NOTES

Introduction 1. See, for example, the definition of the social construction of sexuality offered by Cartledge and Ryan that concerns “the intricate and multiple ways in which our emotions, desires and relationships are shaped by the society we live in” (1983: 1). See also Weeks’ argument that sexuality should be seen “not as a primordially ‘natural’ phenomenon but rather as a product of social and historical forces” (2003: 6). 2. Pearce and Stacey state that their book represents an enquiry into why romance retains such a hold in the postmodern world. Neither intellectual nor political skepticism seems to save anyone—feminists included—from succumbing to its snares (1995: 12). Jackson, writing in the same volume, states that “You do not have to see romance readers as cultural dupes in order to argue that romance is implicated in maintaining a cultural definition of love which is detrimental to women. Nor need we resort to a moralistic sackcloth-and-ashes feminism which enjoins strict avoidance of cultural products and practices which are less than ideologically sound. These romances derive from a specifically western cultural tradition—if they are being consumed world-wide we need to know why they are being read” (1995b: 50–51). See also Modleski (1982); Hazen (1983); and Radway (1984). 3. It has been argued that the medieval romance is the forerunner of the novel: Jewers considers that the medieval genre provides part of the blueprint, if not a vital cornerstone, of the novel’s foundation (2000: 4); McDonald (2004a) regards medieval romance as the origin of the modern novel and the ances- tor of almost all contemporary popular fiction in print and on the screen (2004: 1). 4. It should be noted that Mills has since warned of the dangers of employing models of interpretation which are too simple; specifically, she notes the assumption within feminist analyses of transitivity that if there were certain transitivity choices associated with female characters, then those characters were being portrayed as passive (1998: 239). 5. The first issue of the Journal of Historical Pragmatics came out in 2000. 166 NOTES

Chapter 1 Constructing the Heterosexual Contract 1. Stephen Benson argues that there is an obvious link between the romance as it exists today and medieval chivalric romances in which the hero’s life was narrativized into a quest. Although he claims that it is possible to chart a process of the “feminization” of romance from these masculine origins, Benson does not go on to do this (1996: 105). The process is, I think, more complex than he suggests. Lori Humphrey Newcomb provides a highly nuanced account of male anxieties about the pleasures offered by romance and the consequent feminization of the readership of romance in Renaissance England (2004). 2. In his novel Small World, David Lodge picks up on these associations by hav- ing Angelica, who is working on a PhD on medieval romance, appear to suggest to her would-be lover that they enact the scene in which Porphyro hides in the closet and watches Madeline undress (1984: 40). 3. All quotations are from the version in the Cambridge manuscript (Casson 1949) since this is both the most complete text of the romance and the man- uscript most associated with a female readership for the poem. 4. This seems to be the sense in which Arlyn Diamond understands the lines; she cites lines 479–80 to illustrate the idea that “Degrevant never doubts his ability to win Melidor, any more than he doubts his ability to injure his ene- mies” (2004: 86). 5. The MED’s definitions for n1 include 1a (a) “Love (either the emotion itself or the manifestation of it in action or conduct”; (b) a specific feeling or expression of love; 2a (a) “Love of man and woman, sexual love, conjugal love” (b) “. . .plei of ~, sexual intercourse.” 6. We may note Wareing’s analysis of a sex scene in a twentieth-century work of romantic fiction in which the “vision” is entirely that of the male protag- onist. Wareing observes that by focalizing the scene through the male’s experience, the female is inevitably represented as the object of the male gaze; by mediating her textual representation through the male’s perception of her, her pleasure is represented as subordinate to his (1994: 129–30). 7. See Krentz (1992: 42) for a discussion of the persistence of this motif in twentieth-century romantic fiction and its effectiveness for women readers. 8. Davenport’s reading of these lines appears to attribute Degrevant’s lack of pleasure in the hunt to its being part of a vendetta initiated by the earl and suggests that Degrevant’s thoughts of love are subsequent to the hunt (2000: 121–22). I am suggesting that Degrevant is distracted from his pleasure in hunting by a chase that is (at least momentarily) more compelling to him. My view is shared by Casson who translates: “Sir Degrevant hunted on the Earl’s land, and killed his beasts, but took no pleasure in the chase, because his thoughts had turned to love” (1949: 33 and 35). Rickert’s translation seems unclear on this point; having described the sport that Degrevant has in the earl’s forests, she inserts a separate paragraph into her text: “But now him likes no mirth or revel, since for maid Melidore’s sake he hath fallen into heavy care” (1908: 116). NOTES 167

9. Critics have focused on Melidor’s room and its accoutrements (see Davenport 2000; Diamond 2004). Writing on contemporary romantic fiction (both Mills and Boon and more literary exemplifications such as Jeanette Winterson’s The Powerbook), Pearce points to such elaborate descriptions as “marking the cultural ‘commodity’ appeal of these texts” and suggests that “the significance/pleasure associated with such details in the romance is in excess of its relation to the love plot” (2004: 524, italics in original). I suggest that this analysis applies equally to the medieval romance Sir Degrevant, and that the investment of that text in its own commodity appeal marks it as located within a set of values that also encompass marriage and traditional gender roles, despite the superficial departure from these in the characterization of Melidor. 10. To the modern reader, Degrevant’s request is somewhat opaque. Rickert translates “My heart breaks with love! When wilt thou set it at rest?” (1908: 134), which is not entirely helpful. The Cambridge manuscript (in Casson’s edition) has “me” rather than “it,” and Rickert’s translation seems to ignore the suggestive nature of the idea of going to rest (to bed?). The sense of this seems clearer in the Lincoln manuscript that elides Degrevant’s second question with the rest of the sentence: “For lufe myn hert will brist; / When Qou gase to thi ryste / Lady, wysse me the best, / Giff it be thi will.” Understanding this passage seems to depend on Melidor’s interpretation that is remarkably clear. It is presumably her response that prompts Casson’s marginal gloss “About midnight, Sir Degrevant asked for the privilege of a husband” (1949: 91). 11. I am grateful to Christian Kay and the editorial team of the Historical Thesaurus of English for allowing me access to their data. For information on the project, see http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLl/EngLang/thesaur/ homepage.htm. (2006.4.3). 12. See Gayle Rubin’s foundational essay examining the ways in which women function as tokens in economies of male exchange (1975). 13. It is important to be aware that the meaning of speech acts is not dependent on syntactic and semantic categories; the surface form of an utterance cannot tell us which speech act is performed by that sequence in all situations: Sinclair and Coulthard introduce their analysis of discourse by observing that traditionally “three major language functions, or contextual types, have been identified as statement, question and command, having their ideal realiza- tions in declarative, interrogative, and imperative forms. However, the rela- tionship between these functions and forms in actual language use is more flexible—we might, for instance, use a declarative form to give a command or make a request” (1975: 11; see also Coulthard et al. 1981: 10–11). 14. Diamond comments briefly on this moment in the romance, however, and Davenport omits precisely the passages I have selected in his discussion of the poem. 15. In holding out for marriage in this way, Melidor is functioning within the social expectations of a woman of her class. P. J. P. Goldberg states that women who had no land or wealth to offer may have tried entering into a 168 NOTES

sexual relationship in the hope that this would lead to a binding contract; this was a risky strategy, however: cause papers offer evidence of women’s attempts to enforce dubious contracts against lovers who had abandoned them. Where families had a material stake in the marriage process, the choice was not left solely to the parties contracting. Deposition evidence also implies that in rural society sons, and more especially daughters, fre- quently lived with their parents until marriage, which put parents in a strong position to supervise the marriages of their children. The consent of a parent or guardian was an expected requirement for any woman contem- plating marriage (1992: 244–50). 16. As Brundage notes, medieval notions of rape are grounded in the raptus of Roman law. In ancient Roman law, raptus consisted in the abduction and sequestration of a woman against the will of the person under whose authority she lived (1993a: 63). 17. I follow the practice in Archibald and Edwards’ edition (1996) of citing the volume in the Oxford Standard Authors’ edition of The Works of Sir Thomas Malory edited by Vinaver (1971) parenthetically by page and line (for exam- ple, 623/27) followed by references to Caxton’s edition edited by Cowen (1969) cited by book and chapter (for example, XVIII, 9). 18. The only knight who comes close to guessing his identity is Gawain, but Arthur, who earlier caught a glimpse of Lancelot at his lodgings and knows that Gawain has never prevailed against Lancelot, prevents Gawain from fighting. 19. In La Mort le Roi Artu and the Middle English Le Mort Arthur, Elaine’s letter is addressed to the whole court and condemns Lancelot; in Malory’s version the letter is addressed to Lancelot only and exonerates him entirely. 20. This view is evidently not shared by McCarthy who asserts of Lancelot that “Ladies are constantly in pursuit of him” but that “He has done nothing to encourage their attentions” (1988: 54).

Chapter 2 Romance and Rape 1. According to a Home Office study, the percentage of reported rapes lead- ing to convictions in England and Wales has fallen to an all-time low. The study states that the number of rapes reported is rising, but in 2002 only 5.6 percent of 11,766 reports led to a rapist being convicted (http://news. bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4296433.stm. 2006.3.23). 2. It is for this reason that courts look for signs of force such as torn clothing. It is nevertheless the case that they do not always interpret such signs in the ways that would suggest rape rather than other sexual scenarios. 3. Recent research suggests that juries are extremely unlikely to find defen- dants in rape cases guilty despite the change to the law that now states that a defendant must prove that he “reasonably” (formerly it was “honestly”) believed that consent had been given. Jurors often take the view that silence represents sexual consent (Gibb 2006). NOTES 169

4. The picture appears more complicated for the English verb ravish. The tran- sitive sense “To seize and carry off (a person); to take by violence, to tear or drag away from (a place or person); to sweep or carry away; to drag off (to or into a place)”; the sense “To carry away (a woman) by force. (Sometimes implying subsequent violation)”; also used figuratively of death; and the sense “To carry away or remove from earth (esp. to heaven) or from sight” are all first recorded a1300. The sense “To commit rape upon (a woman), to violate” appears in 1436. The sense “To carry away (esp. to heaven) in mys- tical sense; to transport in spirit without bodily removal” is first recorded a1330, and the sense “To transport with the strength of some feeling, to carry away with rapture; to fill with ecstasy or delight; to entrance” first appears some time in the fourteenth century, though none of the citations offered for it by the OED indicate a sexual context. There is one such cita- tion for the verbal noun ravishing under the sense “The action of transport- ing with ecstasy or delight” is cited from 1586 (T B. La Primaud. Fr. Acad. II. [1594] 294: “This degree of loue may be rightly called rauishing, in which the louer is so rapt out of himselfe, that he forgetteth himselfe.”). The fol- lowing citation, however, refers to the soul’s ravishing. While all the senses mentioned by Gravdal and Rose are present, the sense development that they suggest is not indicated in the usage of the English term. 5. This is supported by evidence from the survey of readers of romance fiction conducted by Lynda L. Crane in which respondents suggested that scenes in which women are sexually overpowered by men only appeared violent because women were “being coy,” or “faking” their refusal (1994: 267). Crane observes that readers commonly echoed the notion that women sometimes use “coyness” to solicit sexual aggression, and reports that although they often made a distinction between portrayals in novels and in real life, many seemed unaware that such portrayals affect actual experience. 6. Given the strong imperatives toward resistance, combined with its attendant ambiguities, we should perhaps not be surprised at the suggestion that the difficulty, or near impossibility, of saying “no” has been seen as rendering women close to “unrapeable” (Gavey 1992: 335). This assertion is supported by the anomalously low conviction rates for rape (see n. 1). 7. Sir Degaré is extant in six manuscripts and three early printed editions: Advocates Library of Scotland MS 19.2.1; British Library MS Egerton 2862; Cambridge University Library MS Ff. 2.38 (Schleich’s F ); Bodleian Library MS Rawlinson Poetry 34 (Schleich’s R); Bodleian Library MS Douce 261; British Library MS Add. 27879 (Percy Folio) (Schleich’s p); Wynkyn de Worde, 4to, J. Pierpont Morgan Library, British Library, Wyllyam Copland, 4to (Schleich’s c) Bodleian Library MS John King, 4to. 8. Laskaya and Salisbury call the king’s relationship with his daughter “bizarre” and suggest that it points toward incest (1995b). Slover avers that the princess’ fear that if her condition is detected, people will say that she has become preg- nant by her father (lines 168–72) makes it clear that the incest motif belongs in the story (1931: 9). Faust confirms that these lines are indicative of incest, but considers it merely a vestige of one of the sources of the poem. 170 NOTES

9. Quotations from Sir Degaré are taken from the edition of Laskaya and Salisbury (1995b). 10. It later turns out that the sword has a crucial role to play in an identification and recognition scene; however, another prop for a similar scene is dis- patched from fairy land later on, and is not brought to the forest by the fairy knight. 11. Colopy includes the suggestion that allied to her father’s possessiveness are the princess’ own incestuous inclinations that will also act to prevent her from ever having a lover. I cannot see any evidence for incestuous leanings on the part of the princess unless riding to her mother’s grave at her father’s side is taken as such. 12. In the majority of the manuscript variants supplied by Schleich (1929), the knight tells the princess that she should be not be afraid of anything or that she should not be afraid of him: “Be yee dread aright of nought” p; “Of me be Qou ferde no” w. F; “Be (‘Be ye’ c) noutt aadrad Qou (‘of me’ c) swete (‘right’ c) w. (‘nought’ c)” Rc. For the key to the editions, see pages 5–8. Schleich’s edition does not include a glossary, although there is a line of translation at the top of each page; for lines 63–108 this reads: “Die Prinzessin verirrt sich / und wird von einem Feenritter / zur Mutter gemacht” (1929: 60–62). 13. Sir Gowther is also found in British Library, MS Royal 17.B.43. 14. Sir Degaré is named in the second line of the eponymous romance; Sir Cleges in the seventh line of Sir Cleges; Tristrem in the fourth line of Sir Tristrem; Sir Orfeo appears at line 27 of Sir Orfeo; and Launfal is named in line 5 of Sir Launfal. Sir Degaré offers “Litel Bretaygne” as the locus of the action (line 9); Sir Orfeo is set “in Bretayne” (line 14); King Arthur is named in the sixth line of Sir Cleges; while Sir Launfal establishes the setting as the England of King Arthur in the first two lines. 15. Quotations from Sir Gowther are taken from the edition of Laskaya and Salisbury (1995c). 16. Fowler suggests that the engineering of the circulation of wealth through legitimate channels is one of the grounding concerns of romance from its beginnings. She memorably observes that “the romance [genre] is about troubles which disturb the proper mapping of the ‘machinery of sexuality’ onto the ‘machinery of alliance’” (1991: 8). 17. The event of the conception is the only support for the idea that the wife had given up on heaven as the source of a child. I cannot see any evidence of the duchess’ volition in the appearance of the devil in Sir Gowther or any sign of Gowther having been promised to the devil before his birth. 18. Quotations from Sir Orfeo are taken from the edition of Laskaya and Salisbury (1995e). 19. As well as the burgeoning field of law as literature, there is now a consider- able body of discussion that deals with the representation of the laws of the medieval period within its literature (see, for example, Blanch 1985; Saunders 1995, 2001 on the impact of contemporary law on the Wife of NOTES 171

Bath’s Tale; and Menuge 1999, 2000 on wardship law in medieval romance). It is, I think, remarkable that romance, a genre that engages so thoroughly with romantic love as its subject matter, has been examined for its treatment of, and involvement with, the law of its day. It is another reminder of how far notions of force and sexual violence are embedded in romance texts and in our thinking about romance. 20. An interesting insight into what some readers wish for is provided by the statement by Clark et al. that in a survey conducted by Thurston, some 60 percent of those polled indicated that they found the portrayal of rape, defined as the heroine having “sex against her will,” exciting. What Thurston in fact reports is that a little more than 60 percent of her respon- dents disagreed with the statement “Romance novels in which the hero forces the heroine to have sex against her will (rape) are exciting, sexually stimulating fantasies.” 21. This view is contested by Vitz who asserts that it is likely that some medieval women entertained fantasies of being, to some extent at least, forced by attractive men; she also suggests that the central and highly romanticized role given to rape in modern romance fiction indicates that fantasies of forced sex were not peculiar to the medieval imagination (1996: 284). Although she does not historicize her analysis, Lynn Chancer suggests that a coerced division between women who are asexual, monogamous, and reproduce legitimately within the bounds of marriage, and those who are bad, and sexual has surrounded women’s sexuality with guilt; she finds it little wonder if fantasies of rape represent a release, under duress, from feelings of guilt about sexuality and sexual pleasure (1992: 26).

Chapter 3 The Sadistic Hero 1. Taking a contrary view, Hines argues that by the thirteenth century the dogma of antifeminist traditions that present women as morally reprehensi- ble and dangerous to men—insatiable and extravagant sexual sirens with their bodies; and perjurers or temptresses with their tongues—makes a sub- stantial penetration into vernacular literature (1993: 31). See also Bloch’s suggestion that the titles of the essays of the early Church Fathers reveal their obsession with chastity; Bloch argues that “one need only look at the number of works in Old French alone that focus upon virginity to recog- nize the degree to which the patristic obsession passed into vernacular liter- ary works of the High Middle Ages” (1991: 94). 2. Kinsale describes the joy romance readers take in the “fractured hero”: the ripped-up, torn-apart, brought-to-his-knees alpha male (1992: 42); Phillips asks: What is the ultimate fate of the most arrogant, domineering, ruthless macho hero any romance writer can create? (1992: 58); Clair claims that the proposal may be delivered through gritted teeth, but he knows that he can- not live without her; if his passion is laced with anger and resentment, she does not mind that (1992: 68); Malek asks: What is the fantasy? Simply 172 NOTES

this: a strong, dominant, aggressive male brought to the point of surrender by a woman (1992: 74); Donald states that the romance heroine is the only person who can make the male hero forget his natural courtesy and lose his rigidly controlled temper (1992: 81). Of course, this phenomenon has a vivid life between the medieval and the mass-market versions of romance; Austen’s Mr Darcy is a prototype of this male figure. 3. Dietrich states that in the first portrait of Troilus, Chaucer conforms to expected literary conventions for the characterization of a male hero (1998: 205). She notes that Benoît’s emphasis on the hero as chivalric lover, and Boccaccio’s presentation of him as experienced in love, are omitted (1998: 206), thus confirming the notion that in English medieval cultural narratives, masculinity does not include sexual desire. Dietrich adds, however, that Troilus’ men, who look at the women in the temple, “show a greater daring and, perhaps, a greater confidence in their masculinity” (1998: 207). This analysis illustrates the paradox at the heart of our understanding of the role of a masculine hero; a paradox that becomes more apparent when the hero engages in sex (see chapter 4 below). 4. All quotations from Troilus and Criseyde are from the Riverside Chaucer edited by Benson (1987). 5. My focus is medieval romance; it is interesting to note, however, that the attitudes described here have not vanished with the passing of medieval cultural norms. We are a little more liberated now, but the idea of male anger in the face of heterosexual desire is alluded to in modern literature; see, for example, the observation of Bloom’s female narrator in the story “The Sight of You”: “It wasn’t his wanting me that got to me. . . . It’s that he didn’t fight the feeling; a lot of times men want you and then they get mad about wanting you, whether they have you or not” (1994: 82). 6. Troilus “felte his herte blede” (I, 502); he does not, for all the world, dare to begin to tell his woe (I, 503–4); he is “in the snare” (I, 507); is “hent” and can only gnaw his own chains (I, 509); he is “woful” (I, 519); and is caught fast (I, 534). In between, there are a number of references to the idea that Troilus will now be a laughing-stock among all lovers since he used to deride them. The narrator wishes that, if he had to fall, Troilus had fallen in love with one who would know his sorrow even if she lacked pity (I, 520–22). Criseyde, however, is “cold in love” (I, 523), as cold as “frost in wynter moone” (I, 524). Troilus wishes that he would die (I, 526–27), then begs Criseyde for mercy, and for her to save him from death (I, 535–36), and longs for her to make him happy by a friendly look even if she never promises anything else (I, 538–39). 7. Based in the work of Lacan, Vivek’s essay on courtly love provides a psy- choanalytic reading of the phenomenon. His interpretation is quite different from mine, but some of his insights have a connection to this discussion. In particular, Vivek’s essay is founded on the idea that it is the emergence of the masochistic couple that has enabled us to understand the “libidinal economy of courtly love” (1994: 89). NOTES 173

8. Spearing observes that “[c]ourtly idealization of women and ecclesiastical denigration of women existed side by side, intricately interwoven in the high culture of the Middle Ages, yet neither could ultimately absorb or accommodate the other” (1993: 266). However, Spearing does not investi- gate the effects of the intertwined nature of these culturally dominant ideas. 9. Pandarus is able to enter Troilus’ bedroom without Troilus realizing that he has done so. As noted in architectural studies, private bedrooms were uncommon before the fifteenth century and remained so after (Goodall 1991–92). It nevertheless seems unlikely that Criseyde has had a chance to discover Troilus’ love for her (his protestations of love are restricted to bed- room lamentations) and is reacting coldly. 10. Criseyde’s thought processes are available to the reader. They are highly universalistic and are not restricted to the immediate question of what her feelings for Troilus might be. At first she is frightened, but then she thinks, a man may love a woman till his heart breaks but she does not have to love him in return unless she wishes to. There is nevertheless the further consid- eration that he is her king’s son and if she completely runs away from him, he might bear a grudge against her that would make her situation worse; would she be wise to bring hatred upon herself where she might find favor. 11. Halliday’s analysis makes it clear that behavioral processes are very difficult to classify: grammatically, they are intermediate between material and men- tal processes. Halliday observes that the majority of behavioral process clauses have one participant only and his example is the Mock Turtle (Behaver) sighed (Process) deeply (circumstance). This example provides a parallel with Pandarus’ crying: grammatically, the process involves only one behaver (Pandarus); in literary terms, however, these behavioral processes done by the Mock Turtle and Pandarus, respectively, are ambiguous as to the extent of volition involved. There is, I think, more than a hint that Pandarus’ tears are produced with the intention of provoking a reaction in Criseyde. She is, perhaps, the client of this process. 12. In the introduction to her book, which was published in a series entitled “Feminist Readings,” Mann argues that “a ‘feminist reading’ of Chaucer is not [. . .] essentially different from a reading tout court” (1991: 3). The book did not convince some medieval feminists; Ruth Evans and Lesley Johnson state that despite the title of the series in which the book was published, “it is not in fact written from an explicitly feminist [. . .] standpoint”; although it identifies a number of topoi “which gender-conscious medievalists might want to engage with,” it is “defensive and/or cautious about the potential radicalism of such readings” (1994: 247). In the revised version, Mann states that “the book interprets Chaucer’s work from a feminist standpoint and in the light of modern feminist writings” (2002: vii). 13. A related, though not identical, point is made by Kane when he observes that Chaucer seems to have sensed that the language of love changes with time and place; his narrator suggests near the beginning of Book II of Troilus and Criseyde “for to wynnen love in sondry ages, In sondry londes, sondry ben usages” (ll, 27–28) (1982: 238). 174 NOTES

14. Although critics have pointed to Criseyde’s social difficulty as the daughter of a traitor, the need for the relationship between Troilus and Criseyde to remain a secret has not been resolved. As Windeatt points out, both lovers are single and free, and as a widow Criseyde does not need to conceal her love from a disapproving family. In versions before Chaucer’s, her father’s treachery, as well as the disparity in rank between the lovers, made a liaison between Criseyde and Troilus politically and socially unacceptable; in Troilus and Criseyde, however, Criseyde’s social status is much more elevated than in earlier versions (2003: xxxiii).

Chapter 4 Dynamics of Consensual Heterosex 1. We may note here an obvious parallel with fabliau in which the plots repeatedly demand small hiding places, such as closets and nooks, and also beds (see Farrell 1989: 773). I discuss these and other connections between romance and fabliau in chapter 5. 2. The radical nature of this break with generic convention is registered, I think, in the critical suggestion that, contrary to appearances in the text, Troilus and Criseyde are in fact secretly married (see Kelly 1975). 3. Hansen suggests that the location of the moment of female consent in a gap between scenes (see Spearing 1976: 19) means that “we can never deter- mine exactly when—or even if—Criseyde ‘yielded.’” Hansen considers that Criseyde’s consent is a fiction that she is forced to invent and believe in for her own survival (1992: 170). 4. Hopper and Thompson provide further evidence for English, arguing that English shows compatible behavior in so-called dative movement clauses. They consider the pair of clauses Clara wrote a letter to Santa Claus and Clara wrote Santa Claus a letter, arguing that the version in which the human NP appears in “object” position, adjacent to the verb, implies referentiality, or at least prior existence (1980: 260). They argue, too, that “[a]nother respect in which clauses with indirect O’s are more Transitive is that they tend to have animate A’s: on one count, out of 33 English indirect O clauses, 32 (or 97 percent) had animate A’s” (1980: 261). 5. Brewer considers Aers’ discussion of Troilus’ fear “lest his masculine iden- tity so heavily dependent on performance in the sexual domain, might not, as it were, stand up” (1998: 238 citing Aers 1988: 129); as noted, McInerney believes that at this point in the text Troilus has finally achieved an erection; she thinks, however, that this question indicates that he does not know what to do with it (1998: 222). Brewer finds Aers’ and other such allusions gross and inappropriate to the tone of Chaucer’s poem. 6. Windeatt glosses good thrift bad “called down blessings upon.” 7. The translation by Tatlock and MacKaye is remarkably unhelpful at this point; it reads: “And as a man who sees certain death before him, for aught that he can tell, and by a sudden rescue escapes, and out of death is brought into security, for all the world in even such present gladness was Troilus NOTES 175

with his lady dear—God grant we never meet with worse hap!—Thus he began to delight himself in this heaven” (1912: 447). The translation thus jumps from line 1245 to line 1251 of Chaucer’s text omitting all of the intervening material. 8. Here again, the syntax indicates the narrative choices. The same action could have been formulated, for example, “Pandarus left the lovers in dark- ness” where Troilus and Criseyde would have been the affected participants of the material action process. 9. This information appears to contradict Dinshaw’s reading of the scene of the sexual encounter in which, she says, Pandarus’ “vicarious enjoyment [is] almost obscene” and his pleasure noticeable. She describes him as “bustling around the lovers in this climactic scene” with “frenetic, sexual” energy (1989: 48). 10. The total number of processes done by each character added together does not equal the total number of processes done in this scene as it would appear in a list of all the processes because of the processes that have more than one participating agent. 11. As mentioned, critics have searched the text in vain for the moment of Criseyde’s surrender; see, for example, Spearing’s question, “when exactly was the moment of yielding?” Spearing decides that it is impossible to tell: it seems to have happened in a gap between scenes rather than in any spe- cific scene (1976: 19, see also Cox 1997). 12. For McInerney, the answer (though not the solution) to the problem of what she sees as Troilus’ ineffectuality in the sexual arena is that he is caught between two world views: that of Ovid, in which “love is always aggres- sion, sex almost always rape,” and the protocols of courtly love (1998: 231). She suggests that the “rules of the Ovidian erotic elegy, which Pandarus, Criseyde, and Diomede all seem to accept and live by, betray him at every step because he, as courtly lover, is incapable of assuming in any consistent way the predatory role of amator” (1998: 234). This seems to me to under- estimate Chaucer’s engagement with the seemingly antithetical ideals of masculinity and sexual expression in his romance. 13. The points of view of these two scholars are indicated in the titles of their contributions to the volume Masculinities in Chaucer: McInerney’s essay is subtitled “Unmanning Troilus through Ovidian Allusion,” while the title of Brewer’s essay is “Troilus’s ‘Gentil’ Manhood.”

Chapter 5 Romance Debased 1. Cameron and Kulick observe that even in the well-known example of the sexual consent policy formulated by Antioch College, conventional presup- positions are in place regarding gender, agency, and consent: sex is figured as something men initiate and women either assent to or refuse (2003: 37). As we have seen, even the elements of the binary assent/refuse do not carry equal weight within heterosexual encounters, whether these are literary or actual. 176 NOTES

2. Texts are cited by volume and page number from the edition of Montaiglon and Raynaud (1872–90). The titles also indicate the inclusion of surrealism or magic in many fabliaux, an element that suggests a further parallel with medieval romances. 3. See also Muscatine’s statement that sexual activity in the fabliaux is normal to point of narrowness: intercourse only rarely strays beyond the missionary position (1986: 120). 4. Although Hines suggests that more recent studies have revived the question and tended to move closer to Bédier’s view (1993: 24), I am not entirely convinced that this is the case. White fudges the question of the social class of the audience by proposing that the fabliaux cannot be termed purely “of the town square” or “of the castle”; they seem to be literature for a range of people with a taste for brief narrative in a low mimetic style (1982: 188). Muscatine argues that the flourishing of the fabliaux, the rise of the cities, and the emergence of an urban middle class, are equally visible symptoms of the same social and spiritual climate (1986: 29). He modifies this conclusion, however, by suggesting that fabliau attitudes are “deeply related to those of medieval town and commercial life, but they do not depend on them” (1986: 29–30). More recent studies focus on questions of genre, but not the social class from which the fabliaux derive or were intended (see, for exam- ple, Lacy 1987; Furrow 1994, 2005). 5. Scholarship on the fabliau in English echoes this assessment; see, for exam- ple, Pakkala-Weckström’s characterization of the prospective lovers in Chaucer’s Miller’s Tale as parodies of the traditional courtly lover (2002: 154; see also the references to this critical tradition cited there). For discussion of the representation of Damian as a courtly lover in the Merchant’s Tale, see Pearcy (2000: 249); Finlayson (2003: 570–72). For discussion of Chaucer’s use of the clichés of vernacular romance, see Donaldson (1970). Stillwell (1955) draws on the corpus of French fabliaux to demonstrate that the ironic use of would-be-elegant love diction was already well established in the fabliau genre. 6. Three variant texts of De la Demoiselle qui ne pouvait ouir parler de foutre may be found in Rychner (1960) II, 120–35. None of these texts (described as a “group of anti-prudery poems” [Muscatine 1986: 141]) appears to have been translated into English. 7. In his essay “Fabliaux and the Question of Genres,” Lacy observes that scholars continue to conceive of chansons de geste, romans, fabliaux, etc. as discrete generic entities, and suggests that even where they appear to overlap or merge, we are likely to leave generic conceptions intact and consider the particular work an anomaly. Lacy states that problems of taxonomy consti- tute a particular affliction in fabliau studies (1987: 25–26). 8. See Pearsall 1985; Calin 1994; McDonald 2004a; Putter 2000. Gilbert (2000), however, offers an interrogation of the terms in which romance has been understood and points to a recent shift in scholarly attitudes toward the Middle English romances. NOTES 177

9. A contradictory suggestion is made by Nykrog who asks if the perceived differences between fabliau and romance may be no more than effects pro- duced by the difference in spirit of the two genres, indicating that the pos- sibilities for telling the story of a seduction are surely necessarily limited (1973: 70). See also Salisbury’s statement that a text that might be consid- ered a romance could also present itself as a Breton lay (2003b). 10. We may note, too, that in other romances the triangulation of desire is pre- sent (buried in the subtext of the narrative), as we saw, for example, in the father-daughter relationship in Sir Degaré. 11. We may note the deployment of gender pronouns here: Finlayson, in line with historical constructions of femininity, appears to assume that women do not have “rutting instincts.” Although the male embraces the female, Finlayson’s suggestion seems to me to be oriented toward men rather than humankind. 12. See, for example, Hines’ observation that the principal way in which the poet exploits characterization is “in the use of formulaic language, in partic- ular in the use of terms appropriate to the romance of fin amor”; Hines adds that if we leave the poem’s rubric to one side, “we could in the first stanza be looking at a tail-rhyme romance” (1993: 47–48). We should, however, note Honegger’s objection that the courtly bias leads Hines and earlier scholars writing on Dame Sirith to take a selective view that overemphasizes the role of the courtly tone in the poem (2002: 74). 13. Love, it will be recalled, deprives Troilus of sleep (I, 484), and having seen Melidor, Degrevant does not sleep for more than half an hour a night (lines 906–8). 14. Hines’ comments seem to me to indicate that he is participating in, rather than commenting on, this cultural norm. 15. According to Lacy, contemporary audiences were likely to have been made aware of the genre of the narrative they were about to hear, and to be famil- iar with the conventions associated with it. Lacy asserts that “[a]lthough medieval poets use a number of terms to designate what we call fabliaux, it is nonetheless clear that an audience told that a fabliau was to be recited, expected to hear a certain kind of work. The term establishes the genre and its conventions—and consequently the attitude of the audience toward what they were about to hear” (1974: 109). 16. Honegger considers that Wilekin’s plea for secrecy renders his declaration déclassé in comparison with those found in romance (2002: 74–75). Arguably, all romances in which the woman is married (such as the affair between Tristan and Isolde, and that of Lancelot and Guinevere) include an implicit demand for secrecy. Even when the situation differs, lovers may choose to keep their relationship secret, as Troilus and Criseyde do. 17. Compare Sir Degrevant line 1529 and see chapter 1. 18. See also Honegger’s discussion of the linguistic strategies encountered in opening moves (2000). The contrary view is expressed by Stillwell who states that “One main theme of courtly love is the necessity for secrecy,” 178 NOTES

arguing that Nicholas’ being “ful privee” (line 3201), and a master of “deerne love” (line 3200), emphasize his quasi-aristocracy (1955: 694). 19. See, for example, the way in which the would-be lover Aurelius always knows the location of the beloved and her likely movements (Franklin’s Tale lines 1306–7; 1499–1507). Austen’s heroes, too, give the impression that their love objects have been under surveillance for some time: for example, Mr Knightley tells Emma “I could not think about you so much without doating on you, faults and all; and by dint of fancying so many errors, have been in love with you ever since you were thirteen at least” (2006: 449). The suitability of Austen’s work as a source for an investigation of cultural constructions of romantic love is suggested by the publishers of the most recent edition of her novels, each subtitled “A Classic Romance”; Fowler identifies Austen’s Persuasion as a great romance (1991: 9). 20. Compare the declarations in Sir Degrevant and Troilus and Criseyde. Pandarus is very clear about the implications of the range of senses of the term love: “But love a womman that she woot it nought, / And she wol quyte it that thou shalt not fele: / Unknowe, unkist, and lost that is unsought” (I, 807–9). See also chapter 1, note 5. 21. Lomperis’ reading of the Miller’s Tale constructs Alison as male and there- fore reads her relationships with John and Nicholas as same-sex, but since my subject here is the construction of heterosexuality within and by domi- nant cultural narratives and genres, I have not engaged with this intriguing idea. 22. This may be the overriding reason why the story of Tristan and Isolde often seems so close to fabliau (see above). 23. Critics have suggested that this sequence of events is indicative of Absolon’s lack of conviction as a masculine lover. Blum observes that there is some doubt as to whether it is really a sexual union he is after since it seems that a kiss is reward enough for him. Similarly, his serenading underneath Alison’s bedroom window makes little practical sense as long as she is there together with her husband (1998: 43). 24. Alison makes one extra utterance, but I have not counted it as part of this dialogue because it is an aside to Nicholas, and Absolon does not hear it. I have, however, counted Alison’s final utterance as a conversational turn as it is accompanied by the metalinguistic cue “quod she.” It looks as if it could be interpreted as nonverbalized laughter, however. 25. Et li mari si sont vilain / Et de grant felonie plain, / Si ne nous oson descouvrir / Versa us, ne noz besoins gehir, / Quar por putains il nous tendroient (MR I, 178 at p. 183). 26. Lomperis observes that Kolve modifies the prevailing interpretation of Nicholas by suggesting that Nicholas is more interested in game-playing and theatrical orchestration than he is in having sex with Alison (1995: 255, n. 30). This seems to me to be an overstatement of Kolve’s reading that says that Nicholas and Alison erect a barrier to the consummation of their desire to increase their delight, and that “Nicholas must prove by his wit that he is NOTES 179

worthy to lie with Alisoun, though simpler procedures lie readily to hand” (1984: 188). 27. A conflicting view is offered by Blum who suggests that in making Nicholas defer having sex with her until a more suitable opportunity arises, and con- coct a story to deceive her husband, Alison is exercising power and usurp- ing the masculine role (1998: 43–44). I argue that these behaviors do the opposite: they confirm Alison as a feminine love object and force Nicholas to enact the role of importunate masculine lover. 28. Present-day romance is, arguably, moving closer to the style of the fabliaux, while still maintaining these heterosexual norms. Crane argues that an increasing emphasis on sexually explicit writing may be responsible for their popularity: the once-chaste heroine has lately become a sexually active woman, whose liaisons are described vividly and without censure. Crane adds that feminists have found this trend disturbing because such passages often include violent assaults (1994: 258).

Epilogue 1. Even while pursuing a mainly “altericist” agenda, Paul Strohm argues that a text’s historicity is not undermined by its fictionality: “composed within history, fictions offer irreplaceable historical evidence in their own right” (1992: 4). 2. My study concerns the legacy of the medieval period and is therefore pri- marily concerned with medieval narratives in different genres. I think that texts exert just as strong an influence today, but the texts concerned are more likely to be films and productions in other electronic media. 3. We may note the observation by Higgins and Silver that some of the earli- est stories in the Western tradition have established precedents and left lega- cies that continue to animate cultural representations (1991: 5). 4. Cheshire’s research suggested that girls’ social groupings were less tightly organized than those of boys; girls got involved in fewer fights; and made use of fewer nonstandard forms in their speech (1982: 92; 96; 86). 5. Page observes that Bridget Jones is independent, has a successful career, and is sexually agentive; nevertheless, the self-help discourse that is woven through the narrative of the novel is focused on romantic relationships, reinforcing heterosexuality as normative and a goal for which a woman must improve herself. Page categorizes the narrative voice in Fielding’s novel as “feminine discourse” (forthcoming). BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Absolon, see under Chaucer, Miller’s Tale as metaphor for sex, 25–26, 88, 94, Aers, David, 92, 94, 124, 174n5 111, 124, 125, 151, 167n10, Alison, see under Chaucer, Miller’s Tale 174n1 Andrew, Malcolm, 63 ill in, 76, 133; see also sickroom antifeminism, 68, 69, 73, 171n1; see bedchamber, see under room also Christian Church bed curtains, 82, 83 Bromyard, 69 bedroom, see under room Guilbert of Tournai, 69 bedside, 114; see also bed Archibald, E., 168n17 Belsey, Catherine, 39 Ardener, Edwin, 40 Benson, Larry D., 172n4 Arthur, see under Malory, Morte Benson, Stephen, 166n1 Darthur; romance narratives, Billig, Michael, 53 Cleges, Degrevant, Launfal Blackstone, W., 47 Arthurian pseudo-history, 49 Blake, N. F., 130, 132, 144 audience, see under romance Blamires, Alcuin, 13, 23, 69 Augustine, 70 Blanch, Robert, 170n19 Aurelius, see under Chaucer, Franklin’s Bloch, R. Howard, 73, 158, 161, 171n1 Tale Bloom, Amy, 172n5 Austen, Jane, 15, 172n2, 178n19 “The Sight of You,” 172n5 Emma, 178n19 Blum, Martin, 144, 145, 151, 178n23, Northanger Abbey, 15 179n27 Persuasion, 178n19 Braidotti, Rosi, 40 Pride and Prejudice, 172n2 Breton lai, see lai (lay) Austin, J. L., 11 Brewer, Derek, 17, 58, 60, 124–25, 174n5, 175n13 Barlow, Linda, 18 Bromyard, see under antifeminism Barney, Stephen A., 113 Brookner, Anita, 1 Barrett, Rusty, 3 Hotel du Lac, 1 BBC News, 168n1 Brundage, James, 28, 45, 46, 47, 68, Bédier, Joseph, 131–32, 134, 176n4 168n16 bed, 26, 58, 73, 76, 79, 83, 92, 93, Bullough, Vern L., 68 103, 106, 133, 140, 150, 151; Burton, Deidre, 8, 9 see also bedside Butler, Judith, 15 194 INDEX

Cadden, Joan, 52 kankedort, 76; malapert, 82; Calin, William, 176n8 Pandarus (Pandare), 75–76, Campbell-Kibler, Kathryn, et al., 17 78–89, 92–93, 95, 101, 106, Cameron, Deborah, 1–2, 3, 16, 17, 38, 108, 110–15, 117, 119, 40, 48, 54, 63, 65, 137, 175n1 123–25, 133, 173n9, 173n11, Capellanus, Andreas, 23, 62 175n8, 175n9, 175n12, De Amore, 62 178n20; sparrow hawk image, Carter, John Marshall, 45 94, 100; Troilus, 13, 70–126, Carter, Ronald, 9 133, 136, 151, 172n3, 172n6, Cartledge, Sue, 40, 165n1 173n9, 173n10, 174n2, 174n5, Casson, L. F., 18, 19, 23, 166n3, 174–75n7, 174n14, 175n8, 166n8, 167n10 175n12, 175n13, 177n13, chamber, see under room 177n16 Chance, Jane, 94 Cheshire, Jenny, 163, 179n4 Chancer, Lynn S., 64, 69, 70, 71, 72, Christian Church, 46, 68–69, 71, 162; 171n21 see also antifeminism Chaucer, 13, 49, 63, 70, 72, 77, and chastity, 68, 171n1 88–89, 90, 91, 94, 100, 101, 124, attempt to impose celibacy, 68, 69 125, 135, 144, 172n3, 172n4, attitude to sexuality, 68, 69, 70, 71, 173n12, 173n13, 174n5, 174n14, 158, 159, 162, 171n1 175n7, 175n12, 175n13, 176n5 Church Fathers, 68–89, 171n1 “Complaint of Venus,” 125 denigration of women, 173n8 Franklin’s Tale, The, 63, 135, female sexuality tempting men to 178n19: Aurelius, 63, 178n19 sin, 47, 48, 68, 69 Merchant’s Tale, The, 13, 135, Christian-Smith, Linda, 15 176n5: May, 13 Church Fathers, see under Christian Miller’s Tale, The, 13, 135, 144, 159, Church 176n5, 178n21: Absolon, Clair, Daphne, 171n2 151–58, 178n23, 178n24; Clark, Beverly Lyon, et al., 63, 64, Alison (Alisoun), 13, 144–60, 138, 171n20 178n21, 178n23, 178n24, Cleges, see romance narratives 178n26, 179n27; John, 144–45, Clover, Carol J., 40–41 150, 152, 160, 178n21; Colopy, Cheryl, 51–52, 170n11 Nicholas (Nicholay), 144–55, consent, 2, 12, 27, 28, 29, 43–44, 158–60, 178n18, 178n21, 45–46, 62, 91–92, 94, 125, 129, 178n24, 178n26, 179n27 138, 143, 144, 150, 168n3, Troilus and Criseyde, 13, 70–126, 174n3, 175n1; see also rape; sex 133, 151, 159, 172n4, 178n20: Antioch College sexual consent Criseyde, 13, 70, 72–95, policy, 175n1 97–126, 133, 151, 172n6, consenting victim, 89 173n9, 173n10, 173n11, of parent/guardian, 168n15 173n14, 174n2, 174n3, 175n8, conversation analysis, 11, 24, 30; see 175n11, 175n12, 177n16; also pragmatic analysis of dialogue Deiphebus, 76; delite, 101; conversational turns, 4, 11, 24, 25, Diomede, 175n12; Helen, 76; 35, 36, 37, 53, 85, 113–15, INDEX 195

138–39, 148–49, 155–56, Diamond, Arlyn, 12, 18, 23, 29, 71, 178n24: length of 166n4, 167n9, 167n14 turns/speeches, 4, 11, 35, 36, Dietrich, Stephanie, 124, 172n3 85, 87, 115, 138, 139, 155, 156 Dinshaw, Carolyn, 111, 175n9 Cooper, Helen, 135 discourse analysis, 3, 10, 11 Coulthard, R. M., 11, 167n13 Donald, Robin, 172n2 courtly love/behavior, 12, 64, 73, 74, Donaldson, E. T., 176n5 87, 89, 124, 132, 136, 172n7, Dronke, Peter, 129, 130, 132, 133 175n12, 176n5, 177–78n18 Duby, Georges, 64 courtly romance (literary genre), see Duncombe, Jean, 1 under romance courtship, 2, 13, 22, 63, 64, 71, 74, 77, Eckert, Penelope, 16 88, 89, 90, 131, 162 Edwards, A. S. G., 168n17 Cowen, Janet, 168n17 Edwards, Elizabeth, 36, 37 Crane, Lynda L., 63, 169n5, 179n28 Elaine, see under Malory, Morte Criseyde, see under Chaucer, Troilus and Darthur Criseyde emotion, see under love epic, 73 Dame Sirith, 13, 135–36, 143–44, 151, ethnographic studies, 1, 15 177n12 Evans, Ruth, 49, 173n12 Dame Sirith, 143 Margery, 136–44 fabliau, 13, 129, 130–35, 137, 138, Wilekin, 136–44, 177n16 142, 143, 144, 150, 151, 158–60, Davenport, W. A., 22, 25, 28, 166n8, 161, 162, 174n1, 174n2, 176n3, 167n9, 167n14 176n7, 177n15, 177n22 Degaré, see under romance narratives and gender roles, 13, 130, 135, 144, Degrevant, see under romance narratives 151, 152, 159 Delany, Sheila, 94, 100 Anglo-Norman fabliaux, 130, 135 desire, 2, 3, 16, 38, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, audience for, 131–32, 158, 176n4, 70, 72, 73, 74, 89, 124, 125, 127, 177n15 133, 135, 158, 159, 165n1, English fabliaux, 13, 130, 135, 144, 172n5, 178n26 176n5; see also Chaucer, as natural, 16 Merchant’s Tale; Miller’s Tale; emasculating effect of, 13, 124 Dame Sirith female as object of, 12, 62, 63 French fabliaux, 129–132, 176n5, female desire, 12, 16, 30, 37, 39, 55, 176n6 62, 63, 64, 72, 126, 129, 133, humor in, 135, 158, 161 135, 144, 159, 162 obscene language in, 130, 135 insatiability of female, 12, 47, 48, parodying romance,132, 133, 134, 77, 89, 171n1 135, 150, 176n5 male desire, 39, 49, 63, 64, 73, 94, relationship to lai, 132, 135, 177n9 124, 129, 144, 159, 172n3 relationship to romance, 130–35, triangulated, 133, 135, 177n10 138, 144, 150, 158, 159, 160, Devil’s Contract, 56–57, 58, 170n17; 161, 174n2, 176n7, 177n9, see also sex, with the devil 179n28 196 INDEX fabliau––continued Gawain, see under Malory, Morte sexual expression in, 130, 134–35, Darthur 158, 159, 160, 179n28 gender positionings, 1, 9, 15, 63, 64, “Fair Maid of Astolat,” see under 68, 74, 77, 90, 100, 144; see also Malory, Morte Darthur under heterosexuality Farrell, Thomas J., 174n1 Gibb, Frances, 168n3 Faust, George Patterson, 169n8 Gilbert, Jane, 176n8 female role; see also passivity; gender Gillmeister, Heiner, 76 positionings; desire Glanvill and Bracton, 44 as object of male gaze, 79, 110, 138, Goldberg, P. J. P., 167n15 166n6 Goodall, Peter, 173n9 female as father’s possession, 28, 29 Gowther, see under romance narratives female loquacity, 23, 33–34, 36, 37 Gratian, 44–45, 68 female offeree, 1, 12, 37, 61 Decretum of, 44 female offerer, 12, 143, 144 Gravdal, Kathryn, 44, 63, 169n4 female reluctance, 12, 52, 64, 149, Guilbert of Tournai, see under 159, see also resistance; sex, antifeminism offer of Guinevere, 29, 177; see also under female silence, 28, 53, 54, 62, 65, Malory, Morte Darthur; romance 81, 108, 114, 168n3 narratives, Degrevant femininity, 2, 3, 11, 13, 14, 23, 37, 38, 39, 40, 48, 49, 54, 55, 62, 63, 65, Hall, Kira, 3 67, 113, 125, 129, 130, 133, 134, Halliday, M. A. K., 4–6, 8, 20, 83, 135, 138, 144, 151, 159, 160, 161, 173n11 162, 177n11; see also passivity; Hamblin, Angela, 40 female role; heterosexuality Hansen, Elaine Tuttle, 91–92, 124, feminism, 8, 39–40, 46, 61, 62, 64, 88, 174n3 124, 162, 165n2, 165n4, 173n12, Hart, Lynda, 138 179n28 Hazen, Helen, 165n2 Fèvre, Jehan Le, 23 hedges, see under linguistic features Fielding, Helen, 163, 179n5 heritage, 51 Bridget Jones’s Diary, 163, 179n5 hero; see male hero Finlayson, John, 135, 176n5, 177n11 Herod, see under Chaucer, Miller’s Tale Fowler, Bridget, 15, 170n16, 178n19 Heterosexuality Fradenburg, Louise O., 94 as culturally constructed, 1, 2, 3, 9, France, Marie de, 135 15, 16, 17, 18, 22, 38–39, 41, Eliduc, 135; see also lai (lay) 47, 48, 49, 52, 55, 63, 65, 67, Franklin’s Tale, see under Chaucer 91, 113, 129, 134, 135, 144, French literature, 49, 130, 131, 132, 151, 161, 162, 178n19, 178n21 134, 171n1, 176n5 as normative/naturalized, 1, 17, 39, Freud, 53 41, 43, 69, 176n3, 179n5 Frith, Hannah, 48 as socially constructed, 1, 2, 8, 15, Furrow, Melissa, 132, 176n4 17, 38, 48, 49, 165n1 demand for difference of, 10, 39, 40, Gavey, Nicola, 15, 38, 169n6 125, 130, 144, 159, 162 INDEX 197

gender roles, 1, 2, 9, 14, 15, 17, 39, Kulick, Don, 1–2, 3, 12, 16, 17, 41, 48, 49, 65, 67, 68, 77, 90, 29–30, 38, 39, 40, 48, 54, 62, 63, 91, 95, 100, 124, 129, 134, 65, 72, 137, 175n1 135, 144, 162, 163, 167n9 linguistic constructions of, 2 Lacan, 40, 172n7 traditional script, 37, 47, 61, Lacy, Norris, 135, 176n4, 176n7, 62, 89 177n15 paradigm of heterosexual courtship, lai (lay), 49, 132, 135, 177n9; see also 2, 12, 125, 137, 145, 150 fabliau, relationship to lai Higgins, Lynn A., 2, 94, 179n3 Lakoff, Robin, 24–25 Hines, John, 129–30, 137, 158, 159, Lancelot (Launcelot), see under Malory, 171n1, 176n4, 177n12, 177n14 Morte Darthur historical pragmatics, 10, 165n5 Laskaya, Anne, 53, 60, 169n8, 170n9, Historical Thesaurus of English, 27, 170n15, 170n18 167n11 Launfal, see under romance narratives Holdsworth, W. S., 43, 45 Leech, Geoffrey N., 8 Hollenbaugh, L. C., 37, 47, 48 linguistic features, 2, 3, 10, 13, 14, 29, Honegger, Thomas, 137, 138, 177n12, 54, 88, 177n18; see also 177n16, 177n18 metalinguistic cues Hopper, Paul J., 6, 20, 79, 100, 174n4 hedges, 4, 24, 25, 28, 139, 140, 141, Hutcheon, Linda, 134 142, 143, 148, 149, 156, 157, 158 intimacy, see under sex tag questions/phrases, 4, 25, 53 Isolde (Yseult), 133, 177n16, 178n22 Livia, Anna, 10, 24 Lodge, David, 166n2 Jackson, Stevi, 1–2, 38–39, 46, 62, 65, Small World, 166n2 88, 89, 165n2 Lomperis, Linda, 144, 151, 159, Jauss, Hans Robert, 161 178n21, 178–79n26 jealousy, see under love love Johnson, Lesley, 173n12 emotion, 19, 30, 39, 44, 88–89, John, see under Chaucer, Miller’s Tale 108, 155, 165n1, 166n5 Juhasz, Suzanne, 15, 18 jealousy, 93, 101, 114, 116, 118, 126, 160 Kane, George, 173n13 love potion, 127 Kappeler, Susanne, 40 lovesickness, 74, 125, 136, 152, Keats, John, 15 177n13; see also bed, ill in; Eve of St. Agnes, 15 sickroom: illness resulting from, Madeline, 15, 166n2 126; loves peyne, 126 Porphyro, 166n2 Lupack, Alan, 134 Kelly, H. A., 174n2 lyric romance, 2, 49, 74, 131; see also Kiesling, Scott, 3, 125 troubadour lyric Kinsale, Laura, 171n2 Kitzinger, Celia, 39, 48, 61 MacKaye, Percy, 85–86, 174–75n7 Kolve, V. A., 178n26 MacKinnon, Catherine A., 40, 46, 48 Krentz, Jayne Ann, 67, 70, 166n7 Madeline, see under Keats 198 INDEX magic, 74, 129, 176n2 British Library, MS Egerton 2862, Malcolm, Janet, 43–44 169n7 male hero, 52, 70, 125, 172n2, 172n3; British Library, Additional MS see also male (masculine) lover 27879 (Percy Folio), 169n7, conception of, 13, 55, 56 170n12 sadistic persona of, 67, 69, 70, Bodleian Library, MS Digby 86, 135 71–72, 77, 89, 93, 125 Bodleian Library, MS Royal male (masculine) lover, 12, 75, 17.B.43, 170n13 82, 87, 88, 89, 92, 125, 129, Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson 136, 137, 150, 151, 178n23, Poetry 34, 169n7, 170n12 179n27 Bodleian Library, MS Douce 261, abjection of, 73, 74, 76, 89 169n7 active desire of, 13, 25, 62, 63, 73 Margery, see under Dame Sirith aloofness of, 70, 159 Margherita, Gayle, 64 forcefulness of, 13, 87, 89, 136, 137, Mark, 133 151, 158 marriage, 12, 18, 21, 25, 26, 29, 37, Malek, Doreen Owens, 171–72n2 38, 45, 52, 54, 57, 58, 68, 93, Malory, 30, 34, 35, 168n17, 168n19 167n9, 167–68n15, 171n21 Morte Darthur, 30, 34, 72: Arthur, as distraction, 69, 71 30, 168n18; Elaine, 12, 30–37, chaste marriage, 68 71–72, 168n19; “Fair Maid of conjugal duty of, 68 Astolat,” 12, 30, 34, 144; marriage debt, 68 Gawain, 35, 36, 37, 168n18; reducing capacity for prayer, 69 Guinevere, 37; Lancelot Marsden, Dennis, 1 (Launcelot), 12, 30–37, 71–72, masculinity, 2, 13, 14, 37, 38, 39, 62, 168n18, 168n19, 168n20, 67, 91, 113, 124, 125, 129, 130, 177n16 134, 135, 144, 151, 158, 159, Mann, Jill, 63–64, 77, 88–90, 94, 124, 160, 161, 162, 172n3, 172n12 149, 159, 173n12 masochistic role, 64, 69, 70, 71, 72, manuscripts, 18, 23, 50, 56, 130, 132, 172n7 135, 166n3, 167n10, 169n7, May, see under Chaucer, Merchant’s Tale 170n12 McCarthy, Terence, 34, 168n20 Advocates Library of Scotland, MS McConnell-Ginet, Sally, 16, 24, 48 19.2.1 (the Auchinleck McDonald, Nicola, 165n3, 176n8 manuscript), 50, 56, 169n7 McInerney, Maud Burnett, 95, 124, Cambridge University Library, MS 174n5, 175n12, 175n13 Ff.1.6 (the Findern anthology), McNamara, Jo Ann, 68 18, 166n3, 167n10 Melidor, see under romance narratives, Cambridge University Library, MS Degrevant Ff.2.38, 167n10, 169n7, 170n12 Menuge, Noël James, 171n19 Lincoln Cathedral A.5.2 (the Merchant’s Tale, see under Chaucer Thornton manuscript), 18, 23, metalinguistic cues, 34, 178n24; see also 167n10 linguistic features British Library, MS Harley 2253, Meun, Jean de, 23, 62 130 Le Roman de la Rose, 62 INDEX 199

Middle English, 2, 10, 19, 132, 134, Paul, St., 69; see also, antifeminism; 138, 168n19 Christian Church; misogyny Middle English Dictionary (MED), 19, Pearce, Lynne, 15, 165n2, 167n9 55, 101, 136, 166n5 Pearcy, Roy J., 176n5 Miller’s Tale, see under Chaucer Pearsall, Derek, 2, 49, 176n8 Mills, Sara, 4, 5, 9, 165n4 Phillips, Helen, 94 misogyny, 47, 62; see also antifeminism; Phillips, Susan Elizabeth, 171n2 patriarchal society; Christian Philomela, 94 Church Porphyro, see under Keats Modleski, Tania, 165n2 Post, J. B., 45 Montaiglon, A. de, 176n2 pragmatic analysis of dialogue, 10; see Mort Arthur, Le, 168n19 also conversation analysis Mort le Roi Artu, La, 168n19 prayer, 56, 57, 59, 61, 69, 92, 94, 114, Morte Darthur, see under Malory 115, 119, 121, 122, 142 Muehlenhard, C., 37, 47, 48 private space, 44, 76, 92, 173n9 Muscatine, Charles, 133, 134, 158–59, processes 176n3, 176n4, 176n6 types of, 4–5 Putter, Ad, 176n8 Naffine, Ngaire, 17, 45–46 Newcomb, Lori Humphrey, 166n1 Radway, Janice A., 15, 65, 138, 165n2 Nicholas (Nicholay), see under Ramsey, Lee C., 28, 52 Chaucer, Miller’s Tale rape, see also consent Nykrog, Per, 132–33, 177n9 as code for seduction, 45, 46, 52 as wish-fulfillment, 52, 61 Orfeo, see under romance narratives belief about female seed, 52 Oxford English Dictionary (OED), 19, by a supernatural being, 49, 65 51, 169n4 in canon law, 44, 45, 46, 47, 68 in Roman law, 47, 50, 168n16 Page, Ruth, 179 legal definition of, 2, 45, 46 Pakkala-Weckström, Mari, 10, 176n5 myths about, 50 Pamphilus, 64 of a virgin, 45, 50, 55, 62 Pandarus (Pandare), see under Chaucer, raptus, 44, 45, 58, 168n16 Troilus and Criseyde ravir, 44 parody, see under fabliau ravissement, 44 participants strategic cry of, 45 in process clauses, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Raynaud, G., 176n2 passivity, 3; see also under female role resistance, see also under sex passive female, 9, 12, 13, 25, 58, female resistance, 37, 38, 47, 49, 52, 61–63, 65, 67, 94, 95, 144, 63, 65, 72, 73, 74, 89, 91, 159, 165n4 160, 169n6 passive male, 73, 93, 124 masculine resistance, 126 patriarchal society, 40, 89, 162; see also, token resistance, 29, 47, 48, 72, 76, antifeminism; Christian Church; 129, 149, 151, 159 misogyny Rickert, Edith, 26, 166n8, 167n10 Patterson, Lee, 161 Riddy, Felicity, 30 200 INDEX

Robson, Margaret, 57–58 170n17: duchess (Gowther’s romance mother), 29, 56–52, 170n17; afterlife of, 3, 15, 49, 67, 129, 162 duke (married to the duchess), audience, 2, 19, 40, 52, 62, 63, 77, 56, 58, 83; fiend, 7, 12, 56, 58, 130, 131–32, 134, 158, 176n4, 59–62, 129 177n15; see also fabliau Gowther, 29, 57, 170n17 courtly romance (literary genre), 12, Launfal, Sir, 52, 170n14: Arthur, 64, 70, 73, 132, 133, 134, 135, 170n14; Launfal, 170n14 138, 159, 176n12 Orfeo, Sir, 58, 170n14, 170n18: genre, 1, 12, 49, 89, 131, 138 Heurodis, 58; Orfeo, 170n14 Middle English, 2, 15, 18, 132, 134, Tristrem, Sir, 134, 170n14: Tristrem, 138, 168n19, 176n8: as 170n14 déclassé, 134 room, 26, 37, 75, 92, 93, 167; see also modern mass-market, 2, 49, 63, 67, private space 70, 138, 150, 162, 172n2 bedchamber, 133 popularity of, 2, 134, 162, 179n28 bedroom, 48, 92, 93, 102, 133, 150, relationship to fabliau, 130–35, 138, 152, 156, 173n9, 178n23 144, 150, 158, 159, 160, 161, chamber, 23, 26, 29, 37, 38, 59, 74 174n2, 176n7, 177n9, 179n28 sickroom, 76, 85; see also bed, ill in romance narratives Rose, Christine M., 44, 169n4 Cleges, Sir, 170n14: Arthur, 170n14; Rubin, Gayle, 167n12 Cleges, 170n14 Ryan, Joanna, 40, 165n1 Degaré, Sir, 4, 7, 12, 50–53, 55, 61, Rychner, Jean, 132, 176n6 62, 72, 138, 144, 169n7, 170n9, 170n14, 177n10: sadomasochistic dynamic, 69, 71, 72, Degaré, 170n14; fairy knight, 73, 74, 91, 93, 159; see also male 7, 12, 51–55, 58, 62, 129, 138, hero, sadistic persona of 170n10, 170n12; princess Salisbury, Eve, 53, 60, 136, 169n8, (Degaré’s mother), 50–55, 61, 170n9, 170n15, 170n18, 177n9 62, 72, 138, 169n8, 170n11, Saunders, Corinne, 45, 49–50, 51, 55, 170n12 62, 65, 89, 94, 170n19 Degrevant, Sir, 12, 18–30, 33, 34, 37, Schleich, Gustav, 169n7, 170n12 38, 48, 51, 53, 61, 71, 138, 144, Searle, J. R., 11 151, 158, 166n4, 166n8, 167n9 Second Lateran Council, 68 167n10, 177n13, 177n17, sex, see also under bed 178n20: Arthur, 18; Degrevant, application of force/pressure to 12, 18–30, 33, 34, 37, 38, 48, bring about, 12, 13, 46, 50, 63, 51, 53, 71, 138, 151, 158, 76, 82, 89, 91, 125, 129, 136, 166n4, 166n8, 167n10, 177n13; 137, 151, 158; see also rape Guinevere, 18; Melidor, 12, guilt about, 64, 69, 126, 127, 159, 18–30, 33, 34, 37–38, 48, 51, 171n21 71, 158, 166n4, 166n8, 167n9, impossibility of consensual, 129; see 167n10, 167n15, 177n13 also consent Gowther, Sir, 7, 12, 56–58, 61, 62, intimacy, 2, 38, 83 83, 144, 170n13, 170n15, missionary position, 176n3 INDEX 201

mutual, 91, 92, 94, 100, 151 sexual identities, 1, 10, 16, 17, 38, offer of, 3, 46, 72, 135: female 54, 58, 91, 144, 174n5 offeree, 1, 12, 37, 61; female Shippey, T. A., 17 offeror, 12, 143, 144; male Short, Michael H., 8, 11 offeror, 1, 12, 29, 37, 61, 74, sickbed, 76; see also bed, ill in; 75, 88, 139, 142; maybe, 47, sickroom 125, 129; no, 12, 29, 30, 37–39, sickroom, see under room 47–49, 53, 61, 62, 63, 65, 74, silence 75, 91, 125, 129, 137, 149, 151, female silence, 28, 53, 54, 62, 65, 158, 163, 169n6, 170n12; 81, 108, 114, 168n3 refusal of, 1, 12, 29, 37, 47, 48, male silence, 79, 81, 101, 113 62, 63, 65, 129, 137, 142, 144, Silver, Brenda R., 2, 94, 179n3 149, 150, 157–58, 169n5; see Sinclair, J. McH., 11, 167n13 also resistance; yes, 29–30, 38, Slover, Clark H., 169n8 47, 48, 53, 63, 65, 75, 76, 129; Smith, Sally A., 15 responsibility for, 49, 52, 56, 62, sociolinguistics, 10–11, 163 65, 126, 127, 144, 150, 179n28 Spearing, A. C., 70, 88, 159, 173n8, secrecy of sexual relationships, 26, 174n3, 175n11 70, 88, 138, 159, 160, 174n14, speech act 177n16, 177n18 theory of, 11 sex with the devil, 56; see also Stacey, Jackie, 165n2 Devil’s Contract Statutes of Westminster, 44, 45 sexual arousal, 47, 69, 70, 94, 95, Stillwell, Gardiner, 176n5, 177–78n18 101, 174n5 Strohm, Paul, 161, 179n1 sexual contact: kissing, 9, 26, 29, 35, stylistics, 3, 8, 10, 11, 13 75, 81, 88, 98, 99, 100, 103, Sylvester, Louise, 47 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 145, Symons, Dana M., 134 147, 148, 149, 152, 155, 157, 158, 178n23; stroking, 97, tag questions/phrases, see under 100, 110 linguistic features sexual encounters, 2, 3, 12, 13, 22, Talbot, Mary M., 39 29, 37, 48, 49–50, 51–52, Tatlock, John S., 85–86, 174–75n7 54–63, 65, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75, Thompson, Sandra A., 6, 20, 79, 100, 82, 91, 92, 93–95, 100, 102, 174n4 108, 110, 112, 113, 114, 124, Thompson, Stith, 56–57, 58 125, 126, 127, 129, 131, 134, Thurston, Carol, 171n20 135, 137, 142–43, 145, 148, Toolan, Michael J., 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 25 150, 151, 158, 159, 161, transitivity, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 13, 20, 55, 175n9, 175n1 77, 79, 90, 135, 165n4; see also sexual practices, 2, 17, 38, 39, 68, participants; processes 161 transitivity, components of sinfulness of, 70, 159; see also affectedness, 6, 7, 20, 79: of body Christian Church part, 8, 9, 60, 101, 102, 106, sexuality 109, 110, 126, 146, 147, 148, as natural, 1, 15, 16, 40, 165n1 154, 155 202 INDEX transitivity, components of––continued Troilus and Criseyde, see under Chaucer affirmation, 6, 7 troubadour lyric, 73; see also lyric agency, 5, 6, 7, 8, 20, 55, 57, 58, romance 59, 60, 61, 79, 100, 107, 110, 112, 113, 126, 148, 158, Vinaver, Eugène, 168n17 175n10, 175n1, 179n5: agent Vitz, Evelyn Birge, 126–27, 171n21 metonyms, 8 aspect, 6, 7 Wack, Mary, 74, 125 individuation, 6, 7, 20, 55, 60, 79, Wardrop, Stephanie, 64, 65, 67 100, 106, 107, 112, 148, 155 Wareing, Shan, 4, 8–9, 130, 166n6 kinesis, 6, 55, 60, 79, 100, 107, 148, Weeks, Jeffrey, 3, 165n1 155 Weiss, Judith, 12, 13 mode, 6, 7, 55, 60 Western culture/society, 1, 2, 13, 17, punctuality, 6, 7, 8, 32, 55, 60, 79, 21, 33, 43, 61, 162, 179n3 83, 100, 107, 155 White, Sarah Melhado, 131, 176n4 realis, 6, 7, 55, 60, 100 Wilekin, see under Dame Sirith telicity, 6, 7, 8, 32, 55, 60, 83, 100, Wilkinson, Sue, 39 101, 107, 148, 155 will (wille), 27–28, 54, 136, 138, 139, volitionality, 5, 6, 7, 8, 32, 55, 60, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148 79, 83, 100, 101, 106, 107, Windeatt, Barry, 82, 112, 174n14, 108, 155, 170n17, 173n11 174n6 Treharne, Elaine, 10–11, 25 Winterson, Jeanette, 167n9 Tristan, 133, 134, 177n16, 178n22 The Powerbook, 167n9 Tristan (Anglo-Norman poem), 134 Tristrem, see romance narratives Yseult, see under Isolde Troilus, see under Chaucer, Troilus and Criseyde Vivek, Slavoj, 74, 172n7