POLITICAL EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRACY IN SCHOOLS

Uzma Quraishi and Farah Rahman Department of Education, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

ABSTRACT This paper argues for democratic education for countries faced with conflict and political instability. Political education is an essential component of democratic education. The paper develops a conceptual framework for the effectiveness of such education in a country like Pakistan where is there is a dire need to improve educational content and experience to promote democratic mindset. Harber’s (1991) distinction of political education, political socialisation and political indoctrination has been used to develop the framework. Keywords: Democratic education, social justice, political education, Citizenship

INTRODUCTION and the law, and critical thought, persistence The main focus in democratic education is and willingness to negotiate rules of justice. to build among the young learners the Political skills refer to the understanding of values, knowledge and skills of a democratic political interactions and processes in terms community. The analysis of these crucial of how these exist and work, that is and critical elements should be coupled with understanding of political systems as well as the unique necessities and opportunities in understanding of the notion of politics - how education for democratic citizens. If a this concept permeates the formal crucial link between the philosophy and arrangement of political systems, for experience in education were achieved then example understanding of political and that would result in a form of learning based social issues, their history and their on powerful harmonisation of epistemology, contemporary relevance as well as the political theory and educational practice. ability to deal with such issues in a peaceful The important similarities and relationship manner. These are essentially action skills between political education and democratic Democratic skills refer to the ability of education, where epistemology refers to individuals and societies to resolve conflicts critical thinking skills around political, through participation in a peaceful manner. social and aesthetic issues, political theory These skills are based on the reciprocity of as pertinent political knowledge and participation, therefore also refer to the educational practice refers to school ability to monitor and influence. They are institutional culture and climate. The main intellectual and participatory skills that purpose of democratic education is to necessitate traits of character that are facilitate the development of social, political characterised by commitment to and democratic values and skills (Harber, fundamental principles/values of democracy, 1995; Osler and Starkey, 1996; Nussbaum, that is having the ability to evaluate, take 1997; Arnot & Dillabough, 2000; and defend positions on a range of issues. Baumfield, 2003; Nussbaum, 2005, 2006). The main underlying assumption of The following are the focused definitions for this paper is that these skills could be this paper: acquired if proper democratic school Social skills refer to the skills of appropriate structures and cultures are established. The communication and interactions between following discussion will concern itself different members of the society, based on firstly with the school structures and the concept of mutual respect in a given secondly with mechanisms that help develop social context that is beneficial to all people a democratic culture based on the values involved in the interaction. These skills refer discussed earlier in the paper. to individual traits such as respect for others 26 Quraishi & Rahman., Gomal University Journal of Research, 25-1:25-36 (2009)

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: where all members of the school are aware DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION of the policies and goals of the school, Democracy and Governance: There is a whether those goals are concerned with paradox in the relationship between academic achievement of the pupils or democracy and governance. Democracy admissions to the school. demands equal and full participation of all Administrative competence, This research individuals in decision-making whether it is also interprets administrative competence as through direct means (direct democracy) or the ability of individuals in positions of through representation (representative authority to involve other individuals in the democracy), whereas governance involves decision-making processes and provide a the exercise of power to control decision- culture within school that ensures the making that in turn also determines who will effective, academic/professional and have access to those decision-making personal development of all individuals in a processes. Therefore, without having some school. ‘yard stick’ to keep a check on the system it Human rights, It demands fairness and may be unscrupulously exploited by those in justice, regardless of the class, position, power. status or gender of individuals. It also refers to transparent and inclusive forms of It could be argued that politics refers to management, where all individuals, governance, whereas democracy refers to headteachers, teachers, pupils, parents and good governance. It is because of this fact the community have equal rights to that countries which have “good” independent opinion and channels of governance or good governments are seen as communication to voice those opinions. examples of democracy, for examples in the Accountability is defined by this study as case of United States. However, mere belief an obligation to provide an account of one’s in human rights and social justice does not actions. Accountability thus comprises automatically perpetuate democracy at any reporting and ‘description, explanation, level of social and political life. Democracy justifying analysis, or some form of is a system and therefore, it needs to have exposition’ (Wagner, 1989) with regard to a some kind of mechanism for its regulation. particular action taken. Within a school Indicators of Democracy: In terms of context it is about headteachers being macro politics the then Overseas accountable to the community, parents, Development Agency, British Council, has pupils and teachers and vice versa. That is, identified four indicators of good the management, organisation, pedagogy governance, namely, legitimacy, and curriculum is reviewed and developed administrative competence, accountability through a democratic process and national and human rights (Harber, 1995 and Davies, and institutional goals for education are 1995). In order to expand this research’s clear and transparent. Within a classroom it understanding of the concept of democratic translates as teachers being accountable to education further, this research subscribes to pupils and vice versa, and also pupils being Davies’ (1995) translation of principles of accountable to themselves and each other, good governance by ODA into the context through self- monitoring and co-operative of schools, as indicators of democracy in learning, where teachers take the role of those schools. fixers and facilitators rather than instructors Legitimacy translates as having lawful and (Harber, 1997). elected or agreed positions of authority. That This paper sees these indicators as crucial to is the lawful appointment of headteachers, the understanding of school culture teachers and other staff. It is also fair and concerning democracy. That is because agreed methods of classroom and school these indicators as have been interpreted management. This study sees legitimacy here not only point to the processes that are also as a transparent mode of management, democratic but also to the philosophy behind

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these processes. This study will use these artistic activities, but also the underlying indicators to underpin important issues beliefs that govern these rituals. This makes concerning democracy in schools in culture a complex and multi-layered Pakistan. One of the main research phenomenon (Rosaldo, 1989; Jordon and assumptions is that the political culture Weedon, 1995). Jordon and Weedon define greatly affects the kind of democracy and culture as a phenomenon that affects all the type of educational system that prevails aspects of social and political lives of in that country and vice-versa. individuals and societies. They state that Political culture: Political culture is culture therefore comprises of customs, arts, basically the integration of two concepts: and social institutions of a group or a Politics and Culture. Politics is the process society. of controlling the levers of power which Within education culture refers to both the involve struggles to acquire, maintain and way individuals socialise and think and it sustain control over the decision-making also refers to the excellence of human regarding resolution of conflicts and actions thought and ability to develop understanding of/between individuals, groups of people or of complex issues and change their organisations. In much of the discussion behaviour accordingly. earlier on politics and democracy, I have Political culture: The political culture used the term ‘democratic culture’. represents the attitudes and behaviour Culture: A simple definition of culture patterns which determine the social and would be that it is a way of life, mannerism, political organisation of a community. This and customs of a group or societies. It is paper supports the following definition of seen in two senses: firstly it refers to the political culture, which sees it, way of living that is how people socialise As a phenomenon which govern the rules of and interact with each other. Secondly it is the political game in a society or an seen as a special behaviour and thinking organisation. It encompasses beliefs about enshrined in excellence of knowledge and the proper and improper way to settle understanding, as in ‘high culture’. political differences and proper and In sociological and anthropological terms improper functions of the government culture refers not only to the way people live (Jones et al., 1994). and conduct different religious, social and

The political culture also decides who gets change in the politics and culture of a the power, and for how long. It constantly society, figure1 alters itself with the evolution and the .

Figure 1 The Model of Political Culture

POLITICS Mass Media CULTURE Decision- Educational Customs, making system arts, Manoeuvring Legislature Belief system

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In figure 1, I have conceptualised political social and political life, beliefs and culture as a phenomenon that constantly practices. It includes patterns and norms of alters itself with the evolution and change in leadership and authority and defines the politics and culture of a society, thus the acceptable parameters of conduct and behaviour patterns, within politics affect the behaviour behaviour patterns and attitudes entrenched It does so because as Jordon and Weedon within a culture and vice-versa. I assume (1995) argue that cultural interaction some that although schools, universities and times generate deep emotions for example, colleges are an integral part of the mass patriotism, sexism or gender biases, racism, culture, they can also be seen as separate anti-semetism and militant religious groups units and variables that can affect and so on and so forth (Jordon and Weedon, change the mass culture. Similarly, the mass 1995) and recently Islamophobea. All these media not only represent the mass culture. add up to make a political culture at a micro- They also alter and facilitate the process of level of a country or macro level of global change in it (McQuail, 1994), and can be community. The purpose of democratisation used by the political regime. This means that of a political system is thus, to address and media within school could also be seen as a challenge cultural and political subjectivity. tool to promote democratic values and This makes the process of democracy a practices. more complex and multilayered It is, however, important to understand the phenomenon. Democratic education is, difference between political culture and therefore, about empowering learners with cultural politics: they are closely interrelated problem solving and critical thinking skills. concepts. A political culture is a product of Relevant Sociological Theories past and present of cultural politics. Cultural This section discusses the main micro- politics determine: political sociological theories used by this Whose culture shall be an official one and study, as an analytical framework to whose shall be subordinated? What cultures understand and explain some of the shall be regarded as worthy of display and emerging themes in the context of Pakistan, which shall be hidden? Whose history shall with reference to democratic education. be remembered and whose history be Critical Theory: Barrow and Milburn forgotten? What images of social life shall (1990) while explaining critical theory state be projected and what shall be heard and that it emerged during 1920s and 1930s as a which be silenced? Who is representing result of intellectual resistance to political whom and on what basis (Jordon and and social shortcomings in Europe at the Weedon, 1995). time. Sociologists such as Theodor Adorno, Jordon and Weedon maintain that cultural Max Horkheimer and Herbert Marcuse were politics is mainly the manipulative ability of influenced by the ideas expressed by Marx a group or an individual to persuade and and Freud and ideologies of popular control mould opinion and thinking and even of economic and political sectors. In France actions of individuals within a group or prominent sociologists such as Pierre sometimes in other groups. It is the politics Bourdieu and Michel Foucault made of how the cultural behaviour, customs, significant contributions to the critical different forms of Arts, and belief systems theory that developed and evolved to of one group may come to dominate another. question the political and economic It is this power and cultural struggle oppression and increasing authoritarianism. between any number of groups which forms Their ideas are now widespread and and regulates the political culture of a accepted among the contemporary society and which forms and influences the sociologists who have applied their ideas for formal framework of politics that is the the critical understanding of oppressive conduct of the government. The political forces in a wide range of social settings. culture covers a wide range of influences on

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Critical theory, in very general terms, is a adequately equipped to unravel form of analysis of social, political and underlying contradictions and conflicts economic life, designed to enable people to that exist in human interaction (Ball, gain insight into the oppressive forces that 1987, 1990, 1990(b), 1998; Blase, 1991, control their lives (Barrow and Milburn, 1998; Bacharach and Mitchell, 1987). 1990). Blase (1991) states, “Traditional theories It may be argued here that critical theory is a general term; however, it has directed the of school organisation and leadership present social thought to challenge have failed to capture adequately the straightforward explanations of complex and complicated and dynamic nature of diverse social issues. It challenges the value school life. Leadership theories, in of neutral status of traditional notions. In particular, are limited in their sensitivity education, critical theory has had a to the daily dynamics of social significant influence in terms of identifying influence” (Blase, 1991). complex political interactions that occur at The micro-political perspectives give the micro-level of an educational important insight into the daily workings of organisation/institution. The subsequent the school life both in terms of what is section looks into such micro political apparent and what is hidden in complex face perspectives that could be seen as influenced to face interactions between school by the critical theory. members. The traditional theories of Micro-political Perspective organisation (Parson, 1951; Getzels and Much current educational research is Guba, 1957) have been criticised by political influenced by organisational science theories theorists because they are essentially that generate functionalist approaches to hierarchical, whereby behaviour is study educational phenomena. Blase (1998) accounted for by structural variables (Blase, states: ‘Micropolitical perspectives on 1991; Sergiovanni, 1998). Furthermore, organisation directly challenge traditional- political theorists argue that although open rational (consensus) models of organisation systems approaches acknowledge ‘value and developed by such theorist as Max Weber goal differences among organisational and Taylor’ is one the significant influences participants, they still tend to assume on twentieth century social thought. unrealistically high levels of consensus in According to him social class is based on the organisational life’ (Blase, 1991). notion of meritocracy, that is defining social Ball (1989) contests the organisational class in terms of skills and qualifications of theory that overlooks the human element of individuals in the job market. Weber argued an organisation therefore has gaps with that social status could be achieved regards to identifying contradictions and regardless of caste, race or gender of the conflicts within interactions in an individual. In reality, as we see, in different organisation. Furthermore, he asserts that in contemporary societies, including UK scientific management approaches are industrially developed capitalist societies; further strengthened through widespread the political and social life is heavily laced training in university and polytechnics that with inequalities based on race, gender and ignores the complexities and dynamics of class. intra-organisational conflicts and Similarly, educational institutions are contradictions. In consideration of Ball’s political settings that are characterised (1987) and Blasé’s views concerning the by political interactions between all traditional theories of school organisation, it those involved in school life, an aspect may be assumed previous theoretical and that is overlooked by the traditional empirical work in education and other areas approaches to educational organisation. play down the complex and multilayered Therefore, they are seen as not nature of micropolitics as an organisational phenomenon. Despite this, these

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management theories are applied all over the interests, preferences or purposes. Political world, which point to the possible gaps in actions may include decisions and events. educational research worldwide. Thus, this Differences or discrepancies, that is, skilful paper considers it essential to adopt a or unskilful participation, may be connected micropolitical perspective. In order to reveal to values, beliefs, goals and ideological the school organisation as a micropolitical commitments (Ball, 1989). organisation this study subscribes to Blase’s Democratic Education and Political definition: Education Micropolitics refers to the use of formal and Political education occupies an important informal power by individuals and groups to place in democratic education. Before achieve their goals in organisations. In large opening up discussion on the essential links part, political actions result from perceived between political education and democratic differences between individuals and groups education it is important to state clearly coupled with the motivation to use power to what this research understands as political influence and/or protect. Although such education. There are three main forms of actions are consciously motivated, any political learning that have been identified action, consciously or unconsciously (Porter, 1983; Wringe, 1984; Harber, 1991), motivated, may have political “significance” namely political indoctrination, political in a given situation. Both cooperative and socialisation and political education. This conflictive actions and processes are part of study subscribes to the view held by Harber the realm of micropolitics. Moreover, (1991) that it is the type and content of the macro- and micropolitics factors frequently messages transmitted by various agencies, interact (Blase, 1991). whether it is educational institutions or the This definition is considered useful for this mass media that determine which the study because it includes, both legitimate learning constitutes (Table 1). Here these and illegitimate forms of power (Ball, 1987; three types of political learning are Blase, 1991). Furthermore it provides a conceptualised within an educational vehicle for linking individual and group institution, at primary and secondary goals, careers and actions pursued by schools. individuals and groups, which may be Table 1 Three broad forms of political learning Political indoctrination Political Socialisation Political education The intentional inculcation of values The learning of The attempt to create critical and beliefs as truths. The process may preferences and awareness of political involve deliberately falsifying or predisposition phenomena by open, balanced ignoring evidence as well as towards political discussion and analysis of a presenting it in a biased way in order values and attitudes range of evidence and to achieve the desired end. Often though often in opinions. Has an underlying associated with totalitarian states, i.e. contexts where other democratic ideology of where individuals have little access to viewpoints are political choice. alternative viewpoints. available. Source: Harber: (1991); “International Context for Political Education”. Political Indoctrination would translate as authoritarian As is evident from the table, opposed to the management, organisation, pedagogy and notion of political education is the concept curriculum, where strict rules and of political indoctrination, which is defined regulations would be apparent in order to as a deliberate distortion of facts. It is a one- establish supremacy of those in power. way flow of information - from the Pupils would be subject to a systematic government to the governed, from the indoctrination forcing them to accept powerful to the powerless. Within schools it dominant political and social ideologies

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without question. Harber goes on to argue: play a role in reproducing the dominant It is not a question of giving more social and political values of the surrounding emphasis to one viewpoint than another society. It will be the case that, to a greater but that an attempt is made to or lesser extent, alternative viewpoints are completely exclude the other (Harber, available in that society and even in the school. However, some values are taken 1991). more seriously and given more prominence He further argues that with totalitarian than others by schools. This can either be systems prevalent in undemocratic states, the conscious transmission of a dominant mostly with military dictatorships or ideology, e.g. African socialism and authoritarian political systems, education is education for self-reliance in Tanzania, or it used as a tool to orient the masses into can be conscious transmission of taken for accepting authoritarian politics. In these granted values” (Harber, 1991). states political learning is seen as a static Textbooks are the main source of this form system that discourages analysis and of political socialisation. He observes that discussion, let alone any attempt to change the content of books lead learners to accept the structure of the existing political system. certain forms of thinking as the norm and Governments deliberately try to exclude unconsciously ignore alternative views. This alternative views and information in order to observation is supported by Meighan and strengthen their control and influence on Siraj-Blatchford (1997), who see this form public thought and actions. Educational of political learning facilitated by the hidden institutions are considered to be a crucial curriculum that is through the textbook tool by autocratic rulers. He further argues content and teaching practice. Similar views that this practice, however, is not unique to have been given concerning education in developing countries. In developed countries Pakistan (Noman, 1990). Noman notes also there are some ‘elements’ in the field of textbooks, especially for subjects of History education who try to maintain control over and Social Studies, generate feelings and what is taught as politics and how it is emotions such as patriotism and religious taught. The present study derives the fervour. In consideration of these views it following research question out of this form may be assumed that educational institutions of political learning: in Pakistan are one of the main sources of • Is there any historical evidence which disseminating political and social imagery. suggests that education is used for Political science in schools is predominantly political indoctrination at the macro a superficial study of politics coated with level of the country? unnecessary jargon that hinders the Political Socialisation understanding of phenomena and it Political socialisation is the form of political socialises learners into assimilating the learning where there are dominant social and presented information on politics, instead of cultural preferences and a tendency to teach inspiring them to study it critically (Wringe, and learn only what is considered to be 1984). This study sees this as the main ‘normal’ or ‘acceptable’ by certain sections difference between political socialisation of the society. and political education. Political This form of political learning falls between socialisation may be equated with passive the other two forms of political learning, learning that is an uncritical or unconscious namely, political indoctrination and political assimilation of political ideas and concepts. education. Political education, as will be Political education, on the other hand, is discussed in the next section, is about active learning. encouraging critical understanding of social Political Education and political issues and relationships; by Political education is the constant flow of contrast political socialisation downplays the information in a manner that encourages critique. Harber states, “Schools commonly critical analysis of issues regarding the

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political system and the concept of politics. of democratic processes and principles, that Harber (1991) defines political education is, increased knowledge and understanding as,The attempt to create critical awareness of participation in social, economic and of political phenomenon by open, balanced political groups to influence contemporary discussion and analysis of a range of life. Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (1997) evidence and opinions. [Political education] cite Harber (1984), ‘Conservative resistance Has an underlying democratic ideology of to newer approaches in political education political choice (Harber; 1991). [is] not about a threat from the left but It generates discourse around large domains about a threat to their own hegemony’ of interests and dialogues. It provides (Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford, 1997). learners with freedom of thought and speech These two categories of political education regarding a range of issues (Crick, 1990; are useful for this paper in that they help Jones et al., 1994). Jones et al. (1994) argue distinguish political indoctrination, political (in the light of the views of Bernard Crick, socialisation and political education more one of the prominent advocates of clearly, as political socialisation as defined appropriate political education in Britain), earlier could easily be confused with the the study of politics is crucial for the conservative view of political education. ‘training of citizenship, improving This suggests a controlled approach to effectiveness of government and learning about politics and ignores the micro understanding of the society’ . They further political perspective (Ball, 1987). The argue the study of politics, ‘offers the liberal-reformist view of political education, chance of gaining understanding rather than on the other hand, takes account of the fact power’ (p.15). A literature review in this that political education should have a area highlights the emancipatory role of reformist role, whereby it promote the political education (Harber, 1984; Wringe, principles of participative democracy based 1984; Starkey, 1991; Steiner 1994; Harber on rule of law and human rights and upholds 1995; Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford, 1997). the rights of learners to develop a critical Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford comment that understanding of political interactions both reform in political education, that is the at micro and macro levels. Here is the political education which facilitates critical important link between political education thinking around political issues and provides and democratic education. Democratic practical skills concerning politics and education is based on the principles of democracy, is often rejected or criticised by democracy such as human rights, those who consider it left-wing participation, social justice (equality and indoctrination. They report five possible equity), and citizenship, through a free flow positions of political education identified by of ideas in the form of open continuous Porter (1983), namely, conservative, liberal, debate and dialogue over a range of political apolitical, reformist and radical. They go on and social issues. This necessitates that to state that there are really two main forms political education, as part of democratic of political education given by Harber education, develops appropriate political (1984), conservative and liberal-reformist. skills through appropriate knowledge and The conservative form of political education school structures that encourage positive restricts it to the study of formal procedures political understanding in learners. Although and workings of the parliament/government Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford (1997) have and the study of the constitution. It may be discussed the conservative view of political assumed that conservative political education among the academic bourgeois, education is more akin to the concept of here it is also interpreted as linked to the political socialisation as defined in the political hegemony of politicians. Thus this previous section, whereas, the liberal- study in view of the two categories of reformist form of political education has the political education posits the following added notion of encouraging understanding questions concerning democratic education

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in the context of any country: democratic education. It is not confined to • Is there any evidence concerning the the curriculum and classroom-pedagogy, but political culture of the country that embraces the management and organisation, suggests that there are elements which that is the structure of the school. It may fear the loss of hegemony (conservative further be assumed that perhaps it is because view of political education)? of this link that, recently, education for • What is the political culture of the citizenship is increasingly taking over the country and how does it affect its discourse around political education as well educational institutions and discourse? as democratic education and some writers These questions stem from the research tend to use these terms interchangeably assumption that there may be elements in (Aloni, 1997; Aikman, 1997). Others use the the macro politics of a country which see term democratic education in its own right democratic education as a threat to their and blend all these so called separate areas control and ascriptive and hereditary of education into one unifying concept of political powers. Similarly, it is further democratic education (Meyer-Bisch, 1995; assumed by this paper that regimes within White, 1996). This study does not see all schools find politically empowering these concepts as separate watertight entities education a threat to their administrative and certainly democratic education and control. ‘proper’ political education may be used Hence if this typology of political learning is interchangeably. valid and schools are considered to be one of The question remains of the level of the main means of transmitting political introduction. In Britain although there is messages in these forms of learning, then the political education at the secondary level in relationship between the political system schools, political education at the primary and the educational institutions, as Harber level is generally overlooked by a number of (1991) argues, is more than just official aims schools and educationalists. Crick and to impart information on the formal Heater (1977) in their collection of essays organisation of political parties and the on political education has argued the case formal framework of parliament and its for political education at the secondary level functions. Crick (1990) argues that proper in schools. For example, they mentioned that political education is essential for the they were members of an association which development of a civilised society which is dealt with pedagogical discourse, but they based on the principles of democracy, that did not mention primary level, which is is, pluralist democracy. He states that indicative that at the time this level was not civilised societies have governments that considered to be an important stage for the govern according to the will, consent, introduction of political education. Crick consultation and participation of their (1990) in one of his later writings mentions inhabitants. This means in order to that the initial reluctance and debate around participate, appreciate issues and be whether political education should be part of appropriately educated about such social and education in schools or not was more due political issues that affect their individual the lack of the understanding of the notion. and collective lives political education Recently, however, political education, should be a combination of ‘proper’ especially in relation to democratic knowledge and experience. Thus the link education, has taken an important place in between democratic education and proper educational discourse (Harber, 1995; Osler political education is that of democratic and Starkey, 1996; Harber and Davies, experience. Political education, that is 1997; Meighan and Siraj-Blatchford, 1997; liberal-reformist as Harber terms it, or Nussbaum, 1997; Arnot & Dillabough, humanist liberal as Aloni (1997) terms it, is 2000; Baumfield, 2003; Nussbaum, 2005, therefore seen as a concept that is an 2006). Harber (1984, 1995) build a case for essential part of a much wider concept of political education at primary level cogently.

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Olive Stevens (1982) in her book ‘Children public and private institutions. For that a Talking Politics’ argues that children as consistent and transparent effort is young as 7-9 years old have a broad necessary. Moreover, democracy and understanding of political concepts, her political justice has to permeate educational argument being supported by Piaget’s theory institutions to give students well rounded of social learning. This study, in subscribing experience of democracy to appreciate it to her findings, supports the idea of appropriately. Recent curriculum innovation introducing political education at the is also focused on reducing the impact of primary as well as secondary levels in indoctrination through curriculum in the schools is important and should be given a past. However, change through education due attention. can be both extremely slow and challenging Democratic education on the other hand especially in traditionally countries like faces fewer concerns with regards to Pakistan. As the political culture of the introducing it at primary level. It has been country suggests that there are elements may suggested that young children at the primary which fear the loss of hegemony and would and secondary should be exposed to like to steer education in their favour. democratic procedures and values, However with recent expansion of especially with regards to human rights telecommunication and media exploitation education, an essential component of of education for self interest may not be as democratic education (Selby, 1987; easy as it was when media was state Lyseight-Jones, 1991; Osler and Starkey, controlled and access to information was 1996; Arnot & Dillabough, 2000; limited in the past. Thus , political Baumfield, 2003; Nussbaum, 2005, 2006). education in schools have an important place Osler (1997) emphasises that the essential and role to play to make the society more prerequisite of democratic education is that politically aware and empowered to the young children experience their rights in maintain ethical check and balance of schools as enunciated in the United Nations political developments in the society. Convention on the Rights of the Child, Important indicators of change would be 1989. As a framework for democratic Teacher Education curriculum and education education she translates them as three Ps, policy addressing issues related to namely ‘protection, provision (services, democratisation of education and practice. material benefits) and participation’. It is REFERENCES such aspects of democratic education that Aikman S (1997). Interculturality and one can argue that children are never too intercultural Education: A challenge for young to experience democracy. Democratic democracy. International Review of education may appear to be less threatening Education., 43:463-479. to those who fear that political education at a young age could have negative Aloni N (1997). A Redefinition of Liberal psychological or social implications. The and Humanistic Education. International next section looks into key practical issues Review of Education., 43(1):87-107. concerning democratic education. CONCLUSIONS Ball S J (1998).Introduction: International There is substantial historical evidence Perspectives on Education Policy (Guest which suggests that education is used for Editor). Comparative Education 34 (2):117- political indoctrination at the macro level in 118. many developing countries like Pakistan. In Pakistan education has been a focus of Ball S J (1987). The Micro-Politics of the various governments to improve the social School: Towards a theory of school and economic fabric of the country. organization. London: Mcthuen. However, the country has to do go further to promote democratic values and processes in Barrow R & Milburn G (1990). A critical

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