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Family Strategies for Education: the Chinese in Flanders

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Family Strategies for Education: the Chinese in Flanders FACULTEIT SOCIALE WETENSCHAPPEN Family strategies for education: The Chinese in Flanders. Sarah BRAEYE Proefschrift aangeboden tot het verkrijgen van de graad van Doctor in de Sociale en culturele antropologie 2016 Samenstelling van de examencommissie: Prof. Dr. Rudi Laermans (voorzitter) Prof. Dr. Philip Hermans (promotor) Prof. Dr. Ching Lin Pang (copromotor) Em. Prof. Dr. Johan Leman Prof. Dr. Trees Pels [Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, NL] Prof. Dr. Piet Van Avermaet [Universiteit Gent] Prof. Dr. Bin Wu [University of Nottingham, UK] De verantwoordelijkheid voor de ingenomen standpunten berust alleen bij de auteur. Gepubliceerd door: Onderzoekseenheid: Interculturalism, Migration and Minorities Research Centre [IMMRC], KU Leuven, Parkstraat 45 bus 3615-- 3000 Leuven, België. © 2016 by the author. Niets uit deze uitgave mag worden verveelvoudigd zonder voorafgaande schriftelijke toestemming van de auteur / No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the author. 2 “Education breeds confidence. Confidence breeds hope. Hope breeds peace.” (Confucius) 3 4 Table of contents Table of contents 5 Acknowledgments 11 Chapter 1: Introduction to the study 13 1. Origin of the study 13 2. Problem statement & relevance of the study 14 3. Synopsis of contents 19 PART I: Theoretical & methodological underpinnings 22 Chapter 2: Theoretical frame: main concepts and issues 23 1. Conceptualizing educational success 24 2. The model minority paradigm 26 2.1. Its origin and echo in Flanders 26 2.2. Stated causes of success 27 2.3. Pitfalls of the model minority paradigm 28 3. Determinants of school success and failure in minority youth 32 3.1. Socio-economic status 32 3.2. Cultural deficit and meritocratic discourse 35 3.3. Language proficiency 38 3.4. Parental involvement 40 3.4.1. The cultural these 41 3.4.2. Chinese parental involvement 42 3.4.3. The cultural these contested 44 3.4.4. Family (adaptive) strategies 45 3.4.5. Operationalization of parental involvement and strategies 46 3.5. Cultural-ecological theory of minority school performance 50 4. Ethnic-cultural identification 52 4.1. There must be two of something to create a difference 52 4.2. ‘Diaspora’ and transnationalism 56 4.3. Ethnic boundary making and precarious nature of ‘Chineseness’ 59 5 5. Deconstruction of the central research question 62 Chapter 3: Migratory realm: Chinese migration to Belgium 65 1. The Chinese Diaspora 65 1.1. Global dispersion 65 1.2. Huaqiao: Chinese sojourners before WWII 67 1.3. Chinese migration after WWII: new trends and directions 69 2. Chinese migration to Belgium 74 3. Socio-demographic profile of the Chinese in Flanders 78 3.1. The Chinese in numbers 78 3.2. General educational and occupational background 81 3.3. Language 83 3.4. Invisible community 83 4. Summary 85 Chapter 4: Education policies in China & Hong Kong 87 1. Education in the People’s Republic of China: 1949 - Present day 87 2. Education in Hong Kong: 1945 – Present day 91 3. Meritocracy and competition 95 3.1. Examinations as symbols of social mobility 95 3.2. The rise of private extra-curricular tuition 98 3.3. Resistance to change 99 4. Summary 100 Chapter 5: Research methodology 103 1. Introduction 103 2. Epistemology 103 2.1. A socio-ecological approach 103 2.2. Social constructionism 108 3. Constructing the ‘ethnographic field’ 109 3.1. Multi-sited fieldwork 109 3.2. The cities of Antwerp and Ghent as the basic geographic area 110 3.3. Chinese community schools as vital gateways 112 3.4. Ethnographic inquiry at mainstream Flemish schools 113 3.5. Crucial immersion in Mainland China 115 6 4. Research sample: selection criteria & procedure 117 4.1. Ethnic identity 117 4.2. Generational status 119 4.3. Education form and ‘school success’ 120 4.4. Age 122 4.5. Gender 123 5. Data collection: methods 124 5.1. Participant observation 125 5.2. Semi-structured, in-depth and open-ended interviews 126 5.3. An aloof observer? 128 5.4. ‘Jotting’: a necessary means? 128 5.5. Interviewing: on ‘to speak or not to speak’ 129 5.6. Impression management and building report 130 5.7. Focus-group-discussions 133 5.8. Supplementary methods 134 5.8.1. Narrative vignette 134 5.8.2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) 135 6. Data-analysis 136 6.1. Recursiveness as a central technique in the analysis 136 6.2. The relational dimension of concepts 137 6.3. Citing respondents 138 7. Ethical considerations 139 PART II: Empirical findings 140 Chapter 6: Migration and family background of Chinese pupils 141 1. Migration background 141 1.1. Migration background of parents and pupils 141 1.2. Narratives on motives for migration 142 1.2.1. Political rationales 142 1.2.2. ‘Searching for more life’ and the importance of social networks 146 1.2.3. Migration as an educational strategy 148 1.2.3.1. Parents as students 148 1.2.3.2. “For the education of my child” 150 2. Families’ educational status 154 7 2.1. Educational position of parents 154 2.2. Synopsis of pupils’ school trajectories 159 2.2.1. Kindergarten and primary school 160 2.2.2. Secondary education 161 3. Parents’ occupational status 162 3.1. Immigrant entrepreneurship: asset or a way out? 163 3.1.1. Cultural model of immigrant entrepreneurship 164 3.1.2. Immigrant entrepreneurship as circumvention 166 3.1.3. Transcendence of ethnic boundaries 169 3.2. The bittersweet fruit of self-sacrifice 171 3.3. (Trans) national occupational mobility 173 4. Religion 176 4.1. Divergent and conventional religious affiliations 176 4.2. Religion and socioeducational integration 178 4.2.1. Religion and religious sites as sources of social support 179 4.2.2. Chinese religious institutions as a means to ethnic belonging 182 4.2.3. Christianity as part of novel Western culture 184 4.2.4. Ethnicity and religion: a convoluted dance 187 5. Summary 189 Chapter 7: Ambitions for the future 193 1. Introduction 193 2. Defining success 195 3. Family formation and concomitant responsibilities 197 3.1. The ideal married life & familialism 197 3.2. Apparent deviations & primordial consanguinity 201 3.3. ‘Parents by telephone’ – Transnational parenthood 203 3.4. Partner choice in marriage: endo- versus exogamy 205 4. Elevated educational ambitions 214 4.1. “A gold mansion and beauty await you inside your books” 216 4.2. Cultural heritage: the interplay of xiao and mianzi 217 4.3. Transnationalism and the Chinese eduscape 221 4.4. Aspiring upward social mobility 225 4.5. Immigrant status 229 4.5.1. Subscription to the model minority narrative 229 8 4.5.2. The ethnic glass ceiling 236 5. Propensity towards geographical mobility 238 6. Summary 241 Chapter 8: Parental involvement and adjustment to school context 244 1. Introduction 244 2. Parenting at home 245 2.1. Parental role-construction: children’s education as a shared responsibility 245 2.2. Parental expectations and the notion of constant self-improvement 249 2.3. Parental control and discipline 254 2.4. Parental support mechanisms 261 3. Analysis of school and study choice 262 3.1. School characteristics that determined school choice 262 3.2. Study choice: decision making process 268 4. Summary 272 Chapter 9: Afterschool time use 275 1. Ethnicity and participation in organized activities 275 2. Music moms and tiger mothers? 277 2.1. Introduction 277 2.2. Musical education as a marker of social status 279 3.3. “One is aroused by the songs, established by ritual and perfected by music” 280 3.4. Musical education as a marker of ethnic identity 283 3. Participation in ethnic family business 291 3.1. Introduction 291 3.2. Chinese ethnic businesses and familialism 292 4. Summary 300 Chapter 10: Chinese community schooling in Quebec & Flanders 303 1. Introduction 304 2. History and structure of Chinese community education in Flanders & Quebec 306 2.1. The Flemish case 306 2.2. The Quebec case 309 9 3. Research sites 311 4. Intergenerational ethno-cultural continuity 314 4.1. Bridging an intrafamilial language gap 314 4.2. The perpetuation of Chinese ‘virtues’ 320 5. Formal and informal support with mainstream education 326 6. Chinese community schools as a safe haven and source of social support 332 7. Summary 335 Chapter 11: Discussion and final conclusions 338 1. Structure of the research 338 2. Major Findings: theoretical and empirical contributions 341 2.1. Conceptualization of success and ambitions for the future 341 2.2. The role of Chinese cultural heritage 343 2.3. Socio-economic status 347 2.4. Implications of the model minority paradigm 349 3. Srenghts and limitations of the research 352 3.1. My own position as a researcher 352 3.2. Issues of validity and reliability 355 4. Policy recommendations 358 5. Avenues for future research 366 Bibliography 362 Appendix 1: The Vignette 10 Acknowledgements This dissertation has taken some years to write. It was an overtly challenging experience but in the end also a truly gratifying one. For this I have many people to be grateful to. My thanks must go first to Professor Johan Leman for offering me the opportunity to join the Bet You! Study on the school careers of children with a migration background. Taking part in this study has opened an entire new world for me to discover and to learn from. My most sincere and deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Professor Philip Hermans, for without him it would have been impossible to complete this study. Vital were his continuous support, perennial faith in me and above all his altruism and patience, despite my recurring demons of procrastination and limited self-confidence. I have particularly appreciated the critical, but ever stimulating and motivating way in which he has mentored and accompanied me through the process.
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