indicate it supported up to 12 families at its peak. Today, it supports a small group of jewelers who display their

Framed rug designs embellish the wall in the rug room JACKA at Hubbell Trading Post. The designs were used by early

J E R R Y salesmen to help their customers choose a commissioned rug.

american archaeology 33 Verde was once wild, forbidding country offering defense as well as food and shelter. Today, it’s the most visited archaeological landmark in the country, with paved roads and groomed trails welcoming millions of visitors from around the world. I began my self-guided tour at the visitors center and museum, behind which begins the half-mile trail to the 13th-century ruin called Spruce Tree House. The third largest cliff dwelling in the park and the least restored, Spruce Tree House contains 114 rooms and eight kivas, including the single kiva at Mesa Verde accessible to visitors. A 25¢ trail guide (free if returned) directed my attention to various features including patches of plaster, smoke stained ceilings, and remnants of a balcony. I would learn more about Anasazi architecture on the six-mile Mesa Top Ruins Loop, a self-guided driving tour with 10 stops showing a 700-year progression of building styles beginning with the earliest pithouses to the increasingly sophisti-

cated masonry of the 12th century. STONE I hoped to visit Cliff Palace, the largest cliff dwelling in North Ameri- W I L L I A M Far View House, in Mesa Verde National Park,was first excavated by Smithsonian ca, and Balcony House, a challenging archaeologist Jesse Walter Fewkes in 1916. It once contained 50 rooms. ranger-led hike involving a 60-foot vertical climb on ladders and steps art-filled residence next door. Untouched since the last of his descendants left in carved into the cliff face. But with no the 1960s, the house is a veritable time capsule that reveals the old man’s heart vacancies at the park’s magnificent Far and spirit—both highly esteemed by his Navajo clients. View Lodge—150 balconied rooms I handed my book to a man behind a raised wooden counter. Without say- providing 100-mile views instead of ing a word, he opened it and started scribbling. televisions and telephones—I fore- “Um, excuse me, are you writing in my book?” I asked with some alarm. went a second day at Mesa Verde. In- “There’s a picture of me,” he said, nonchalantly flipping to page 75. In- stead, I pressed on to Durango, an deed, there he was behind the very same counter. His inscription read, “Enjoy hour’s drive west into the foothills of Navajo land. Bill Malone, Trader H. T. P. ” the San Juan National Forest. Back at the Thunderbird Lodge, I thumbed through The Teaching of Bud- Once a rough-and-tumble little dha, which I found in the nightstand alongside the Gideons’ Bible. The next mining town, Durango today boasts morning found me traveling north to Mesa Verde National Park, gourmet cuisine, designer coffee, art for seven centuries the home of ancestral Pueblo Indians. The drive, which was galleries, and the Durango Mountain less than three hours, took me from the chiseled red sandstone and multi-hued ski resort, a.k.a. Purgatory. Still, the gorges of canyonland to mountains layered with ponderosa pine. Upon arriv- city manages to retain its Old West ing, I handed $10 to a park ranger, and, with a seven-day ticket in hand, I em- character despite encroaching gentrif- barked on a 21-mile scenic drive up the mesa. ication and a steady influx of skiers Located between Cortez and Mancos in southwestern Colorado, Mesa who consistently vote it one of the

34 summer • 2001 SPARKES K A T H L E E N country’s top ski towns. Durango owes much of its charm Valley. I passed Navajo hogans, Ute and Jicarilla Apache and popularity to the 120-year-old Durango & Silverton tipis, and temporary brush shelters called wickiups, a Bas- Narrow Gauge Railroad—a coal-fired, steam-powered lo- ketmaker period pithouse, a clay horno (oven), and a comotive that still wends its way through the San Juan Na- locked trading post. tional Forest on its original tracks. Although I didn’t ride The ruins were far more extensive, requiring a trail the train this go-around, the back of my lodgings—the guide to navigate a maze of dirt pathways over and Jarvis Suite Hotel, which is listed on the National Register around excavated chambers. I stopped at 22 stations, of Historic Places—faced the train depot. The train’s 7 A.M. starting at a 410-foot-long wall with some of its second- whistle provided my morning wake-up call. story masonry still intact and ending at the pueblo’s great I left Durango reluctantly, wanting to peruse the old kiva. Even without a roof or innards, the kiva’s sheer scale bookstores and antique shops. But I followed the call of dimension and precision inspired awe. of the Anasazi to the site of their cultural pinnacle— I peered into room after roofless room, many origi- Chaco Canyon in New Mexico. En route, I stopped at nally built as squares and later converted by the Mesa Salmon Ruins on U.S. 64 between Farmington Verde to round chambers for use as kivas. From above, and Bloomfield. these concentric rooms looked like hollow round pegs Named for the homesteading family that protected the squeezed into tight square boxes. They also showed a ruins from looters for nearly a century, Salmon Ruins is a marked difference in masonry methods. The Chacoans Chaco outlier built between A.D. 1088 and 1094. The two- mastered an elegant core-and-veneer style in which an story pueblo contained at least 175 rooms and eight kivas, overlay of carefully chosen and shaped stones covered a making it one of the largest of all outlying Chaco colonies. core of sandstone rubble and mortar. Mesa Verde builders Archaeologists estimate that 200 to 250 Chacoans lived utilized a simpler, but plainer, double-course masonry here, but only until about A.D. 1130. Fifty years later, mi- that emphasized function over form. grating Mesa Verde Indians occupied the site en route to Passing through a surviving second-story doorway, the Rio Grande. By A.D. 1285, they, too, were gone. itself a rarity, I arrived at the “Tower Kiva”—an above- A $3 entrance fee bought me access to the ruins and ground, Chacoan-built ceremonial chamber with walls “Heritage Park”—a series of life-sized outdoor exhibits 12-feet high and 6-feet thick. A unique network of cob- representing all cultures, past and present, of the San Juan blestone foundations and wooden and stone buttresses

american archaeology 35 the wind blows, you can hear the whispers of an ancient civilization that flourished here for 300 years, and all but disappeared by A.D. 1150. But their complex culture and achievements live on through their architecture and their descendants, today’s Pueblo Indians. The best way to see Chaco is on a ranger-led tour. None was available the day of my visit, so I followed a four-hour, self-guided tour. Driving a nine-mile loop of paved road to each trailhead, I walked through the ruins of four great houses—massive, multistoried, masonry buildings containing hundreds of rooms and enor-

mous enclosed plazas. STONE At the trailhead for the largest,

longest occupied, and most cele- W I L L I A M Salmon Ruins is a 300-room pueblo that was purchased for preservation by San Juan County in 1968. brated Chacoan great house, I grabbed a trail guide from a box near supported the structure. According to an account in the trail guide, which the road and walked the 0.3-mile some archaeologists dispute, they also bore the weight of a tragic event. During gravel trail to Pueblo Bonito. The the Mesa Verde period, circa A.D. 1263, a fire broke out in a nearby room, park service describes Pueblo Bonito, spreading out of control. Thirty-five young children and two adults fled to the occupied from A.D. 850 to the mid- kiva rooftop for safety, but it collapsed. All perished in temperatures reaching 1200s, as the “core of the Chacoan 1,500 degrees Fahrenheit—hot enough that it fused sand into glass. I felt a complex” and “center of the Chacoan chill down my spine as I stared into the empty roundness—a feeling I would world.” I initially took this for hyper- experience again at Chaco Canyon. bole. But I changed my mind as I I left Farmington early the next morning, tuning in Navajo radio for my stood on a hill overlooking the ruins 65-mile journey (45 miles as the crow flies) to Chaco Culture National of a four-story structure with more Historical Park. In the east, Angel Peak watched over me from 6,880 feet than 600 rooms and 40 kivas. It was as I drove south on N.M. 44. A distant mesa loomed tall and hypnotic, piercing breathtaking. And it was a hard act pastel skies of blue and mauve. It remained a focal point as I arrived at the Chaco to follow. While the other great Canyon visitors center—a 21-mile drive from the highway, most of it on rocky houses—Hungo-Pavi, Chetro Ketl, dirt roads that turn to mud when it rains. Call the park for road conditions. and Pueblo del Arroyo—have a fasci- Inside the visitors center, I learned it was Fajada (banded) Butte that so cap- nation all their own, to my eyes they tured my attention. Rising more than 300 feet above the canyon floor, the im- seemed anticlimactic after the scale posing sandstone landmark served as a Chacoan solstice marker that measured and grandeur of Pueblo Bonito. the movement of light and shadow to keep track of the summer and winter sol- Among my favorite spots is stices and spring and fall equinoxes. Sunlight filtering through three upright Casa Rinconada, one of Chaco’s five stone slabs would cast daggers of light on two spiral petroglyphs carved into the great kivas and, at 20 meters in di- cliff face. These “sun daggers” moved along various points of the spirals as the ameter and 5 meters deep, one of seasons changed. Sadly, the Chacoan “calendar” is no longer accurate; the slabs the largest anywhere. Like most have shifted slightly in recent years due to foot traffic, hence the park’s decision great kivas, Casa Rinconada’s fea- to bar human access. tures—firebox and deflectors, floor But there’s much else to see, not least of which is the beauty and serenity vaults, seating pits, antechamber, of the canyon itself. Located in a remote area of the San Juan Basin, Chaco and entryway—follow a north-south Canyon is a shallow, 15-mile gorge bisected lengthwise by the mostly dry axis. But here, they’re aligned to one Chaco Wash. Its red cliffs cast giant, craggy shadows on the earth, adding to degree of true north, a remarkable the mystery of a place still considered sacred by many Native Americans. When precision found throughout Chaco

36 summer • 2001 Canyon and the amazing network of roads connecting it to outlying communities. I was looking forward to sitting inside the kiva, having found it a wonder- fully contemplative experience on previous occasions. Sadly, the interior was closed to visitors this time. Leaving the canyon, I reflected on a recent conversation with an elderly friend who visited Chaco a few years ago—the first time since moving to New Mexico in the 1930s. Uncharacteristically, she found herself so unnerved by its ancient secrets that she was unable to walk through the ruins. I felt a mere glimmer of it myself. But unlike my friend, it will draw me back again and again. STONE TAMAR STIEBER is a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer

W I L L I A M who loves to visit archaeological sites. The sun rises over the great kiva at Chetro Ketl in Chaco Canyon. This subter- ranean room, which is over 60 feet wide, was used for ceremonial purposes. When You Go...

ACOMA TOURIST CENTER to 5 P.M. the rest of the year. Far View Visitor Center HOURS • Open November through March from 8 A.M. open from 8 A.M. to 5 P.M. mid-April to mid-October. to 4:30 P.M., April through October from 8 A.M. to (970) 529-4465 FEES • Admission is $10 per vehicle, 7 P.M. The last tour is one hour before closing. good for seven days. Ranger-guided tours free for some (800) 747-0181 FEES • Tour: $9 for adults, $8 for sites; $2 per person for Cliff Palace, Balcony House, or seniors, $6 for children. Photo privileges: $10. Long House. LODGINGS • (In Mesa Verde) Far View Lodge (970) 529-4421; (In Cortez, 45 minutes away) CANYON DE CHELLY Comfort Inn (970) 565-3400, Holiday Inn Express HOURS • Visitor center open daily from 8 A.M.to 5 P.M. (970) 565-6000 October to April, 8 A.M. to 6 P.M. May to September. (520) 674-5500 FEES • Admission is free. Thunderbird SALMON RUINS Lodge Canyon Tours: Half day $39 for adults, $30 for HOURS • Open daily 9 a.m to 5 P.M.In winter, children; full day (includes lunch) $63 all ages. (November through March), Sunday hours are noon to LODGINGS • (In Canyon de Chelly) Thunderbird 5 P.M. (505) 632-2013 FEES • $3 adults; $2 seniors; Lodge (520) 674-5841; (In Chinle, five minutes away) $1 children 6–16; free for children under 6. Holiday Inn Canyon de Chelly (520) 674-5000 CHACO CANYON HUBBELL TRADING POST HOURS • Visitor center open daily from 8 A.M. to 6 P.M. HOURS: • Open daily 8 A.M. to 6 P.M. in summer, Memorial Day through Labor Day, 8 A.M. to 5 P.M. the 8 A.M. to 5 P.M. the rest of the year. Free ranger-guided rest of the year. Sites and trails open from sunrise to sun- tour of residence and grounds. (520) 755-3475 set. (505) 786-7014 FEES • Admission is $4 per individual or $8 per vehicle, good for seven days. MESA VERDE LODGINGS • (In Chaco Canyon) Camping only; HOURS • Park open daily year-round, though some (In Farmington, two hours away) Holiday Inn sites close in winter. Chapin Mesa Museum open from of Farmington (505) 327-9811, La Quinta Inn 8 A.M. to 6:30 P.M. mid-April to mid-October, 8 A.M. (505) 327-4706

american archaeology 37 new acquisition

Howiri Pueblo Saved from Development The site links prehistoric people of Chaco Canyon with modern Tewa-speaking pueblos and marks the agreement that shaped today’s cultural resource management.

fter nearly 20 years of negotiations with the primary landowner, the Conservancy has signed an option to purchase 22 acres containing most of Howiri Pueblo, a large two-story village located in northern A New Mexico and occupied between the mid-15th and early 16th centuries. The site is part of a private subdivision developed in the early 1960s. By purchasing the property, the Conservancy will prevent homes from being built on it. Howiri Pueblo, derived from the Tewa meaning “Gray Point Pueblo Ruin,” is the northernmost of several villages termed “Biscuit Ware” pueblos that were built during a period of relatively rapid population expansion in the lower Chama Valley of northern New Mexico. These settlements are named for their distinctive prehistoric biscuit ware pottery that resembles unglazed vitreous china, which is also called biscuit ware. Archaeological pioneer Adolph Bandelier first reported Howiri in 1892, when his explorations of the Southwest led him to the area. During the height of its occupation (approximately A.D. 1450–1525), Howiri boasted more than 1,700 rooms and an estimated peak population of about 1,300 people. Howiri and the other

lower Rio Chama pueblos were the last settlements occu- O

pied by the prehistoric Tewa people before Europeans EXIC M arrived in the mid-16th century. N E W

“The prehistoric occupation of Howiri Pueblo O F bridges two important events and two geographical

areas,” says Tim Maxwell, director of the Museum of M U S E U M New Mexico’s Office of Archaeological Studies in Santa These postholes and walls were exposed during an excavation of Howiri Fe. “Temporally, it was occupied between the abandon- Pueblo in 1978–1979 by archaeologists at the Museum of New Mexico. ment of Chaco Canyon and the establishment of the modern pueblos, while geographically, it sits between Pueblo. According to Maxwell, Howiri’s location and Chaco in the San Juan Basin of northwest New Mexico, period of occupation have long led researchers to reflect and today’s Tewa pueblos along the Rio Grande in cen- upon the relationship between the modern pueblos and tral New Mexico.” the prehistoric people of the San Juan Basin. Prior to the Howiri Pueblo is considered the ancestral home of 13th century, when Chaco was in full force, research in the Tewa people who now reside at nearby San Juan the lower Chama Valley indicates that the area was either

38 summer • 2001 appearance of nomadic raiders, inter-village Conservancy warfare, or the wide- Plan of Action spread drought of the late 16th century in SITE: Howiri Pueblo the Chama Valley. CULTURE and TIME PERIOD: According to the oral Ancestral Puebloan (Classic period, history of the Tewa ca. A.D. 1325–1600) communities of San STATUS: The Conservancy has an Juan and Santa Clara, option to purchase 17 lots (22 acres) prehistoric peoples liv- containing most of the site. ing in the Chama Val- ACQUISITION: The Conservancy has ley generally migrated already been awarded a $100,000 east to join some of the challenge grant by an anonymous existing pueblos along donor. We still need to raise $134,700 the Rio Grande, where for the remainder of the purchase conditions were more price plus preservation costs. favorable. By A.D. HOW YOU CAN HELP: Please send your 1600, the Chama Val- ley pueblos were no contributions to The Archaeological longer occupied. Conservancy, Attn:Howiri Pueblo Howiri is also sig- Project, 5301 Central Ave. NE, Suite nificant for triggering 402, Albuquerque NM 87108. L the inception of high-

MICHE way salvage archaeol- ment bulldozed a portion of the

M A R K ogy in the early 1950s, pueblo in order to reroute U.S. a legacy of archaeolog- 285, public and governmental con- Jim Walker (left), southwest regional director, and Steve Koczan, south- ical investigation and cern led the highway department to west regional site maintenance coordinator, examine artifacts at Howiri. protection that quickly reach an agreement with the became the model for Museum of New Mexico to exca- unoccupied or was populated by the rest of the nation. In 1952, vate the damaged portion of the site non-Puebloan groups. There is evi- when the New Mexico State High- and recover what information they dence of Pueblo peoples establishing way and Transportation Depart- could. This agreement was a precur- small settlements in this area in sor of the Federal-Aid Highway Act the mid-13th century, a few of 1956, which mandated archaeo- decades after the decline of logical salvage in areas affected by Chaco. The lower Chama Valley highway construction. reached its peak population dur- Between 1978 and 1979, ing the Classic period (A.D. 1325– prior to the widening of U.S. 285, 1600), at which time villages in Museum of New Mexico researchers this area became quite large. The excavated portions of Howiri, number of inhabitants abruptly which were subsequently backfilled declined shortly after A.D. 1500, and preserved. The project revealed when evidence points to the a great deal of information about hasty abandonment of several Howiri’s occupational history and large villages. its relationship to nearby prehistoric Researchers have proposed settlements, confirming the site’s various reasons for the area’s importance and its tremendous abandonment and the subse- research potential. quent settlement in the Rio —Tamara Stewart Grande Valley, such as the

american archaeology 39 new acquisition Arizona Real Estate Development Company Donates Hohokam Site

This prehistoric agricultural complex demonstrates the Hohokam’s ingenuity.

ust north of Phoenix a 5,700- acre residential community, Anthem, is being developed by the Del Webb Corporation. JWhen completed, the development may have up to 14,000 homes. Within the community is a unique Hohokam agricultural site, which Del Webb has donated to the Conservancy. Constructed during the Seden- tary period (A.D. 900–1100), the

26-acre Anthem preserve, which CONSULTANTS extends for one-half mile along the New River, contains 171 features, which were documented by archaeologists working for SWCA Envi- ENVIRONMENTAL

ronmental Consultants. S W C A The features showcase a number These rocks were the foundation of a Hohokam agricultural building. of the agricultural innovations that allowed the Hohokam to build thriving communities in the harsh A management plan is being desert environment of the Phoenix formulated that will give the basin’s northern periphery. community’s residents the Those innovations include canals, opportunity to work as site checkdams, and rock alignments stewards and as docents leading designed to divert, transport, and tours of the preserve. conserve runoff water, as well as Anthem is the Conservancy’s cobble terraces and rock piles. 18th preserve in Arizona. The The archaeologists have also identi- donation demonstrates one of the fied several artifact concentrations, founding principals of the Con- which may mark the locations servancy: Preservation of cultural of buried habitation structures. resources can be achieved Although many Hohokam villages, without compromising develop- habitations, and structures have ment. In recognition of their been identified and studied over actions, Del Webb was given the years, it is rare to find intact a prestigious Arizona Heritage agricultural systems of the sort Preservation Honor Award by the Anthem possesses. Arizona Preservation Foundation The Conservancy is working and the Arizona Historic Preserva- with Del Webb to integrate the pre- tion Office. —Jim Walker serve into the Anthem community.

40 summer • 2001 new acquisition Conservancy Member Donates Easement Protecting Northern New Mexico Petroglyph Site

The site is famous for its variety of images.

lack Mesa is a major geological formation just north of San Juan Pueblo in northern New Mexico that overlooks the Rio BGrande. Located along Black Mesa’s eastern slope is the Wells petroglyph site, which contains more than 6,000 petroglyphs meticulously carved into its massive basalt boulders. Dating from Archaic (5500 B.C.) to historic times, the form and style of the glyphs vary greatly, with

ELLS most corresponding to the Clas- W sic or Pueblo IV cultural period (A.D. 1325–1600), when the area’s

K A T H E R I N E inhabitants built large villages along the upper Rio Grande and its tribu- This basalt boulder at the Wells petroglyph site has various glyphs, including a shield (left), and several taries, and rock art reached its flores- geometric figures. cence. During this period, the Black Mesa area is believed to have been a 1992 by longtime Conservancy center of ceremonial activity for the member Katherine Wells. She nom- Tewa populations of Oke’Oweenge inated the site to the National Reg- (present-day San Juan Pueblo), ister of Historic Places. the large prehistoric Pfioge Pueblo “Once I realized how impor- across the river, the nearby pueblos tant the site was to the area’s his- of Santa Clara and San Ildefonso, tory, I became very concerned and smaller neighboring settlements. about its protection,” Wells says. The site is famous for its many Virtually all of the land con- shield images and its remarkable taining the petroglyphs is privately number of flute-playing animals, owned and could be used for boul- more of which have been docu- der and gravel mining. Her concern mented at this site than at any for the site prompted Wells to other in the United States. Historic contact the Conservancy and create images and inscriptions, which are a conservation easement that would rare at other petroglyph sites in the protect the property from future central Rio Grande region, are also development, mining, and grazing. abundant at the Wells site. Spanish Wells plans to donate the remain- settlers, who moved into the region der interest to the Conservancy in 1598, created much of the his- as a bequest. —Tamara Stewart toric rock art along the mesa. The land was purchased in

american archaeology 41 new POINT acquisitions Saving a Late Mississippian Town

The Parchman Place site may help researchers answer questions about the Mississippians.

tanding on the top of the massive platform mound at the Parchman Place site, the hum of tractor engines is distinctly audi- Sble as farmers till cotton fields as far as the eye can see. This is the heart of the Mississippi Delta, and the fertile soils that are farmed today drew Indians here around A.D. 1400. The Mississippian people were the first to intensively farm this land, and they also constructed these enormous mounds, one basket load at a time. The Parchman Place site was a large Late Mississippian period town dominated by three large platform mounds, the largest of which was GRUBER tiered, and towered about 20 feet A L A N over the plaza. Thatched-roof houses Mound A, which is approximately 20 feet high and covers more than an acre, is the largest of Parchman with walls of wattle and daub sur- Place’s three mounds. rounded the plaza. Although the site is on the National Register of Historic Places there in the late 1960s and ‘70s and close to the point where the Her- and has been known to archaeolo- you could find chunks of daub as nando de Soto expedition crossed gists for years as the type site of the big as your head. The surface was the Mississippi River in 1541, it Parchman Phase, it has never been littered with daub and burned food could answer questions about the professionally excavated. Much of remains so that you could see where collapse of the Mississippian cul- what we know about Parchman has each house stood,” states Conna- ture. Was the Mississippian world been gained either through profes- way. “Unfortunately, since then, a brought to ruin by the introduction sional surface reconnaissance or lot of deep plowing has occurred, of European pathogens by de Soto’s from excavation of other Parchman which has obscured those locations, party, as many scholars believe? Phase sites. Archaeologist John Con- but the evidence of the houses When was the Parchman site aban- naway of the Mississippi Depart- should be there under the surface.” doned and where did its people go? ment of Archives and History has The Parchman site was pur- This site, the Conservancy’s third been interested in the site since the chased at a substantial discount preserve in Mississippi, may help late 1960s. from owner Joe Noe, who preserved solve these mysteries. “It’s a wonderful site. I went out it. As a late prehistoric site located —Alan Gruber

42 summer • 2001 The Conservancy Acquires a Rare Agricultural Site

Prehistoric garden beds are saved from destruction.

n the Eastern Woodlands after A.D. 1000, agriculture formed the basis of most Native American economies. However, the rich I archaeological record of the Late Prehistoric period is made up mostly of habitation and ceremonial sites. Agricultural sites such as the White Potato Lake garden beds in Oconto County, Wisconsin, are particularly rare. The White Potato Lake site consists of a roughly two-acre expanse of raised garden beds.

GARDNER The individual beds are about 8 to

P A U L 12 inches high and about two to three feet wide. They vary widely in length from approximately 5 feet to Though the Late Prehistoric period has a rich archaeological record, White Potato Lake is one of the few 40 feet. Their arrangement is quite known agricultural sites of this time. chaotic: Rows of beds run parallel for some distance, then wildly veer portion of his land to the Conser- “I never knew they were there off at a sharp angle. Though rare, vancy. Fortunately, the POINT pro- when I bought the property,” said more of these prehistoric ject funds were available to make Parins of the garden beds. “I’m glad garden beds are found in eastern the purchase, and Parins’s generous we were able to preserve them Wisconsin than anywhere else. bargain-sale-to-charity allowed him before the houses go in.” The Conservancy acquired the to receive a tax deduction. —Paul Gardner garden beds due to archaeologist Janet Speth of the Neville Museum in Green Bay and landowner Randy Parins. Speth saw a land rezoning notification in the Oconto newspaper, and knowing that the land contained the garden beds, she arranged a meeting between Parins and the Conservancy. Parins was planning a residential development on his property. When he learned that his land contained the garden beds and that they would be threatened by the development, he decided to sell that

american archaeology 43 CONSERV ANCY FieldNotes

erosion and vandalism. In October Brewer Stabilization Completed 2000, Conservancy personnel SOUTHWEST—Last fall, the Con- mapped and photographed these servancy completed the stabilization areas, and volunteers helped backhoe of portions of Brewer Canyon operators fill the rooms with dirt and Pueblo, located within the Brewer reseed the areas with native grasses. Archaeological District near Dove The Conservancy is preparing an Creek in southwestern Colorado. educational display about the Brewer The Conservancy established the Archaeological District that will be 120-acre district as a permanent pre- permanently located in Dolores serve in March 2000 with the assis- County, and another display that will tance of a State Historical Fund travel between the Dove Creek Com- grant awarded by the Colorado munity Bank, Crow Canyon Archaeo- Historical Society. logical Center in Cortez, and the The Brewer Archaeological Anasazi Heritage Center near Dolores. District includes two large prehistoric villages, Brewer Mesa Pueblo and The Conservancy Adds to Its Brewer Canyon Pueblo, forming the center of a Mesa Verde community Old Cahawba Preserve

that existed for nearly 300 years be- SOUTHEAST—The Conservancy ALKER W

tween about A.D. 1000 and 1300 (see has acquired four additional tracts of J I M “Changing Centers of Village Life” A backhoe delivers a load of dirt as Steve land totaling about 14 acres to add to in the Fall 1999 issue of American Koczan, southwest regional site maintenance the Old Cahawba Preserve near Archaeology). With their dense concen- coordinator, spreads the fill by hand. Selma, Alabama. These acquisitions, trations of residential buildings and which include the Bonning, Easters, massive, multistoried structures with As part of the preservation Tatum, and Zito tracts, preserve great kivas and plazas, researchers project, the Conservancy fenced the much of the old town’s frontage on believe that both Brewer Mesa and preserve and nominated the pueblos the Cahawba River and the location Brewer Canyon Pueblos were commu- to the Colorado State Register of of the toll bridge that once connected nity centers. Brewer Canyon Pueblo is Historic Properties. A management Cahawba to Selma. These tracts are considered one of the best preserved committee designed a long-term site also expected to include a variety of examples of a canyonhead village management plan for the preserve prehistoric occupations dating back site that was occupied in the period that addressed security, erosion con- as far as the Archaic period. immediately preceding the general trol, and opportunities for public ed- Cahawba is best known for migration of prehistoric peoples from ucation. Four rooms and two kivas being Alabama’s first state capital the Mesa Verde region in the early of Brewer Canyon Pueblo that had from 1820 to 1826. Cahawba grew 14th century. been looted years ago were prone to into an important cotton shipping

44 summer • 2001 A sample of historical artifacts recovered from the Old Cahawba site. Cahawba was Alabama’s first capital.

center and one of Alabama’s largest and wealthiest towns. But the Civil War, a continuing series of eco- nomic setbacks, and a major flood spelled doom for Cahawba. By the mid-1870s, the once-prosperous burg had become a ghost town. Since 1995, the Conservancy has acquired over 300 DERRY acres of Cahawba including prehistoric sites, unique his-

L I N D A torical ruins, and the last two remaining original struc- O F tures in the town. The Conservancy plans to transfer the four recently acquired parcels to the Alabama Historical

C O U R T E S Y Commission for inclusion in the Old Cahawba State Park. Fieldwork Opportunities The Hohokam Experience—Kids’ Archaeology Summer Camps June and July, Pueblo Grande Museum, Phoenix, Arizona. Kids ages 6–14 learn about the Hohokam and other prehistoric people of the Southwest through hands-on craft activities, storytelling,games, and tours of museum exhibits and prehistoric ruins. Call (602) 495-0901 to register. Abbe Museum’s Field School July 8–13, Bar Harbor,Maine. This year’s field school will explore the Conant site on the Androscoggin River near Farmington, an important late 17th- to Excavating the Internet mid-18th-century Native American site discovered by an Abbe Museum STRATEGIES FOR PROTECTING researcher last year. No previous archaeological experience is necessary. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES Participants will learn to use field excavation techniques, recover data, and ON PRIVATE LANDS identify archaeological materials, and will attend daily lectures on Maine’s http://www2.cr.nps.gov/pad/strategies prehistory, botany, and geology. Contact the museum at (207) 288-3519 or An invaluable resource guide with practical information and case studies on archaeo- e-mail [email protected]. logical site protection. Funded in part by a Lake George Battlefield Park Field School Cultural Resources Training Initiative grant July 16–August 24, Lake George, New York. Participate in excavations at Fort from the National Park Service, and George, a late-18th-century fort located near the site of the Battle of Lake administered by the staff of the Society for George, which took place between French and British forces in 1755. Call American Archaeology. David Starbuck at (518) 494-5583 for more information. THE H.L. HUNLEY EXCAVATION www.hunley.org This site offers a wealth Archaeology Summer Camp for Adults of information about the history,recovery, July 23–27, Arizona State Museum, Tucson, Arizona. Work in the museum’s and excavation of the Civil War submarine. research laboratory alongside scholars and curators as they analyze artifacts The excavation photos are frequently recovered from the Homolovi Ruins site, an ancestral Hopi site in Arizona. updated. Hunley merchandise can be For more information call Darlene Lizarraga at (520) 626-8381. purchased on-line. Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center’s THE FORT ST. LOUIS ARCHEOLOGICAL PROJECT Field and Lab Experience www.thc.state.tx.us Follow the work of the July 30–August 3, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse. Spend three days work- Texas Historical Commission’s archaeolo- ing with professional archaeologists at a site in the La Crosse area, followed gists as they uncover artifacts from the first by two days of lab work. The program provides training in archaeological field European colony in Texas, Fort St. Louis. The and laboratory techniques. No previous experience is necessary. Registration site provides a history of the colony,a video deadline is the end of June. Call (608) 785-8454 for more information about journal of the archaeologists’ discoveries, this and other MVAC summer archaeology programs. and the opportunity to visit the Fort St. Louis Public Archeology Laboratory.

american archaeology 45 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSERVANCY

Celebrating The Wonders of Oaxaca OAXACA Ceramics When: October 26–November 4, 2001 MASTER POTTERS Where: Oaxaca, Mexico OF THE How Much: $1,895 ($250 single supplement) SOUTHERN DESERTS Join us in Oaxaca, located in a semitropical valley sur- When: October 5–15, 2001 rounded by the peaks of the Sierra Madre del Sur. In ad- Where: Southern Arizona, dition to taking part in Day of the Dead festivities, our Southern New Mexico, and tour explores the ancient Mixtecan and Zapotecan ar- Northern Mexico chaeological sites in the region, including Mitla, Monte How Much: $1,995 ($350 sin- Albán, Zaachila, and Dainzú. You’ll travel to several gle supplement) crafts villages, where you’ll find exquisite weaving, pot- This new tour explores the ce- tery, carved animals, and other local art. Throughout the ramic traditions and cultures tour you’ll have opportunities to explore the city of Oax- of the Hohokam, Mimbres, aca, including its museums and markets.

and Casas Grandes people. WALKER The trip includes visits to a Upcoming Tours – Winter 2002 J I M number of pottery exhibits, This ancient doorway is just one of including a behind-the-scenes many fascinating architectural details GUA TEMALA AND TIKAL tour of the more than 10,000 found at Casas Grandes. Our tour explores the world of the Maya in Guatemala pots at the Arizona State Mu- and features an in-depth look at Tikal, located in the seum. You’ll also visit Hohokam sites such as Pueblo Grande Petén rainforest. in Phoenix, and the Spanish mission of San Xavier del Bac. Also included is a tour of the Gila Cliff Dwellings in New VERACRUZ Mexico, a daylong exploration of the vast ruins of Casas Join us in Mexico’s oldest port city, Veracruz, for an ex- Grandes in Mexico, and a visit with the potters of Mata Ortiz. citing look at Olmec, Totonac, Huastec, Maya, Aztec, Throughout the trip experts will join the tour and share their and Spanish cultures that have dominated the region knowledge with the group, including Jerry Brody, Cynthia for thousands of years. Bettison, and Paul Minnis.

Visitors explore the extensive ruins at Monte Albán, a city built by the Zapotec and Mixtec. WALKER J I M

46 summer • 2001 Patrons of Preservation Placing Stock in the Past with The Archaeological Conservancy would like to thank the following individuals, foundations, and corporations for their Gifts of Appreciated Securities generous support during the period of February through April One easy way to help protect America’s irreplace- 2001. Their generosity, along with the generosity of the Conservancy’s other members, makes our work possible. able archaeological resources is through a gift of appreciated stock. Life Member Gifts of Mrs. P of Ohio, a Conservancy member since $1,000 or more 1990, made a generous gift of 200 shares of Amoco Charlotte Adelman, Illinois stock. When she inherited the stock, it was worth Leonard Blake, Missouri about $1,400, but her gift to the Conservancy was Olive Brewster, Texas worth $11,154. Mrs. P got to deduct the full value Nance and Barbara Creager, Texas Donald Pierce, New Mexico of the securities on the day that she transferred Suzanne Rice, Colorado them, and she also avoided paying the capital gains Ian and Talmadge Silversides, North Carolina taxes that she would have incurred had she cashed Sally Strazdins, New Hampshire the stock. E. M. Tucker, Ohio “When I’m going to make a gift, this is the Kathleen Thomson, Michigan easiest way for me,” says Mrs. P. “You get the David Whitley, California value of the stock today and I get the deduction Anasazi Circle Gifts of of its value today. It works out fine for you and $2,000 or more great for me.” Anonymous (2) Mrs. P, who is 67 and originally from Missis- Olds Anderson, Michigan sippi, says that she’s most excited about the work Edward Godbersen, Oregon that the Conservancy is doing in the South and R. M. and Joanne Hart, Colorado the Midwest. She worries about how quickly devel- J. E. Loughridge, Florida opment is threatening sites in states like Ohio, Robert Robinson, California and she’s also concerned that not enough is being Harlan and Ann Scott, Delaware done in her native South to protect archaeological LeRoy Weber,Jr., California resources. Foundation/Corporate Gifts “What the Conservancy does is really im- of $1,000–$4,999 portant. If the stock market would just go up a The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations, Florida little bit, I’d give you more this year.” Dominion Resources Services, Inc., Virginia —Martha Mulvany Nancy and Rich Kinder Foundation, Texas Foundation/Corporate Gifts of $5,000–$9,999 The J. M. Kaplan Fund, New York TO MAKE A DONATION OR BECOME Stewart Foundation, California A MEMBER CONTACT: Foundation/Corporate Gifts of $10,000–$14,999 Longwood Foundation, Inc., Delaware The Archaeological Conservancy Foundation/Corporate Gifts 5301 Central Ave. NE, of $15,000–$24,999 Suite 402 American Express Company, New York Albuquerque, NM 87108 The Chrysalis Foundation, Tennessee The Roy A. Hunt Foundation, Pennsylvania (505) 266-1540 Tom and Nancy Juda Foundation, California www.americanarchaeology.org Foundation/Corporate Gifts of $25,000–$50,000 The Tucker Foundation, Tennessee american archaeology 47 Reviews

Riddle of the Bones: The Ancient Mounds of Poverty Point Politics, Science, Race, By Jon L. Gibson and the Story of University Press of Florida, Kennewick Man 2000; 292 pgs., illus., $55 By Roger Downey cloth; 800-226-3822 (Copernicus/Springer- One of America’s Verlang New York, most intriguing pre- 2000; 202 pgs., $25 historic monuments cloth; 800-777-4643) sits on a small ridge Since its discovery along a bank of the overlooking Bayou Columbia River in Kennewick, Washing- Maçon in north- ton, the ancient skeleton called Kennewick eastern Louisiana. Man has ignited a raging political contro- Consisting of a series of concentric earthen versy that dwarfs the scientific controversy half-rings and several large mounds, it is about its age and importance. Seattle one of the most unusual and confounding reporter Roger Downey chronicles the sites in the New World. Louisiana archae- epic, beginning with the discovery of the ologist Jon Gibson, the grand old man of skeleton in 1996, the media feeding frenzy Poverty Point archaeology, tells the story that followed, and the legal circus involv- of this great site and the scholars who ing some of America’s leading Paleo-Indian study it in this folksy, readable volume. archaeologists. When radiocarbon testing dated it Kennewick Man’s is a complex to 3,500 years ago, Poverty Point was up- story—partly about science, partly about graded from unusual to extraordinary. Native American law, partly about publicity, but mainly Nothing so complex and old had ever been Weapons about power. It is a metaphor for the tragic found before, and archaeologists flocked to By Colin F. Taylor struggle between Native Americans and the Louisiana swamps to study it. They University of Oklahoma Press, archaeologists that was set off by a poorly found massive construction for the rings 2001; 128 pgs., illus.; crafted statute passed by Congress in and mounds, and a continental system of $20 cloth, 800-627-7377 1990—the Native American Graves Pro- exchange. Stone for tools came from as far In this engaging volume, Colin tection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA). as 1,500 miles away. Conventional wisdom Taylor describes weaponry The fate of this 9,000-year-old skele- said monumental architecture could not made and used by Native ton seems to rest on the determination of flourish in a time before agriculture and Americans from prehistoric through historic times, when its race. If it is Native American, it will be pottery, but it did at Poverty Point. European technology caused turned over to a local tribe and reburied. Famous archaeologists including Clarence drastic changes. He also tells If the remains are of a non-native race, it Webb, William Haag, and James Ford of defensive weapons, like will be made available for intensive study. helped make the site a state park in 1972. body armor, and the symbolic In Riddle of the Bones, Downey tells Yet for all the attention, Gibson estimates weapons that played such an the story without frills or emotion, baring that only three tenths of one percent of important role in Indian cere- the facts of the case and exposing the the site has been excavated. Poverty Point monies. With 122 color and personalities that color it so vividly. The is one of North America’s greatest sites, 33 black and white illustra- outcome of the case will most surely shape and Gibson has done it justice. tions, it is a delight to read. the future of American archaeology. —Mark Michel

48 summer • 2001 HELP PRESERVE A WINDOW INTO THE PAST Join The Archaeological Conservancy and become a member of the only national non-profit organization preserving the country’s endangered archaeological sites. Your support will help save America’s cultural heritage before it’s lost forever.

As a Conservancy member, you’ll receive American Archaeology, which will keep you up to date on the latest discoveries, news, and events in archaeology in the Americas. You’ll also learn about the Con- servancy’s current preservation projects.

To join the Conservancy, simply fill out the form below and return it to us.

Sign me up! I want to become a member of The Archaeological Conservancy at the following level: ❑ $25 Subscribing ❑ $100 Contributing ❑ $50 Supporting ❑ $1,000 Life ❑ Enclosed is a check. ❑ Charge my gift to: ❑ VISA ❑ MasterCard ❑ AmEx

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______City State Zip Send Payment To: The Archaeological Conservancy 5301 Central Avenue NE, Suite 402 Albuquerque, NM 87108 (505) 266-1540 Conservancy membership starts at $25. Contributions are tax deductible to the full extent allowed by law. Please make your check payable to The Archaeological Conservancy. Make your mark in time. Some Conservancy members think the only way to help save archaeological sites is through membership dues. While dues are a constant lifeline, there are many ways you can support the Conservancy’s work, both today and well into the future. And by Sugarloaf Pueblo, AZ supporting the Conservancy, you Atop Sugarloaf Mountain not only safeguard our past for A Conservancy preserve since 1991 your children and grandchildren, you also may save some money.

Place stock in the Conservancy. Evaluate your investments. Some members choose to make a difference by donating stock. Such gifts offer a charitable deduction for the full value instead of paying capital gains tax.

Give a charitable gift annuity. Depending on your circumstances, you may be able to make a gift of cash and securities today that lets you receive extensive tax benefits as well as an income for as long as you live.

leave a lasting legacy. Rooms with a view 600 years ago. Many people consider protecting our cultural heritage by remem- bering the Conservancy in their Part of our cultural heritage today. will. While providing us with a dependable source of income, bequests may qualify you for an estate tax deduction.

Whatever kind of gift you give, you can be sure we’ll use it to preserve places like Sugarloaf CKA

JA Pueblo and our other 210 sites E R R Y

J across the United States.

Yes, I’m interested in making a planned-giving donation to The Archaeological Conservancy and Mail information requests to: saving money on my taxes. Please send more information on: The Archaeological Conservancy ❏ Gifts of stock ❏ Bequests ❏ Charitable gift annuities Attn: Planned Giving 5301 Central Avenue NE Name: Suite 402 Street Address: Albuquerque, NM 87108-1517 City: State: Zip: Or call: Phone: ( ) - (505) 266-1540