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Livelihood Recovery and Belongingness of Households Forced to Relocate in Yangon, Myanmar

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Livelihood Recovery and Belongingness of Households Forced to Relocate in Yangon, Myanmar Settling into a New Place: Livelihood recovery and belongingness of households forced to relocate in Yangon, Myanmar Gillian Emma Cornish Bachelor of Urban and Regional Planning (Hons 1) https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5792-9983 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2020 School of Earth and Environmental Sciences Abstract Forced relocation is the process of intentionally displacing people and moving them to a new location. People affected by forced relocation experience heightened impoverishment risks and severe and long-lasting economic, psycho-socio-cultural impacts and spatial marginalisation. The risk of impoverishment is intensified in urban settings as the target communities are usually a heterogeneous group of densely populated poor communities, which makes re-establishment of their lives complex and resource intensive. This thesis examines the recovery process of people who were forced to relocate from central Yangon, Myanmar, to the city’s outskirts in 1991. While the impacts of forced relocation and resettlement for development projects, particularly in rural settings, are well documented, relatively little is known about how urban relocatees navigate the recovery of their essential assets. In a context of inadequate support provided to rebuild necessary assets, this thesis examines how people who are impacted by forced relocation, who are usually in a marginalised position already, survive and settle into their relocation site. This research contributes to the conceptual and empirical understandings of how relocated urban households and communities become settled into their new location and cope with impoverishment risks by developing livelihood actions. It builds on the conceptual understandings of impoverishment risks associated with forced displacement and combines it with the particularities of urban poverty to create a lens through which to examine livelihood actions the urban poor develop to survive. The analysis focuses on how relocatees rebuilt their livelihoods, using different types of capitals (social, economic and human) and build their new neighbourhood (housing, infrastructure and services). It also examines how affected people managed to foster a ‘sense of belonging’, which is an aspect overlooked in the literature. The case study for this thesis is Ward 9, Shwepyithar, the northernmost township in Yangon City. This ward was established in 1991 as a result of a large-scale relocation program instigated by the military government during a time of political tension, degraded infrastructure and a large number of squatters in the city. The thesis uses a qualitative research design, with semi-structured interviews as the principal research method. The main research question is, How have urban households regained access to essential livelihood assets over time after being forcibly relocated from central Yangon to the city’s outskirts in 1991 and established a ‘sense of belonging’ in their new settlement? The research finds that livelihood actions are temporary, ever-changing and responsive to the political, economic and socio-cultural shifts that occur at a wider societal level. Not all livelihood actions are strategic and helpful, but rather can cause disruption to opportunities for future human capital growth and deepen the embeddedness of poverty. Social capital is inherent in most of the livelihood actions and there are distinctions of how people have used bonding, bridging and linking social capital types in different situations. This research examines how the different types of social capital are used for different purposes. This research also finds that although a strong sense of nostalgia persists for lost places and past lives, relocated people have managed to foster a new ‘sense of belonging’ as they have invested time, energy and resources into their places, and through daily routines and everyday interactions with neighbours. This thesis makes a significant contribution to how people affected by relocation develop actions to address their impoverishment risks and settle into their relocation site. It highlights the centrality of social capital, self-reliance, the nuances of urban poverty and urban livelihoods and considers what it means to have a ‘sense of belonging’ after relocation. Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis. Publications included in this thesis No publications included. Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis No manuscripts submitted for publication. Other publications during candidature Conference abstracts and presentations 1. Cornish, G. & Rhoads, E. (2019). Informal strategies of Yangonites living with Myanmar: Everyday uncertainty in access to property. Myanmar Update 2019: Living with Myanmar. Canberra: Australian National University. 2. Cornish, G. (2018). Reimagining ‘citizenship’ and rebuilding livelihoods after relocation. 13th International Burma Studies Conference Distant Past(s). Bangkok: Northern Illinois University. 3. Cornish, G. (2017). Coping strategies among relocated people in cities: A draft analytical framework. IAIA Special Symposium: Resettlement and Livelihoods. Manila: International Association for Impact Assessment. Journal articles 1. Cornish, G., & Ramsay, R. (2018). Gender and livelihoods in Myanmar after development- induced resettlement. Forced Migration Review, 59(October), 55–57. 2. Cornish, G., & Vivoda, V. (2016). Myanmar’s extractive industries: An institutional and regulatory assessment. Extractive Industries and Society, 3(4). Summary reports 1. Cornish, G. (2018). Women & EIA Processes: A Case Study on Gender Aspects of EIAs in Four Myanmar Projects. Yangon. 2. Cornish, G. (2017). Women and Resettlement: A case study on gender aspects at the Upper Paunglaung Hydropower Dam. Yangon. Contributions by others to the thesis Dr Sonia Roitman and Associate Professor Karen McNamara contributed to this thesis in their capacity as advisors. They assisted with the conception and design of the project, gave advice on methods and interpretation of research data, and provided feedback on drafts. Zipporah Chay contributed to this thesis in her capacity as research assistant, working as a translator in the interviews, coordinating meetings during field visits and transcribing interviews. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis. Research involving human or animal subjects Ethical approval for this research was granted through The University of Queensland Human Research Ethics committee on 19 September 2016 under the approval number 2016001418. A copy of the approval letter is included in Appendix D. Acknowledgments This research would not have been possible without the support and guidance from a number of people. To my academic advisors, Sonia Roitman and Karen McNamara, who not only provided critical and constructive feedback but also supported me and believed in me. Their theoretical and conceptual contributions to this research have been invaluable and have enriched the quality of this thesis. Gerhard Hoffstaedter generously offered his time and knowledge about concepts in Chapter 8 of this thesis. I am also grateful to Donovan Storey, my undergraduate Honours supervisor, who provided feedback during the conceptualisation of the research and at key milestones. Yap Kioe Sheng also helped with initial brainstorming of research ideas and provided helpful insight into urban challenges in Yangon and mentored me from afar throughout. Hopefully we one day get to meet in person! David Allen was also instrumental in the very early days of understanding what it means to ‘research in Myanmar’ and testing interesting topics with long-standing Yangon residents. This thesis and the knowledge I have gained and am thus contributing, would not have been impossible
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