Culinary Education in the Magazine "Hocho-Ambai" —Enlightenment for Both Men and Women by Cooks—

日本調理科学会誌Vol.40,No.5,337～346(2007)〔Note〕

Miki Imai

The purpose of this study is to examine "Hocho-Ambai," a culinary magazine in the mid-Meiji era, and clarify how culinary education was treated in that age. For the analysis, articles printed in all 37 volumes of "Hocho-Ambai" (1886 to 1891) and judged to describe the cooking and education of professional cooks in the mid-Meiji era were examined from the viewpoint of gender. The results obtained are described below. Our analysis clarified that a culinary education was provided in "Ho- cho-Ambai" as (1) a culinary education for male cooks, and (2) a culinary education for females to develop into good wives and wise mothers as well as (3) a culinary vocational education for both genders. The third finding is a new discovery. In that age, a culinary vocational education for women who ran self-supporting restaurants was clearly recognized, and the courses of cooking schools proposed by the Society of Food Research included a vocational education for both genders.

Key word: culinary magazine, art of cooking, culinary education for men and women

"Society of Art of Cooking Research ,"1 organized by pro- 1. Introduction fessional practitioners of Japanese cooking under the After the second half of the 1800 s, a concept of at- leadership of Mr. Jihei Ishii, the heir of the cooking inheri- tempting to explain cooking, which had until then been tance of Shijo School, and was linked to the activities of passed down as a skill, using scientific theories came into that society. The author has already published two re- being in Japan. However, attempt to organize the concept ports. In the first report, the author analyzed the cooking of cooking and teach it using a common theoretical sys- theories provided in "Hocho-Ambai," finding that the con- tem began at the earliest in the mid-Meiji era. Although tents of these articles can be divided into five categories. articles about food and nutrition in general and its scien- Unlike other cooking books and magazines published be- tific relationship with cooking appeared randomly in jour- fore it, an attitude of providing people with new informa- nals and books in the early days of the Meiji era, there tion and knowledge about the composition of food and were few articles explaining cooking techniques on the cooking while respecting traditional ways of cooking in basis of a specific theory until the mid-Meiji era (Sugita, Japan was expressed by "Hocho-Ambai" (Sugita, Imai, Imai, and Yamashita, 1997). and Yamashita, 1998). Among others, the point that pro- Enlightenment activities for women began to be active- fessional cooks assumed that their intended readers were ly implemented after about 1885, and many culture maga- women is worthy of attention. In the second report, the zines for women were launched (Food Laboratory, author described features of matters desired by readers Showa Women's University, 1971, 83). Some of these cul- in the eating style of the Meiji era through a comparison ture magazines printed articles concerning food and nu- and analysis of articles contained in two culinary maga- trition as part of a discussion of household management zines published in the Meiji era, namely "Hocho-Ambai" (Food Laboratory, Showa Women's University, 1971, 83- and "Gekkan Kuidoraku." (Gekkan means monthly, 84) . Kuidoraku means gourmet). Here, some changes were Under these circumstances, "Hocho-Ambai" ("Hocho- observed in the role of the housewife and the introduc- Ambai" is Japanese. "Hocho" has several meanings in Jap- tion of modern science into cooking (Imai, 2002). anese. In this case it means "cooking." "Ambai" means Among studies discussing women's enlightenment and "adjusting seasoning to taste") was launched in 1886 as a education in the Meiji era, many discuss the role of culinary magazine. This magazine was published by the housewives from the viewpoint of developing as a good wife and wise mother (Koyama, 1999 ; Koyama, 1991, Fu- * Showa Women's University kaya, 1981 ; Iwahori, 1995) and are accepted as the con- inquiry Showa Women's University ventional opinion. In the past reports by the author, how- 1-7 Taishitou, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 154-8533 TEL 03 (3411) 5762 FAX 03 (3411) 5209 ever, how the culinary education for housewives in

(337) 41 Cookery Sci. Jpn. Vol. 40 No. 5 (2007) "Hocho -Ambai" dealt with this point was not fully exam - Following a suspension of approximately a year and two ined. months, Vol. 37 was published in February 1891. The From the investigations conducted thereafter, it be- publication of Vol. 38 onward has not been confirmed at came clear that articles concerning cooking in "Hocho- present. The magazine was launched in Tokyo, with Vols. Ambai" can be divided into articles that dealt with cook- 1 through 31 edited by Taneju Fujimatsu and published ing from the viewpoint of developing as a good wife and by Bunjiro Fujii2. Thereafter, the publisher changed to Ji- wise mother focused on housewives and articles that are hei Ishii for Vol. 32 onward. From the list of bookstores dealt with cooking from the viewpoint of professional ed- given at the end of each volume of the magazine, it ap- ucation focused on women who engage in the profession pears that there were intended readers not only in To- of cooking. Currently, as far as the author knows, there kyo, but all over the country, including Yokohama, Na- are no studies focused on women who engage in the pro- goya, Osaka, Kanazawa, Nagasaki, Kyoto, and Hakodate. fession of cooking among other studies concerning the It can be inferred from the contents of the articles that culinary education for women in the Meiji era. middle-class housewives and professional cooks were tar- Furthermore, although articles addressed to male geted as the intended readers. cooks have also been dealt with in "Hocho-Ambai" in ad- "Hocho -Ambai" was published in connection with the dition to articles addressed to women, culinary education activities of the Society of Art of Cooking Research , for these professional cooks has not yet been fully exam- founded by Fujimatsu and Ishii, and printed the results of ined. It is necessary to carefully examine articles con- evaluations of dishes prepared during each session of the cerning cooking that focused on male cooks in "Hocho- research society along with various points for cooking Ambai" and clarify the contents of the culinary education dishes, arrangement of tableware, waiting on guests, and for male cooks. etc. Based on these premises, it can be considered that "Ho- In the preface of the inaugural issue of "Hocho-Ambai ," cho-Ambai" provides a culinary education for both men the purpose of publishing the magazine was stated , with and women, so I would like to carefully examine the arti- meals positioned as the most important matter affecting cles in "Hocho-Ambai" concerning cooking in this report our life. It was asserted that lecturing on methods of from the viewpoint of gender, which differs from the cooking has value (Vol. 1, 1)3. In the "General Descrip- viewpoint adopted in previous reports, and clarify the tion," the importance of cooking instruction during the contents of the culinary education provided for both men school education for women is pointed out (Vol. 1, 3)4. and women in "Hocho-Ambai." Various types of cooking ranging from daily dishes at The purpose of this study is to set the record straight home to banquet dishes, Japanese traditional dishes, and about three types of culinary education provided by "Ho- Western and Chinese dishes are then introduced. In addi- cho-Ambai," a culinary magazine published in the mid- tion, a food analysis table is provided (Vol. 1, 4)5• Meiji era, upon closer examination of the magazine : (1) As described above, they express their aims of respect- education for men to become cooks, (2) culinary educa- ing theories (gakuri) while observing traditions of Japa- tion for women based on the common opinion that educa- nese cooking, educating women on the eating life rather tion makes a good wife and a wise mother, and (3) culi- than the clothing life, and deepening research on non- nary education as a vocational education for women who Japanese cooking by introducing a wide range of new are professional cooks. techniques. (When articles from "Hocho-Ambai" are quoted in the 2. Method of study and data following text, only the volume number and page will be ( 1 ) Viewpoint for analysis shown.) Selected articles about cooking and education conduct- In this report, "housewife" refers to a woman who un- ed by professional cooks in the mid-Meiji era from the 37 dertakes household management and manages a home . volumes of "Hocho-Ambai" (1886 to 1891) and scruti- 3. Results and discussion nized such articles from the viewpoint of gender. (2) Significance of "Hocho-Ambai" as data ( 1 ) Purpose and content of culinary education Volumes 1 through 36 of "Hocho-Ambai" were pub- The author and others have already clarified the six lished monthly from December 1886 to December 1889. objectives and contents of culinary education in "Hocho-

42 (338) F,ciiirAtion in the Magazine "Hocho-Ambai" —Enlightenment for Both Men and Women by Cooks—

Ambai." Because they are closely related to this study, 3) Articles explaining the characteristics, features, and these six items are described below (Sugita, Imai, uses of various food materials viewed from the stand- Yamashita, 1998, 308)6. These six items are not only the point of cooking (60) objectives of this magazine, but also the objectives of The second category includes articles concerning culi- modern cooking in general. nary education. The first objective is observing the traditional way of 1) Articles concerning the necessity of culinary educa- cooking (Vol. 37, W. The second objective is studying tion for women and the positioning of cooking in the new ways of cooking. The necessity of studying new home (11) ways of cooking is also pointed out (Vol. 20, 10, 12)8, The 2) Articles about the move of professional cooks to or- third objective is application of theories (gakuri) to cook- ganize cooking research societies and establish cooking ing. It is stated that cooking is related to development of schools (16) the nation, so the national circumstances at that time can (Sugita, Imai, and Yamashita, 1998, 310-313) 13 be imagined (Vol. 3, 3)9. These three items can be said to The contents of the articles on culinary education are be the basic concepts of culinary education in "Hocho- discussed in the following sections. Ambai" and are itemized in practical form as doctrines (3) Articles concerning culinary education in "Hocho- stated in the prospectus of inauguration of "Hocho-Am- Ambai" bai," i.e., thoroughly conducting studies of foreign cooking 1) Culinary education for professional cooks (men) by introducing new theories and techniques inside and It is conjectured that the audience for a technical mag- outside Japan while maintaining the tradition of Japanese azine like "Hocho-Ambai" in that age was composed of cooking. professional cooks serving in famous restaurants, i.e., The fourth objective is cooking and the maintenance of those who are recognized by society as professional health. Based on the assertion that it is important to cooks. Therefore, the above-mentioned articles concern- know the appropriate cooking methods for maintaining ing theories of cookery, including articles concerning the nutrition and sanitation, this magazine gives cooking and necessity of culinary research based on theories (gakuri) the maintenance of health as one of its objectives (Vol. 8, and clarification of basics of cooking techniques and cook- 2)1°. The fifth objective is cooking with economic efficien- ing tips, articles on the nutritive value of foods and cy taken into consideration. Descriptions of economic effi- changes in composition caused by cooking, and articles ciency, nutrition, and sanitation are described (Vol. 37, explaining the characteristics, features and uses of vari- 2)11.The sixth objective is cooking adjusted to one's taste. ous food materials viewed from the standpoint of cooking, An attitude of adjusting cooking to taste can be observed are basically intended as the culinary education for male (Vol. 2, 1)12. professional cooks. It is assumed that the contents were (2) Articles concerning theories of cookery and edu- intended not only for the technical education for crafts- cation in "llocho-Ambar men, but also for education to develop cooks or restau- Previous reports have clarified that the articles in "Ho- rant managers who have absorbed both the scientific cho-Ambai" concerning the theories of cookery and edu- knowledge and culture (Vol. 1, 1-2)14. cation can be broadly divided into five categories. As a 2) Culinary education for housewives result of scrutinizing them again in this study, 146 arti- In previous reports, we reported that the culinary edu- cles concerning cooking theories and culinary education cation for housewives is dealt with from three aspects : 1) were extracted from a total of 37 volumes of "Hocho- necessity of culinary education in the home and the posi- Ambai" and divided into the five categories described be- tioning of cooking in the home, 2) how to deal with ser- low. vants in the home, and 3) the critical attitude of "Hocho- The first category includes articles concerning the the- Ambai" toward housework education in that age where ories of cookery. emphasis was placed on sewing (Sugita, Imai, and 1) Articles concerning the necessity of culinary re- Yamashita, 1998, 310) (Imai, 2002, 199-200)15. In this search based on theories (gakuri) and descriptions of study, articles on culinary education for housewives were the basics of cooking techniques and cooking tips (43) scrutinized from the viewpoint of gender. As a result, a 2) Articles concerning the nutritive value of foods and new fourth aspect, culinary education for developing as a changes in composition caused by cooking (16) good wife and wise mother focused on housewives, is

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added to the three previous aspects. In the following, culi- bai" toward housework education in an age when sewing nary education for housewives is described from the was emphasized. three aspects that have already been reported and from When housework education in schools started in the the newly added fourth aspect. Past cases are introduced 1880 s, its emphasis was on sewing (Tanaka, Tanaka , for the three previously reported aspects, and newly 1970, 1-13). Contrary to this view, "Hocho-Ambai" as- found cases are added. serts the necessity of culinary education for women, say- The first aspect is the necessity of culinary education ing that the most important matter in the household in the home and the positioning of cooking in the home . economy should be the art of cooking (Vol. 1, 3)21 and The necessity of culinary education for women is advo- that the housewife of a household must learn the meth- cated in terms of the nutritional and economic manage- ods of cooking (Vol. 1, 3)25.The fact that they attempted ment in the home (Vol. 5, 1) 16 (Vol. 1, 34)17 (Vol. 1, 35)18. explanations by applying theories (gakuri) is a new ap- Furthermore, cooking is positioned from the viewpoint of proach for that age. It was some years later that Yasuoki the household economy, and the importance of cooking in Noguchi, Professor, Tokyo Women's Higher Normal housekeeping is described (Vol. 5, 3-4) 19 School, and Chairman, Society of Household Economy, ad- The second aspect is how to treat servants in the vocated the importance of cooking (Noguchi, 1918) . home. In "Hocho-Ambai," articles entitled "Points to be The fourth aspect is the culinary education from the noticed for housemaids"2° were printed three times in a viewpoint of developing a good wife and wise mother fo- series of columns of miscellaneous information on the as- cused on the housewives. This fourth aspect is the prem- sumption that in that age there were housemaids in the ise on which the culinary education for housewives is homes of the readers. The contents of these articles in- based. Here, let us cite the cases in which the ideas of cluded hints on daily cooking such as rice cooking, miso "Hocho-Ambai" on culinary education for housewives are soup cooking, and correct use or handling of kitchen uten- dealt with notably from the viewpoint of developing a sils such as tableware and kitchen knives (Vol. 24, 45-46 ; good wife and wise mother. "Hocho-Ambai" recommend- Vol. 25, 45-46 ; Vol. 23, 69-70). Although it can be ined housewives to prepare lunches for their working hus- ferred from the title that these were written for band or father by themselves and pointed out that utiliza- housemaids, it is likely that the housewife used these ar- tion of a lunch provider, etc. is a careless and ticles as a reference when she trained her housemaids in uneconomical act of housewives (Vol. 6, 5)26. Further- cooking, such as by reading the articles to the house- more, "Hocho-Ambai" asserts that housewives will be- maids or teaching them their contents. come able to fully entertain their guests with homemade As to the person in charge of cooking in the home dishes incorporating economical considerations without could be either the housewife, on the assumption that the relying on a delivery service of a sushi shop, etc., if they housewife in that age was the manager of the servants, habitually refine their own cooking skills and also train the idea that either the housewife or her housemaids may their housemaids in cooking. (Vol. 6, 3) 27. It can be conjec- be the person in change of cooking as far as cooking is tured from this statement that cooking in the home in skillfully carried out, i.e., the housewife may carry it out that age was a duty of the housewife. It was thus consid- by herself or order her housemaids to do it, is stated ered as an absolute requisite for the housewife to provide (Vol. 6, 3)21. family members with homemade dishes cooked using her At the same time, many articles admonishing the initiative while considering the way of handling house- housewife not to leave all of the cooking to her housemaids as well as the household economy. Therefore, it maids were also printed, under the title of " The house- can be said that the concept of culinary education for wife ' of a household should basically devote herself to housewives of "Hocho-Ambai" is based on the idea of de- taking care of the food and drink, and never leave it to veloping a good wife and wise mother in the middle or the housemaids" (Vol. 19, 55 ; Vol. 21, 46-50 ; Vol. 22, 53- higher class of that age. 56 ; Vol. 25, 41-43 ; Vol. 16, 44-45 ; Vol. 17, 41-44 ; Vol. 18, 3) Culinary education as a vocational education for 65-67)22. The picture of housewives in transition in re- women who are engaged in cooking as professional sponse to changing social circumstances in that age can cooks be conjectured23. A unique point of "Hocho-Ambai" is that it asserts the The third aspect is the critical attitude of "Hocho-Am- necessity of culinary education as a vocational education

44 (340) Culinary Education in the Magazine "Hocho-Ambai" —Enlightenment for Both Men and Women by Cooks— for women. In preceding studies, housework education not only men, but also women as those who aim at be- and culinary education were dealt with from the view- coming professional cooks, ( iii ) there was a demand for point that they help develop good wives and wise moth- such a school from common people who aim at becoming ers (Ehara, 1998, 60-61). An article titled "Art of cooking professional cooks, and ( iv ) the subsequent process of is an important duty of women"28 states that cooking is development of a cooking school. We will describe these the most important duty of women (Vol. 6, 2)29. In this four points together with the related portions in the pre- case, however, "women" does not refer only to those vious report. In that case, we will also describe the pro- housewives who employ housemaids. For a family that cess of establishing the society of cooking research, in ad- operates a restaurant, as the family business, such as a dition to the descriptions in previous reports, because decent Japanese cuisine restaurant, including buckwheat these are closely related to the process of establishing noodle shops, Japanese hotchpotch shops, scalloped noodle the society of cooking research. shops, or other types of eating places, it is a matter of In February 1889, Jihei Ishii et al. founded the "Society course that male and female family members equally en- of Art of Cooking Research."32 This society was renamed gage in the family business. The article states that the in June of the same year as the "Society of Food Re- duties of the housewife are especially heavy and that she search."33 Results from the evaluation of dishes by this re- must give complete directions to employees, taking care search society were serially published in "Hocho-Ambai". of everything including the quantity of each seasoning The research society became the "Japan Food Associa- (Vol. 6, 2)3°. In less than high class Japanese restaurants tion"34 in April 1890 and held a study meeting (Vol. 37, 3, and in restaurants for common people that serve meals 5-9). In the prospectus for the foundation of the "Society at cheap prices, such as the buckwheat noodle shops, Jap- of Art of Cooking Research"35 written in that age, its res- anese hotchpotch shops, and scalloped noodle shops, olution (Vol. 26, 4)36 and aim are described as pursuing women have to work for the family business together complete Japanese cooking by incorporating various with their husbands and employees. The article advo- methods of cooking from around the world, while placing cates the necessity of education by pointing out whether importance on cooking methods unique to Japan (Vol. 26, or not the working housewife, who takes everything into 4-5)37. The membership fee was 10 sen and the cost for account and gives directions about all matters, including cooking at each monthly study meeting was 1 yen per stocking, preparations, cooking, seasoning, disposal of the person (Vol. 26, 5). leftovers, and putting things back in order, is receiving Records of these study meeting activities are randomly culinary education makes a big difference. It seems that reported in each volume. These records demonstrate this is the first article to advocate the necessity of culi- their eagerness to establish a new Japanese cooking nary education in connection with the professions of school studying non-Japanese cooking and the daily cook- women. ing of common people, collecting excellent recipes, and (4) Movements of professional cooks to organize adding them to traditional Japanese cooking. Further- cooking research societies or establish cooking more, the foundation of a cooking school is proposed in "H schools ocho-Ambai," on the initiative of the Society of Food In those days, movements of professional cooks to or- Research38 to promote the realization and diffusion of the ganize cooking research societies or establish cooking new ideas. The articles concerning the proposal of the schools became remarkable. In previous reports, we re- cooking school are printed from the beginning of Vol. 34 ported the process of establishing cooking research soci- over six pages and it can be conjectured that this was a eties by professional cooks and the movement of estab- special article in this volume. The proposed purpose of lishing a cooking school in "Hocho-Ambai" (Sugita, Imai, that school was to teach the blending of Japanese, West- and Yamashita, 1998, 307, 310)31. In this study, four new ern, and Chinese cooking methods (Vol. 34, 1)39. One hun- findings have been obtained about the previously report- dred "Sansei-in (Supporting Members)" were recruited, ed movement of establishing a cooking school as a result and 1 yen and 50 sen per month was the subscription fee of scrutinizing articles concerning these movements from (Vol. 34, 1). In addition, it is reported that there were the viewpoint of gender, so we report them. The findings two courses for students and lessons (Vol. 34, 3)4°. are as follows : i ) the class as the object of the cooking The first course was for women of age 17 or older. school, ( ii ) the intended professional education includes Such a culinary education is a common course in cooking

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schools at present, but it is worthy of attention that not School of Ishii-style Cooking, Japan Society of Art of only cooking techniques, but also management of the Cooking, in October 1898 ("The Register of Names of the kitchen, cooking in other countries, arrangement of the Female Section of the Japan Society of Art of Cooking"). tableware, and the configuration of the meal menus were Approximately 150 female students attended this school taught in that age (Vol. 34, 3)41. It can be inferred that during six years from 1898 ("The Register of Applica- this course was intended as training for homemaking for tions for Admittance of the School of Ishii-style Cooking, young women of middle- to upper-class households that Japan Cooking Society") 44.We would like to address the could afford to send their daughters to a girls' high development of this school in subsequent reports. school. The school fee was 2 yen per month, which was 4. Conclusion quite expensive for that age. Lessons were given two days a week over a total of six hours, practices were held A detailed examination of articles on culinary educa- two days a week, eight times a month, and the term for tion from the viewpoint of gender extracted from the 37 graduation was half a year (Vol. 34, 3-4). volumes of "Hocho-Ambai" (published from 1886 through The second course was for men and women who as- 1891) was conducted. It was determined that (1) the cu- pire to be professional cooks. Students of the second linary education for male cooks, (2) the culinary educa- course were supposed to learn practical improved cook- tion for women as a way to become good wives and wise ing methods. This course was thus designed so that those mothers, and (3) the culinary education for men and who aspire to be cooks as their trade could learn im- women as a vocational education were implemented. Of proved methods usable in restaurants, etc. (Vol. 34, 3)42. these three findings, the third finding, i.e., culinary educa- The school fee for this second course was 1 yen per tion for men and women as a vocational education is a month, half of that for the first course. This indicates that new discovery. In that age, culinary vocational education there was a demand for this course from those among for self-employed women, who manage a restaurant, was the common people who aspired to become professional already clearly recognized, and a vocational education cooks. The term for graduation was not fixed (Vol. 34, 3- course for men and women was included in the cooking 4). Here, the fact that they were attempting to provide school proposed by the Society of Food Research'''. The vocational education for women as well as men, without intention of opening a course for men and women who relying on an apprenticeship, is worthy of attention. How- aspire to manage restaurants in the cooking school means ever, this is not literally synonymous with a culinary edu- that (1) there was a demand for vocational education in cation for both genders based on the modern concept of cooking for women from society in that age and (2) the gender equality. The reason is that even if the housewife Society of Food Research46 intended to promptly meet of a noodle shop, for example, worked as hard or harder that demand. The concept of culinary education for both than her husband, society in that age still recognized only men and women existed 120 years ago when the cooking man=husband as the manager. In that sense, women school was about to be opened. However, women who re- could receive a culinary vocational education only for as- ceived the same culinary education as men were not con- sisting men. sidered equal to men in society. They were not allowed Although the circulation of "Hocho-Ambai" has not yet to work as actively as the men, in equal positions as the been clarified, target readers were scattered all over the men, but were required to work as merely assisting men. country including Tokyo as indicated by the distributors This paper is a modified version of a paper presented listed at the end of the magazine. We can suppose from at the Plenary Conference of the Japan Society of Cook- the contents of articles that the magazine was addressed ery Science in 2006 (September 7, 2006, Okayama Prefec- to housewives of the middle class, managers of restau- ture). rants and professional cooks. It can also be conjectured that the magazine had a considerable number of subscrib- NOTES 1 ers under the circumstance in that age. -Pq glt it (Society of Art of Cooking Research) . Sen- Although the fact that this school was actually opened tences quoted from articles of Hocho-Ambai" are ex- at that time has not yet been confirmed, according to in- pressed in Japanese, in principle, and their meanings are vestigations by the author, Jihei Ishii established the Ja- expressed in English in parentheses. Although we tried pan Society of Art of Cooking43 thereafter and opened the to use the original forms of Kanji in Japanese, the modern

46 (342) Culinary Education in the Magazine "Hocho-Ambai" —Enlightenment for Both Men and Women by Cooks— forms of Kanji are used in some portions. ods ( Japanese, Western, and Chinese) , it will gradually 2 The original sentence states that Fujii is the owner apply theories to them and thus serve to our country) and printer of Vols. 1 to 13 and the publisher and printer (Vol. 3, 3) . 10「食物調理法を知るは衛生上第一の必要とする所以に of Vol. 14 and 15. 3「食ハ命ノ本重要之ヨリ大ナルモノアランヤ割調ノ法亦して吾が舎庖丁盤梅の主として看客諸君へ報ずべき所」

宜ク講ズヘキナリ」(ltissignificanttopositionfoodsas (Knowing methods for cooking foods is the first requisite the most important thing for life and teach methods for for nutrition. A major objective of "Hocho-Ambai" is to cooking to them) (Vol. 1, 1) . introduce these methods to the readers) (Vol. 8, 2). 4「文明日に進み開化月に加はり女子學校には裁縫のこと「各食品の衛生調理法を績々本誌に掲載し以て之を知らしをおしふることとなりたるうへはこれに先ち食物割烹調理むることを務めんと欲する所なり」(Wewouldliketoen一のことを教ふるこそ順序ならずや」(Althoughsewinghas deavor to publish nutritional cooking methods for various come to be taught in school at pace with the advance- foods to introduce them to readers.) (Vol. 8, 2). ll「衛生の道経濟の理に適はざるものは如何なる珍膳珍 ment of civilization and enlightenment, cooking should be taught before sewing) (Vol. 1, 3). 味なりとも措て取らざる趣意なれば畢寛本書は人生至重の 5「今この書には初めに日々の雑菜より會席臨時客來及食物上に衛生経濟の道理を講究するに外ならず」(Wedo ひ献立儀式の料理に至るまで一品持へ方を掲げ又古式の料 not intend to select those meals and foods that are incon- 理より精進普茶料理の仕方等を載せ併せて西洋料理支那料 sistent with nutrition and economy, however delicious 理等の仕方をも掲げ且巻末に食品分析表を掲ぐるものと they may be. This book just investigates the reasons of す」(Thisbookdescribesthemethodsforcookingdishes nutrition and economy for foods, which are the most im- ranging from daily dishes to dinner trays for sudden visi- portant things for life) (Vol. 37, 2) . 12 DD\kk-WyS tors as well as dishes on a ceremonial menu. It also _A)\ft-p*mu)i,,fif teaches ways of cooking traditional dishes including vege- 14)-S:2--> -i-T-ilJ_)-,-EVEiTAPEIg-PIJ:1)110AA iT tarian dishes and Chinese vegetarian dishes as well as T WT1- s•-•)1/ )1/J (Hocho implies cutting and dishing methods for cooking Western dishes, Chinese dishes, etc. up foods, and Hocho-Ambai implies work to season foods. A list of food components is printed at the end of the A single word thus implies a delicate seasoning by cooks, book) (Vol. 1, 4) . i.e. ,cooking adjusted seasoning to taste) (Vol. 2, I). 6 For actual cases of the six items '3 In previous reports , we scrutinized the , articles in categories (2) and (3) previous report and adopted those articles judged to most mainly about cooking theories were examined through clearly represent the purpose and contents of culinary comparisons with "The guideline for the state examina- education in the magazine. tion for the license of managing dietitian," which is com- 7 1-4.-1 ,:-TRLI1IIU:M1 -C1=MK:or,AAtsZ onjiMo) monly accepted as the basis for a text of modern culinary 11-AtsZ VRAr_OL6e3A,L---J--ZV:AM J (The education. As a result, it was found that there were many purpose is to introduce people again to those dishes with descriptions in these articles, not only transferring skills noble cooking style or good taste throughout history) in the conventional manner but also deliberately explain- (Vol. 37, 1). ing various phenomena that appear in the course of cook- r/-- El H Ii)ri/fr-V. or:AO-1LS) 19 1E81 ing using theories (Sugita, Imai, and Yamashita, 1998, UH7t-<,N'Tgo.:_-=-_,Wr,&) J (If asked what cooking 310-313). In this study, these articles about cooking theo- methods there are in Japan today, we would answer that ries and culinary education were scrutinized from the there are three styles of cooking, i. e. Japanese, Western, viewpoint of gender. Culinary education for both men and andChinese)(VoL20,10).「割烹調理は彼等の熟練せる women as presented in "Hocho-Ambai" was described in

所にて既に開けに開けたるものを何ぞ新たに研究を要せん articles concerning culinary education ( (1) Article about と是れ大なる見當ちがひなり」(Peoplewhothinkthat the necessity of culinary education for women and posi- new studies of cooking are unnecessary because cooks tioning of "cooking" in the home and (2) Article about es- are skilled in the art of cooking and the art is sufficiently tablishing cooking research groups by professional cooks developed are wrong) (Vol. 20, 12) . and movement of establishing a cooking school), so we 9「從來有り來れる和漢洋の三割烹法を載すると錐とも漸 will further examine these articles. 14「割調ノ法タル多ク小人口腹ヲ養フノ具ノミトス量夫次之に學理を鷹用し以て國家に報せんとす」(Although this magazine printed three conventional cooking meth- 然ランヤ薄味ノモノヲ厚味トナシ以テ長上ヲ樂マシメ賓客

(343) 47 J. Cookery Sci. Jpn. Vol. 40 No. 5 (2007)

ノ禮二供シ且健康ヲ加フベク凡人ノ性二随ヒ食膳ノ鷹當ス skillfully) (Vol. 6, 3) . 22「ルモノヲ常二用フレハ必ズ氣力ヲ増補シ精神ヲ活溌ナラシ一家の内政たるものは重に飲食料の注意を専務とし

メ其効用ノ大ナル平常ノ食膳ニアリ」(Theroleofcook一決して下碑に放任すべからず」(Thehousewifeherself ing is not simply to fill the human stomach. Cooking en- should pay attention to foods and beverages and not riches the taste and serves to entertain guests cordially. leave it to housemaids.) 23 Articles concerning the roles of the house Daily meals cooked considering health will reinforce the wife in "Ho- power of humans and activate the spirit) (Vol. 1, 1-2). cho-Ambai" have already been scrutinized by the author, 15 In previous reports , (1) "Necessity of culinary educa- and the picture of housewives in the Meiji era has been tion in the home and positioning of "cooking" in the home" clarified (Imai, 2002, 198-200). 24「女子學校には裁縫のことをおしふることとなりたる and (3) "Critical attitude of "Hocho-Ambai" toward the household work education in that age with emphasis on うへはこれに先ち食物割烹調理のことを教ふるこそ順序な sewing" were already described as one of manifests of らずや」(Women'sschoolshavebeguntoteachsewing the attitude of "Hocho-Ambai" from the viewpoint of but should teach foods and cooking before sewing) (Vol. 1, " cooking in the household economy." (Sugita, Imai, and 3). 25「富國も強兵も文明も其因て起るは第一食物にして Yamashita, 1998, 310). (2) "How to manage servants in 一 the home" was selected as the viewpoint of "managing 家の夫人細君となりたる人は必ず割烹の法をしらずんばあ housemaids" in the article on "roles of housewives" (Imai, るべからず」(Arichcountry,strongrnilitaryforce,and 2002, 199-200). prosperous civilization are all based on foods, so all house- 16「割烹法を講するは衛生経濟の二途に最も必要にして wives should know methods of cooking) (Vol. 1, 3). 26「夫や父が出勤の身なれば相當の弁當を調理すべし出瞬時も忽にすべからず殊に婦女子に割烹法教ふるは實に目下の急務と云ふべし」(Lecturingoncookingmethodsis 先に於て辮當屋に注文するなどは實に家内の不注意にして most essential for two reasons, nutrition and economy, 且は甚だ不経濟なり辮當屋にて拾五銭の物も家内にて調理 and it should not be neglected at any time. It is urgent すれば拾銭にてあがりしかも味ひ遥かに優れり」(The especially to teach women about the cooking methods.) housewife herself should cook an adequate lunch for her 〈Vo1.5,1)。 working husband or father ; ordering from a lunch pro- 17「日々三度の食は格別大切のものにて第一衛生に關し vider is really a careless and uneconomical act. A lunch 又経濟に大關係のあるものなれば割烹の法は知らざるべか that costs 15 sen at the lunch shop will be cooked in the らず」(Threedailymealsareespeciallyimportantand home at a cost of only 10 sen, and its taste will be far su- relate to nutrition first and to economy next, so house- perior) (Vol. 6, 5) . 27「客が來たソラ鮨屋ダソラ肴屋だと東奔西走するをま wives must know cooking methods) (Vol. 1, 34) . 18「此上に婦女子をして日々三回の食事はまふすにおよたず自ら料理に取掛るも或は厨碑に命ずるばず食物料理の方法或ひは喰合せもののよしあし等教授すも其仕方さへ巧者なれば十分客の饗鷹を尽さるるのみか経ることにいたらば第一衛生上及び経濟上の利益は甚だ多か濟上にも莫大の利益あるべし」(lfvisitorssuddenlyar一るべし」(Furtherrnore,ifwomenaretau如tnotonlv rive, the housewife herself should cook or she should or- cooking of three daily meals, but also the art of cooking der her housemaids to do it instead of hastily searching and knowledge of bad combinations of foods, very signifi- for a sushi shop or lunch shop. This will not only fully en- cant benefits, primarily nutritional, but also economic, can tertain the guest but also create significant economic be obtained) (Vol. 1, 35) . benefits, provided that cooking is carried out skillfully) 19「主婦たるものは家務を管理するに先づ割烹の事を主 (Vol,6,3), 28「割烹は婦女の重務なり」(Cookingisoneofthemain り」(Housewivesshouldmanagecookingfirstbefore managing other household work) (Vol. 5, 3). dutiesofwomen.) 29「食は命の本にしてまことに大切なるものなれば之を「料理の経濟は家事経濟の主要なるもの」(Economyof cooking is the main element of household economy) (Vol. 割烹調理するは蓋し婦女の第一務と云ふべし」(Because 5, 4). meals are the basis of life, cooking them is certainly the 20「下碑の注意」(Pointstobenoticedforhousemaids) most important duty of women) (Vol. 6, 2). 21「自ら料理に取掛るも或は厨碑に命ずるも其仕方さへ 30「割烹を以て螢業とする料理店を始めとして蕎変屋

巧者なれば」(Eitherofthehousewifeorhermaidsrnay おでん屋,鍋焼饒饒屋其他飲食を以て家業とするものは一家の男女均しく之に従事すれども就中主婦の任重くして be in charge of cooking, as long as cooking is carried out

48(344) Culinary Education in the Magazine "Hocho-Ambai" —Enlightenment for Both Men and Women by Cooks—

厨碑に命ずるに食味の調和作料の匙加減等萬事萬端配意せ )1/ E I I- ] (1. Students will be divided into Class A ざる可からず」(lnrestaurantsthatmaketheartofcook一 and Class B Students of Class A will be limited to fe- ing their business and in family-operated buckwheat noo- males aged 17 and over ; students of Class B will include dle shops, Japanese hotchpotch shops, scalloped noodle both males and females who engage in the cooking busi- shops, or other eating places, while both male and female ness) (Vol. 34, 3). 41「一甲部生徒ハ料理諸法 members of the family equally engage in their family ,厨室管理法,欧,米,支那, business, the housewife, in particular, has the important 本邦調膳及ヒ法式ノ教授ヲ受クルモノトシ」(1。Stu一 duties of paying attention to everything such as changing dents of Class A shall receive lessons of various cooking the taste when managing employees) (Vol. 6, 2). methods, kitchen management methods, and methods for 31 The movement and process of organizing cooking re- arranging Western, Chinese, and Japanese dishes, and search societies by professional cooks are described in protocol) (Vol. 34, 3). 42「乙部生徒ハ改良法ノ實地料理法ヲ學フモノトス」 connection with the process of inaugurating "Hocho-Am- bar (Sugita, Imai, and Yamashita, 1998, 307). With re- (Students of Class B shall learn practical cooking based gard to the movement of establishing a cooking school, on improved methods) (Vol. 34, 3). 43 Ai-H 4q -0-: q- * (Japan Society of Art of Cooking) the "proposal for establishing a cooking school" is selected 44 Although no data of these schools for men is identi - and described as representing the attitude of "Hocho- Ambai" (Sugita, Imai, and Yamashita, 1998, 310). fied in the Gyosai Bunko, Precious Book Room, Mita Me- 32Citedinfootnote1割烹研究會(SocietyofArtof dia Center, Keio University, many followers of the Ishii

CookingResearch) family can be recognized in the register of followers of 33食物研究會(SocietyofFoodResearch) the Ishii family continuing from the Edo era. According 34大日本食物會(JapanFoodAssociation) to the register of followers from 1874 to 1898, there were 35Citedinfootnote1割烹研究會(SocietyofArtof about 100 followers all over the country (The Register of

CookingResearch) Followers of Jihei Ishii VI and VIII in the Meiji Era). A 36「割烹研究會を興し毎月一次集會して此の道の進歩擾 course only for those men who engage in the profession

張を圖らんとす」(Weintendtopromotetheadvance一 of cooking and a course to develop females who engage ment and expansion of the art of cooking by establishing in the profession of cooking appeared thereafter in the the "Society of Art of Cooking Research" and having Ishii Cooking School, Japan Food Association. 45CitedinNote33食物研究會(SocietyofFoodRe - meetings once a month) (Vol. 26, 4). 37「其要領は(第一)本邦固有の調理法を實施して諸流 search) 46CitedinNote33食物研究會(SocietyofFoodRe 一の伎禰方式を説示する事(第二)に廣く中外都鄙の調理法を實施して其の佳良なるものを採澤し以て新たに完全なる search) 日本料理を組成する事是なり」(Themethodsarefirstto explain the techniques and methods of various schools by References implementing cooking methods peculiar to Japan and sec- Dai Nippon kappo gakkai Ishii-shiki kappo kyojo nyugaku negai tsuzuli (temporary title) (The Register of Applica- ond to implement domestic and foreign cooking methods tions for Admittance of the School of Ishii-style Cooking, Ja- widely and, by selecting the superior methods from pan Society of Art of Cooking). (1898 to 1903) (Possessed among them, establish a new, complete Japanese cooking by the Gyosai Bunko, Precious Book Room, Mita Media Cen- style) (Vol. 26, 4-5). ter, Keio University). 38Citedinfootnote33食物研究會(SocietyofFoodRe- Dai Nippon kappo gakkai joshibu meibo (temporary title) (The Register of Names of the Female Section of the Japan search) Cooking Society). (1898 to 1901) (Possessed by the Gyosai 39「本邦支那及ビ欧米二行ハルル料理法ヲ折衷シテ改良 Bunko, Precious Book Room, Mita Media Center, Keio Uni- 料理ノ方法及ヒ調膳ノ法式等ヲ教授ス」(Wewillteach versity). Ehara A, 1998. Kotojogakko ni okeru shokumotukyoiku no improved methods of cooking, methods for arranging keisei to tenkai (Food Education in Girls' High Schools). Yu- dishes, protocol, etc. by blending the cooking methods im- zankaku, Tokyo. plemented in Japan, china, and Europe and America) (Vol. Hocho-Ambai (1886-1891) , Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol. 5, Vol. 6, 34, 1). Vol. 8, Vol. 16, Vol. 17, Vol. 18, Vol. 19, Vol. 20, Vol. 21, Vol. 22, 40「一生徒ヲ分チテ甲乙雨部トナシ甲部生徒ハ十七歳 Vol. 23, Vol. 24, Vol. 25, Vol. 26, Vol. 34, Vol. 37, Tokyo. Fukaya, M, 1981. Zoho-Ryosai kenbo shugi no kyoiku (Supple- 以上ノ女子二限リ乙部生徒ハ男女ノ別ナク割烹業二従事ス

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mentary Version of Education to Develop Good Wives and VIII in the Meiji Era Onward). Copied by Taijiro Ishii (1874 Wise Mothers). Reimei Shobo, Nagoya. to 1898) (Possessed by the Gyosai Bunko, Precious Book Imai, M, 2002. Ryori zasshi kara mita Meiji koki no shokujoho- Room, Mita Media Center, Keio University). "Gekkan Kuidoraku" t o "Hocho-Ambai" no hikaku o chushin Noguchi, Y, 1918. Katei keizai shokumotsu no chori (House- ni (Food Information in the Late-Meiji Era Viewed from hold Economy and Cooking of Foods). Meguro Shoten ; Sei- Cooking Magazines-Mainly on Comparison of "Gekkan bido Shoten, Tokyo. Kuidoraku" and "Hocho-Ambai"). Journal of Cookery Sci- Food Laboratory, Showa Women's University , 1971. Kindai Ni- ence of Japan, Vol. 35, 196-208. hon shokumotsushi (History of Foods in Modern Japan) . Iwahori, Y, 1995. Meiji chuki okashugishiso ni miru shufu riso- Modern Culture Research Institute, Tokyo. zo no keisei- "Jogaku Zasshi" no seikatsu shiso ni tsuite Sugita, K ; Imai, M, & Yamashita, T, 1997. Kindai no shoku- (Forming an Ideal Image of Housewife Viewed through Eu- motsu bunken ni miru "chori" no hensen (Modern Foods , ropeanism in the Mid-Meiji Era-Thoughts of Life in "Girl Transition of "Cooking" Seen in Literature). Journal of Cook- Student Magazine"). Wakita, H ; S.B. Hanley (Edit.). History ery Science of Japan, Vol. 30, 321-328. of Gender in Japan, Part 2, -, Subject and Expression, Job Sugita, K ; Imai, M, & Yamashita, T, 1998. Zassi "Hocho-Am- and Life. Publishing Dept., University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 459- bai" ni arawareta chori riron no keimo (Enlightenment on 486. Cooking Theories Appearing in the Magazine "Hocho-Am- Koyama, S, 1991. Ryosai Kenbo to iu kihan (Norm as Good bar). Journal of Cookery Science of Japan, Vol. 31, 306-313. Wife and Wise Mother). Keiso Shobo, Tokyo. Tanaka, C & Tanaka, H (Edit.), 1970. Kaseigaku bunken shu- Koyama, S, 1999. Katei no seisei to josei no kokuminka (Gen- sei zokuhen Meiji ki dai hassatsu" ("Collection of Literature eration of Households and Nationalization of Women). Keiso of Domestic Science, Continuation, Meiji Era, Vol. 8"). Wata- Shobo, Tokyo. nabe Shoten, Tokyo, 1-13. Meiji Igo Ishii Jihei Rokudaime /Hachidaime Monjinroku (temporary title) (The Register of Disciples of Jihei Ishii VI and (Received Dec, 13, 2006 Accepted Jul, 18, 2007)

雑誌『庖丁鹽梅』に現れた調理教育-料理人による男女両性への啓発-

今井美樹

和文抄録本研究の目的は,明治中期の料理雑誌『庖丁鹽梅』を精査し,当時の調理教育の取り扱い方を明らかにすることである。分析視点としては,『庖丁鹽梅』全37集(1886~1891)の掲載記事のなかから,明治中期の専門料理人の調理およびその教育について記述していると判断された記事をジェンダー視点で精査した。

その結果は以下の通りである。『庖丁鹽梅』では,一般に言われていた(1)男性料理人のための調理教育,(2)女子のための良妻賢母教育としての調理教育の他に,(3)男女両性のための職業教育としての調理教育がなされていたことが明らかになった。この3つの知見のうちの第3番目の知見については新しい発見である。当時,すでに「自営的な料理店を営む女性に対する職業教育としての調理教育」が明確に認識されていたのであり,食物研究会が提案する料理学校のコースには男女の職業教育が含まれていた。

キーワード:料理雑誌,割烹,男女両性の調理教育

*昭和女子大学 § 連絡先昭和女子大学人間社会学部〒154-8533東京都世田谷区太子堂1 -7

TELO3(3411)5762 FAXO3(3411)5209

50 (346)