Volume 1, Issue 14 Date-released: March 3, 2020

News reports - Could Future Homes on the Moon and Mars Be Made of Fungi? Up-coming events - Russian Mushroom Days 2020 - Ukrainian Mushroom Days - 26th North American Mushroom Conference & 20th International Society for Mushroom Science Congress Research progress - New Researches - TOCs of Vol. 22 Issues No.1-3 of the International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms Points and Reviews - The Cultivation and Environmental Impact of Mushrooms (Part II) , by Shu Ting Chang and Solomon P. Wasser Call for Papers Contact information

Issue Editor- Mr. Ziqiang Liu [email protected] Department of Edible Mushrooms, CFNA, 4/F, Talent International Building No. 80 Guangqumennei Street, Dongcheng District, Beijing 10062, China

News Reports

Could Future Homes on the Moon and Mars Be Made of Fungi?

Science fiction often imagines our future on Mars and other planets as run by machines, with metallic cities and flying cars rising above dunes of red sand. But the reality may be even stranger – and "greener." Instead of habitats made of metal and glass, NASA is exploring technologies that could grow structures out of fungi to become our future homes in the stars, and perhaps lead to more sustainable ways of living on Earth as well.

The myco-architecture project out of NASA's Ames Research Center in California's Silicon Valley is prototyping technologies that could "grow" habitats on the Moon, Mars and beyond out of life – specifically, fungi and the unseen underground threads that make up the main part of the fungus, known as mycelia.

"Right now, traditional habitat designs for Mars are like a turtle — carrying our homes with us on our backs – a reliable plan, but with huge energy costs," said Lynn Rothschild, the principal investigator on the early-stage project. "Instead, we can harness mycelia to grow these habitats ourselves when we get there."

Ultimately, the project envisions a future where human explorers can bring a compact habitat built out of a lightweight material with dormant fungi that will last on long journeys to places like Mars. Upon arrival, by unfolding that basic structure and simply adding water, the fungi will be able to grow around that framework into a fully functional human habitat – all while being safely contained within the habitat to avoid contaminating the Martian environment.

This research is supported through the NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts program, known as NIAC, and is part of a field known as synthetic biology – the study of how we can use life itself as technology, in this case fungi. We’re a very long way from being able to grow useable habitats for Mars, but the early-stage research is well under way to prove the potential of these creative solutions. That work all starts with experimenting with fungi.

The Fungus Among Us

A fungus is a group of organisms that produces spores and eats up organic material, like the yeasts in bread or beer, the mushrooms in your salad, the mold that may grow if you let that salad sit in the refrigerator for too long or even the organisms that produce antibiotics like penicillin.

But the part of a fungus you probably haven't seen is mycelia. These tiny threads build complex structures with extreme precision, networking out into larger structures like mushrooms. With the right conditions, they can be coaxed into making new structures – ranging from a material similar to leather to the building blocks for a Mars habitat.

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Living on the Moon and Mars

Creating a livable home for future astronauts means doing more than growing a roof to go over their heads. Astronauts will need to have all their basic needs met, just like on Earth, and face the additional challenges of living in a harsh environment on a distant world.

The myco-architecture project can't just design a shell – it's designing a home. That home is more than a set of walls – it has its own ecosystem of sorts, with multiple kinds of organisms alongside the humans it's designed to protect.

Just like the astronauts, fungal mycelia is a lifeform that has to eat and breathe. That's where something called cyanobacteria comes in – a kind of bacterium that can use energy from the Sun to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and fungus food.

These pieces come together in an elegant habitat concept with a three-layered dome. The outer-most layer is made up of frozen water ice, perhaps tapped from the resources on the Moon or Mars. That water serves as a protection from radiation and trickles down to the second layer – the cyanobacteria. This layer can take that water and photosynthesize using the outside light that shines through the icy layer to produce oxygen for astronauts and nutrients for the final layer of mycelia.

That last layer of mycelia is what organically grows into a sturdy A stool constructed out of mycelia after two weeks of home, first activated to grow in a contained environment and then growth. The next step is a baking process process that leads to a clean and functional piece of furniture. The baked to kill the lifeforms – providing structural integrity and myco-architecture project seeks to design not only ensuring no life contaminates Mars and any microbial life that's for habitats, but for the furniture that could be grown already there. Even if some mycelia somehow escaped, they will be inside them as well. genetically altered to be incapable of surviving outside the habitat. Credits: 2018 Stanford-Brown-RISD iGEM Team

Bringing Synthetic Biology Back to Earth

But this is just the start. Mycelia could be used for water filtration and biomining systems that can extract minerals from wastewater – another project active in Rothschild's lab – as well as bioluminescent lighting, humidity regulation and even self-generating habitats capable of healing themselves. And with about 40% of carbon emissions on Earth coming from construction, there's an ever- increasing need for sustainable and affordable housing here as well. Bricks produced using mycelium, yard waste and wood chips as a part of the myco-architecture "When we design for space, we're free to experiment with new ideas project. Similar materials could be used to build and materials with much more freedom than we would on Earth," habitats on the Moon or Mars. said Rothschild. "And after these prototypes are designed for other Credits: 2018 Stanford-Brown-RISD iGEM Team worlds, we can bring them back to ours."

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The harsh environments of the Moon and Mars will require new ways of living – growing homes instead of building them, mining minerals from sewage instead of rock. But by turning to the elegant systems of our own natural world, we can design solutions that are green and sustainable. Whether on distant worlds or our own ever-changing Earth, fungi could be what brings us boldly into the future.

Future astronauts might one day live in habitats that were fabricated with fungus. The revolutionary concept called Myco-architecture explores the impressive properties of fungal mycelium which is, in some ways, stronger than reinforced concrete and is capable of growing and repairing itself.

Rothschild’s myco-architecture proposal was selected for a NIAC Phase I award in 2018. With a small amount of funding, Rothschild studied the overall viability of the concept and advanced the technology readiness level. NIAC is a visionary program within NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate, one that has the potential to create breakthrough technologies for possible future space missions. However, such early-stage technology developments may never become actual NASA missions.

For news media: For more information about this subject, please contact the NASA Ames newsroom. Banner image: A researcher holding a petri dish containing mycelia – the underground threads that make up the main part of a fungus – growing in simulated martian soil, also known as martian regolith. Image credit: NASA/Ames Research Center/Lynn Rothschild

Author: Frank Tavares, NASA's Ames Research Center Last Updated: Jan. 15, 2020

Editor: Frank Tavares

Source: https://www.nasa.gov/

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Up-coming Events

Russian Mushroom Days 2020 The Main Annual Event of Russian Mushroom industry 28-29, April, 2020 St.Petersburg Holiday Inn – Moskovskiye Vorota

ABOUT RUSSIAN MUSHROOM DAYS Russian Mushroom Days is unique platform for everyone who works or wants to work in the rapidly developing Russian Mushroom Industry.

New contacts, new projects discussion, knowledge and experience exchange with people from European and Asian Mushroom Industries.

Knowledge and experience

More 200 participants from 20 countries– mushroom and compost farms, equipment, casing soil, package, pest and diseases control products producers, invest companies, banks and ministry representatives, Russian and foreign experts.

Analytics and innovation

During the Conference «Quality, variety, marketing» world leading and Russian experts will discuss worldwide mushroom market trends and local markets experiences with new mushroom products. In Expo «Mushroom growing, processing and packaging» companies from Russia, Europe and Asia will introduce their new products and projects.

REGISTRATION

Registration fee per person -290 EUR Last day of registration is April 3 Online registration site: www.dnirosgribovodstva.ru

RUSSIAN MUSHROOM DAYS PROGRAM

April, 28 10.00-13.00 Check in 13.00-13.45 Welcome coffee Congress Hall "Moskovskiy" 14.00-14.30 Russian Mushroom Days Opening Ceremony

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14.30-17.30 Expo "Petrov-Vodkin" hall "Dayneka" hall Russian mushroom market: development 14.30-14.45 potential (Alexander Khrenov, Russian Mushroom School) Who buy/not buy mushrooms in Russia 14.45-15.00 (Romir company) Who influences the consumer opinion and how 15.00-15.15 to collaborate with them 15.15-15.35 What is a reason to eat mushrooms? General trends in food consuming in Russia - 15.35-15.50 what is important to know for mushroom grower 15.50-16.20 Coffee breaks 16.20-17.40 — Mushroom processing session 16.20-16.40 Mushroom consumption trends in Europe Frozen mushroom – market and technology Blanching mushroom – market and 16.40-17.00 American mushroom market technology 17.00-17.20 Turkish mushroom market Mushroom mince – new mushroom product How Malaysia increase mushroom Dry mushroom and mushroom chips 17.20-17.40 consumption 18.30-19.30 Bus transfer to Banquet Hall Royal Beach 19.30-22.00 Gala Dinner and Best Russian Mushroom Farms 2019 the Awards Ceremony 22.30-23.15 Bus transfer to Holiday Inn hotel April, 29 Congress Hall "Moskovskiy" 09.00-18.00 Expo "Petrov-Vodkin" hall "Dayneka" hall Oyster mushroom and another exotic 09.00-13.00 Medicinal mushrooms conference mushrooms session Why consumers buy less oyster mushrooms 09.00-09.20 Russian medicinal mushrooms market then Agaricus mushroom Chaga - most famous Russian medicinal 09.20-09.40 Shiitake - mushroom number 1 in the world mushroom 09.40-10.00 Pipino - growing and marketing World mecicinal mushrooms market King oyster mushrooms - growing and Russian official medicine opinion about 10.00-10.20 marketing medicinal mushrooms 10.20-10.40 Machines and equipment for sterile technology Finnish experience in chaga promotion Small farm for exotic mushroom growing - how 10.40-11.00 Medicinal mushrooms in Chinese medicine to be efficient 11.00-11.20 Coffee break 11.20-11.50 Oyster mushroom growing in Europe Key questions of successful oyster mushroom 11.50-12.50 Russian department ISMM meeting production in Russia 13.00-14.00 Lunch 14.00-16.00 — Mushroom Food - 14.00-18.00 White buttom mushroom session Professional Discussion 14.00-14.20 Agaricus mushroom quality - standarts and Mushrooms position in restourants menu

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consumer opinion Wild or cultivated mushrooms - what 14.20-14.40 Innovations in mushrooms packaging restaurants prefer Mushrooms and fast food - unlimited 14.40-15.00 Plastic films - friend or enemy for mushrooms opportunities Mushroom breakfast - fast , nutritious and 15.00-15.20 Mushrooms сooling - vacuum or air healthy Russian mushroom soup and cream soup: 15.20-15.40 New mushroom strains traditions and transformations Pizza with mushrooms - not only with Agaricus 15.40-16.00 New mushroom strains mushrooms 16.00-16.20 Coffee break 16.20-16.50 Climate control influence for mushroom quality Picker working place - an Important factor for 16.50-17.05 picker efficiency How to not spoil mushroom quality at picking 17.05-17.25 time Russian national mushroom promotion 17.25-17.45 program 17.45-18.00 Discussion

EXPO

Mushroom growing, processing and packaging International Expo «Mushroom growing, processing and packaging» is one of main part of Russian Mushroom Days. Expo attending is included in Registration fee. If you would like to be Expo exhibitor, please, choose expo place in Expo plan. Fill in registration form and write expo place number in it. Standard Expo place price – 645 EUR.

ACCOMMDATION

Holiday Inn Hotel will be glad to take Russian Mushroom Days participants.

For Russian Mushroom Days participants hotel offer special price for Standard category rooms

Single room with breakfast 3900 RUR (About 56 EUR) Double/twin room with breakfast 4500 RUR (About 65 EUR)

For more information: www.dnirosgribovodstva.ru

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Ukrainian Mushroom Days

IV International Exhibition-Conference June 11-13, 2020 - Кyiv, Ukraine

ABOUT THE EVENT

“Ukrainian Mushroom Days” exhibition-conference was founded in 2014, and now it is the main event of the Ukrainian mushroom industry. It gathers an overwhelming number of cultivated mushrooms producers, casing soil equipment and other branches every two years.

CONFERENCE

More than 20 speakers, who will discuss important and actual topics of the mushroom industry only and will share their experiences in the format of questions and answers.

1-st and 2-nd Day. Fresh ideas are the main conference goal

“Ukrainian Mushroom Days” conference is the biggest forum of the Ukrainian mushroom industry. We invite the speakers for talking about the main topics: how we can imagine the future of mushroom growing, how we can solve the main problems of this industry, among which are the price and yield fluctuation, a shortage of staff, profitable investment destination and many other actual topics.

What are we going to talk about

About the mushroom market of Ukraine and neighboring countries

About promotion concepts and possibilities of increasing mushroom consumption

About the novelties of technology

How many mushrooms can be lost by the farm if the process of mushroom picking will be organized incorrectly. Also, how it can be fixed.

About the construction and design of new mushroom complexes

EXHIBITION

The participants of the show are the representatives of more than 40 companies. One of their goals is expanding partnerships. About 40% of the exhibitors are the companies from Netherland, Poland, Great Britain, and other countries.

1-st and 2-nd Day. Exhibition for Mushroom Producers

From balers for collecting straw to trays for packing mushrooms, there are suppliers of any goods and services that a mushroom farm may need. Equipment, compost, automation, casing soil, shelving, spawn, plant protection products, nutritional supplements and much more will be presented at the exhibition.

The most important thing is that all market leaders take part in the exhibition, so you will find not just offers, but the best offers!

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VISIT AGARIS COMPOST YARD

Days III. Excursion to Agaris compost yard

All of the participants will have an opportunity to visit the plant of one of the biggest compost producers in Ukraine.

TICKET PRICES

€200-*If paid before 30.04.2020 €250-*If paid before 10.06.2020 €300-*If paid upon arrival

The fee includes: Participation in the conference as a listener, Participant’s materials, Visit the exhibition, Lunches and coffee breaks, Gala-dinner

We will provide 10% discount in case of 2 and more participants from one company

For joining to the list of participants, please register on the website: www.mushroomdays.in.ua

*The Organizer undertakes to refund the payment in full amount in the case of non-participation till 01.06.2020

CONTACT If you have any questions, please, call us or text to our messenger

+380734165308

+380509604472 [email protected]

Website: www.mushroomdays.in.ua

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26th North American Mushroom Conference & 20th International Society for

Mushroom Science Congress

Joint 26th North American Mushroom Conference &

20thInternational Society for Mushroom Science Congress

Parq Vancouver

Vancouver, British Columbia

May 30 – June 3, 2021

Website: www.mushroomconference.org

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Research progress

Evaluation of Antiarthritic Effect of Culinary-Medicinal Oyster MushroomPleurotus ostreatus cv. Florida (Agaricomycetes) on Complete Freund's Adjuvant Induced Arthritis in Rats

Ayushi Chourasia1, Ankita Tiwari1, Aditya Ganeshpurkar2, Anupam Jaiswal1, Abhishek Shrivastava1, Nazneen Dubey1

1Shri Ram Institute of Technology-Pharmacy, Jabalpur, M.P., India; 2Drug Discovery Laboratory, Shri Ram Institute of Technology−Pharmacy, Jabalpur, M.P., India

Abstract: The present study evaluates the antiarthritic effect of hydroethanolic extract of Pleurotus ostreatus cv. Florida, which was tested against adjuvant induced arthritis in rat models. Arthritis was induced by administration of complete Freund's adjuvant into the subplantar surface of left paw of rats. The extract was given orally at doses 200 mg/ kg and 400 mg/kg and piroxicam was administered intraperitonially (4 mg/kg). In vitro testing on parameters including antiproteinestrase, albumin denaturation and heat induce hemolysis was also carried out. There was significant decrease (p < 0.001) in proteinase activity and membrane stabilization in vivo studies on cv. Florida extract treated rats showed a significant (p < 0.001) decrease in paw volume, joint diameter, and spontaneous change in body weight recorded for 21 days. The treatment also resulted in an increase in rats' gripping activity compared with arthritic control rats. X-ray examinations showed a decrease in joint swelling. Histopathological examination of the extract treated group showed a significant decrease in joint space. There was also an increase in antibody levels. The antioxidant parameters showed a significant (p< 0.001) increase in superoxide dismutase and catalase enzymatic activities. Thus P. ostreatus cv. Florida extract demonstrates a potent antioxidant activity in a rat model. It is concluded that the P. ostreatus cv. Florida extract contains medicinally important constituents that show antiarthritic activity in rats.

Keywords: Pleurotus ostreatus cv. Florida, inflammation, arthritis, paw volume, X-ray, medicinal mushrooms

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 21, 2019 Issue 11, pages 1123-1136

Advances in umami taste and aroma of edible mushrooms Li-bin Sun, Zhi-yong Zhang, Guang Xin, Bing-xin Sun, Xiu-jing Bao, Yun-yun Wei, Xue-mei Zhao, He-ran Xu

Shenyang Agricultural University, College of Food Science, Shenyang, 110866, Liaoning, China

Abstract: Background: Edible mushrooms have been used as food and medicine materials for thousands of years, and the yield of cultivatable edible mushrooms has increased in recent years. The increased consumption of edible mushrooms is not only due to their nutritional value, but also to their unique taste and specific flavor. As consumer awareness of food sensory qualities increases, umami taste and aroma have become important factors affecting consumer choices. There are many factors affecting umami taste and aroma of edible mushrooms, such as cultivation

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conditions, species, maturity, grading, parts of mushrooms, and processing and storage methods. However, the mechanisms underlying the variations in umami taste and aroma components of different mushrooms are still unclear. Scope and approach: In this review, traditional umami components, novel umami peptides, and aroma compounds are discussed, as well as the perception of umami taste and aroma. Based on a combination of human sensory evaluation and instrumental analysis, changes in the composition of these components in edible mushrooms are summarized, and the metabolic pathways and biochemical reactions involved in these changes are also discussed. Key findings and conclusions: The umami taste and aroma of edible mushrooms were closely related to nucleotide metabolism, amino acid metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and the Maillard reaction. Umami peptides and the synergy between these compounds contribute to overall umami taste. There are differences in umami taste and aroma between cultivated and wild mushrooms. The selection of processing and storage techniques is, therefore, based on the established demand for umami taste and aroma of edible mushrooms.

Keywords: Edible mushrooms, Umami taste, Aroma, Evaluation, Metabolism

Trends in Food Science & Technology, Volume 96, February 2020, Pages 176-187

The Effects of Lentinan on the Expression Patterns of β-Catenin, Bcl-2, and Bax in Murine Bone Marrow Cells Are Associated with Enhancing Dectin-1

Yong Zhou1, Xia-Liang Chen2, Zhen-Yue Ye1

1Department of Respiratory Medicine, Hwa Mei Hospital, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, 315010, China; 2Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310003 China

Abstract: This study was focused on investigating the effect of lentinan (LNT) on the expression patterns of β-catenin, Bcl-2, and Bax in murine bone marrow cells (BMCs). Adult BALB/L mice were divided into four groups (n = 10 for each group) that consisted of normal control adult BALB/L mice (control group) and adult BALB/L mice with intraperitoneal injection of low, medium, and high doses of LNT (LLen, MLen, and HLen, respectively). Cells of bone marrow from adult BALB/L mice were cultured in DMEM medium with or without laminarin (inhibitor of dectin-1) to investigate the role of dectin-1 in the effect of lentinan on the expression profile of β-catenin, Bcl-2, and Bax using western blotting and RT- PCR methods. The ELISA results indicated that the expression profiles of dectin-1 were significantly elevated in BMCs from groups of LLen, MLen, and HLen compared with the control group (P < 0.05). The protein and gene expression profiles of β-catenin and Bax increased significantly in murine BMCs from groups of MLen and HLen compared with the control group or the LLen group (P < 0.05). In contrast, the protein and gene expression levels of Bcl-2 decreased significantly in BMCs from the LLen, MLen, and HLen groups compared with the control group (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the expression profiles of β-catenin, Bcl-2, and Bax reversed with the administration of laminarin (P < 0.05). Taken together, our results identified that the changing expression profiles of β-catenin, Bcl-2, and Bax in murine BMCs are associated with enhancing dectin-1.

Keywords: lentinan, B-catenin, Bcl-2, Bax, dectin-1, medicinal mushrooms, Lentinus edodes

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 21, 2019 Issue 10, pages 1043-1050 11

Mushroom lectins in biomedical research and development

Ram Sarup Singh1, Amandeep Kaur Walia1, John F. Kennedy2

1Carbohydrate and Protein Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Punjabi University, Patiala, Punjab 147 002, India; 2Chembiotech Laboratories, Advanced Science and Technology Institute, 5 The Croft, Buntsford Drive, Stoke Heath, Bromsgrove, Worcs B604JE, UK

Abstract: Lectins are unique biorecognition proteins which recognize and interact with various cell surface carbohydrates/glycoproteins. These ubiquitous molecules are involved in various cell-cell interactions and can be exploited to analyze cell surface associated interactions and biological functions. Amongst fungi, lectins have been extensively explored from mushrooms as compared to microfungi or yeasts. Lectins from basidiomycetes have diverse features in terms of their physico-chemical characteristics and carbohydrate specificity. A plethora of lectins from genera Aleuria, Agrocybe, Boletus, Pleurotus, Russula, Schizophyllum, Volvariella, etc. exhibit potential applications in biomedical field. The current review summarizes the potential sources and characteristics of mushroom lectins. Potential involvement of mushroom lectin as anticancer, mitogenic, antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant and therapeutic agents has been discussed.

Keywords: Mushrooms, Lectins, Antiproliferative, Immunomodulatory, Antiviral

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, In press, corrected proof, Available online 18 November 2019

European medicinal mushrooms: Do they have potential for modern medicine? – An update

Carsten Gründemann1, Jakob K. Reinhardt2, Ulrike Lindequist3

1Center for Complementary Medicine, Institute for Environmental Health Sciences and Hospital Infection Control, University Medical Center Freiburg, Breisacher Str. 115B, 79111 Freiburg, Germany; 2Pharmaceutical Biology, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel, Switzerland; 3Institute of Pharmacy, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, F.-l.-Jahn-Str. 17, 17487 Greifswald, Germany

Abstract: Background: The application of mushrooms for health purposes has a long tradition and is very common in Asian countries. This trend is also becoming increasingly popular in the western hemisphere. However, mushrooms from European tradition are being treated in a restrained manner despite having significant potential as drugs or as sources of pure bioactive substances. Aim: The present review provides an overview of the most important mushrooms used in European ethnomedical traditions and explores their pharmacological potential and the challenges for the development of new drugs from these sources of natural products. Method: Mushroom species were selected based on information in old herbal books and dispensaries, uninterrupted use and scientific literature in the PubMed database up to June 2019. Results: Traditional experiences and modern studies have demonstrated that medical mushrooms used in European traditions have promising distinct pharmacological potential mediated through defined mechanisms (anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative and anti-bacterial). However, the number of modern chemical, biological and pharmacological studies remains relatively small, and some mushroom species have not been studied at all. Unfortunately, no valid clinical studies can be found. Unlike the case with herbal and fungal drugs from traditional

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Chinese medicine, we are far from comprehensively exploring this potential. Conclusions: Mushrooms from traditional European medicine have the potential to be used in modern medicine. Considerable research, interdisciplinary collaboration, involvement of the pharmaceutical industry, time and money are necessary to explore this potential not only in the form of dietary supplements but also in the form of approved drugs.

Keywords: Medicinal mushrooms, Basidiomycetes, European tradition

Phytomedicine, Volume 66, January 2020, Article 153131

Development and application of a strategy for analyzing eight biomarkers in human urine to verify toxic mushroom or ricinus communis ingestions by means of hydrophilic interaction LC coupled to HRMS/MS

Thomas P. Bambauer, Lea Wagmann, Hans H. Maurer, Armin A. Weber, Markus R. Meyer

Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, 66421, Homburg, Germany

Abstract: The analytical proof of a toxic mushroom and/or plant ingestion at an early stage of a suspected intoxication can be crucial for fast therapeutic decision making. Therefore, comprehensive analytical procedures need to be available. This study aimed to develop a strategy for the qualitative analysis of α- and β-amanitin, psilocin, bufotenine, muscarine, muscimol, ibotenic acid, and ricinine in human urine by means of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-high resolution MS/MS (HILIC-HRMS/MS). Urine samples were prepared by hydrophilic-phase liquid-liquid extraction using dichloromethane and subsequent solid-phase extraction and precipitation, performed in parallel. Separation and identification of the biomarkers were achieved by HILIC using acetonitrile and methanol as main eluents and Orbitrap- based mass spectrometry, respectively. The method was validated as recommended for qualitative procedures and tests for selectivity, carryover, and extraction recoveries were included to also estimate the robustness and reproducibility of the sample preparation. Limits of identification were 1 ng/mL for α- and β-amanitin, 5 ng/mL for psilocin, bufotenine, muscarine, and ricinine, and 1500 ng/mL and 2000 ng/mL for ibotenic acid and muscimol, respectively. Using γ-amanitin, l-tryptophan-d5, and psilocin-d10 as internal standards, compensation for variations of matrix effects was shown to be acceptable for most of the toxins. In eight urine samples obtained from intoxicated individuals, α- and β-amanitin, psilocin, psilocin-O-glucuronide, muscimol, ibotenic acid, and muscarine could be identified. Moreover, psilocin-O- glucuronide and bufotenine-O-glucuronide were found to be suitable additional targets. The analytical strategy developed was thus well suited for analyzing several biomarkers of toxic mushrooms and plants in human urine to support therapeutic decision making in a clinical toxicology setting. To our knowledge, the presented method is by far the most comprehensive approach for identification of the included biomarkers in a human matrix.

Keywords: Mushroom toxins, Mushroom intoxication, Biomarker, Ricinine, HILIC-HRMS/MS

Talanta, In press, journal pre-proof, Available online 14 February 2020, Article 120847

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Wild edible mushrooms from Mediterranean region: Metal concentrations and health risk assessment

Cengiz Sarikurkcu1, Jelena Popović-Djordjević2, Mehmet Halil Solak3

1Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Afyonkarahisar University of Health Sciences, 03100, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey; 2Department of Food Technology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6, 11080, Belgrade, Serbia; 3Program of Fungi, Ula Ali Kocman Vocational School, Mugla Sitki Kocman University, 48100, Ula-Mugla, Turkey

Abstract: Worldwide, among the forest products, wild edible mushrooms constitute an important part because they represent food source as well as income source for many local communities. Thirteen essential elements (Ca, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn and Zn) and non-essential elements (Al, Cd, Ni and Pb) in wild edible mushrooms from six families (Agaricaceae, Auriculariaceae, Hygrophoraceae, Russulaceae, Suillaceae, and Tricholomataceae) originated from the Mediterranean region of Turkey were determined. Major element was K, followed by Ca, Mg, Fe and Al. Concentrations of detected elements were in the range from 0.05 mg/kg (Co) to 141,400 mg/kg (K). Health Risk Index for elements that may pose health problems indicated that safe limits were exceeded for Cd (L. nuda, L. decastes, M. exscissa, R. albonigra, R. delica and T. terreum), Ni (A. auricula-judaeand S. luteus) as well as for Fe (A. auricula-judae and M. paedida). In Arpacık village and Deliosman village areas the highest number of wild edible mushrooms with HRI>1 was collected. The differences and similarities between mushroom species were established by Principal Component Analysis and Hierarchical Component Analysis.

Keywords: Wild edible mushrooms, Mediterranean region, Dietary intake, Cadmium, Health risk index

Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, Volume 1901, March 2020, Article 110058

Phylogenetic Comparison between Italian and Worldwide Hericium Species (Agaricomycetes)

Valentina Cesaroni1,2, Maura Brusoni2, Carlo Maria Cusaro2, Carolina Girometta2, Claudia Perini3, Anna Maria Picco2, Paola Rossi1, Elena Salerni3, Elena Savino2

1Department of Biology and Biotechnology "L. Spallanzani" (DBB), University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy; 2Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, via S. Epifanio 14, 27100 Pavia, Italy; 3Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, via Pier Andrea Mattioli 4, 53100, Siena, Italy

Abstract: A broad literature concerns the genus Hericium, mainly regarding the medicinal properties of H. erinaceus. Congeneric species of H. erinaceus have been poorly investigated. We collected basidiomata of H. alpestre, H. coralloides and H. erinaceus in Italy and isolated the corresponding mycelia in pure culture. Analysis of the respective internal transcribed spacer regions confirmed the morphological identification of the strains. Internal transcribed spacer sequences from the Italian strains were phylogenetically compared along with 64 other sequences available from Gen- Bank, the CBS Strain Database, and the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA) for the same Hericium. Geographic origin and host plant species were cross-checked using the above data banks. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis produced a phylogram that permitted good discrimination among Hericium species. It provides an updated phylogeny within the genus Hericium and a better understanding of affinity among the species analyzed. The main Hericium clade includes

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the following: the H. erinaceus group and the H. alpestre/H. coralloides group, where the two species cluster separately. This study also allowed us to differentiate the H. erinaceus group on a biogeographical basis. The phylogenetic comparison further confirms the importance of a joint morphological-molecular approach to avoid misidentification and to guarantee the quality of strains for further chemical and medicinal characterization.

Keywords: Hericium, internal transcribed spacer, medicinal mushrooms, morphological identification, nuclear ribosomal DNA, phylogeny

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 21, 2019 Issue 10, pages 943-954

Biological control of green mould and dry bubble diseases of cultivated mushroom (Agaricus bisporus L.) by Bacillus spp.

Olja Stanojević1, Tanja Berić1, Ivana Potočnik2, Emil Rekanović2, Slaviša Stanković1, Svetlana Milijašević-Marčić2

1University of Belgrade-Faculty of Biology, Chair of Microbiology, Studentski Trg 16, 11 000, Belgrade, Serbia; 2Institute of Pesticides and Environmental Protection, Laboratory of Phytopathology, Banatska 31b, 11 080, Belgrade, Serbia

Abstract: Compost green mould and dry bubble are the most devastating diseases of the cultivated white button mushroom. In search of efficient disease control, previously and newly isolated Bacillus spp. strains obtained from mushroom substrates were examined for antagonistic activity against Trichoderma aggressivum f. europaeumT77,

Trichoderma harzianum T54 and Lecanicillium fungicola var. fungicola Ša2V6 in vitro. All 33 tested Bacillus spp. strains inhibited the growth of pathogens. The strains with the strongest antagonistic activity were selected for in vivo experiments in which the efficacy of strains in pathogen suppression and their effect on mushroom yield were evaluated, in comparison with a commercial biofungicide based on Bacillus velezensis QST 713 and a fungicide based on prochloraz- manganese. In mushroom growing room trials with T. aggressivum f. europaeum, the most effective in pathogen suppression were (in decreasing order) prochloraz-Mn, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens B-241, Bacillus velezensis QST 713, Bacillus pumilusB-138 and B. subtilis B-233. The commercial prochloraz-Mn fungicide was the best at suppression of L. fungicola var. fungicola, while B. amyloliquefaciens B-241 was the most successful out of the three tested Bacillus spp. strains. In all in vivo experiments, B. amyloliquefaciens B-241 showed similar results in suppression of pathogens as the commercial biofungicide B. velezensis QST 713. Regarding the impact on mushroom productivity in trials with both pathogens, no statistically significant differences were noted when the treatments were compared with inoculated and uninoculated controls. Strain B. amyloliquefaciens B-241 showed the greatest potential for biocontrol of both compost green mould and dry bubble disease, which makes it a good candidate for further trials at commercial scale.

Keywords: Trichoderma, Lecanicillium, Biocontrol agent, Antagonism, White button mushroom

Crop Protection, Volume 126, December 2019, Article 104944

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Medicinal, Nutritional, and Cosmetic Values of Macrofungi Distributed in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran (Review)

Susanna M. Badalyan1, Ali Borhani2

1Laboratory of Fungal Biology and Biotechnology Yerevan State University, 1 Aleg Manoogian St. Yerevan, 375025 Armenia; 2Agriculture and Natural Research Center of Mazandaran, Passand Forest and Rangeland Research Station, Behshahr, Iran

Abstract: A total of 82 species and 2 variations of medicinal and edible macrofungi (Basidiomycota and Ascomy-cota) have been collected and identified in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran. Among these species, 58 possess medicinal and culinary properties, whereas 21 possess only medicinal properties (antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, an-timutagenic, antioxidant, antitumor, antiplatelet, hypoglycemic, hypocholesterolemic, neurotropic, hypotensive, insec-ticidal, immunomodulating, mitogenic/regenerative, spasmolytic, etc.). No medicinal effect has yet been reported for 4 species (Cantharellus infundibuliformis, Mycena inclinata, Suillus collinitus, Xerocomus porosporus) and 2 variations (Pluteus cervinus var. albus, Russula cyanoxantha var. variata) of edible species. Among the listed species, 15 (such as Auricularia auricula-judae, Hericium erinaceus, Fomes fomentarius, Flammulina velutipes, Ganoderma lucidum, Lyophyllum decastes, Pleurotus ostreatus, Tremella mesenterica) are currently used for manufacturing organic cosmetic products. The well-known mushrooms with medicinal properties (e.g., Auricularia auricula-judae, Flammulina velutipes, Hericium erinaceus, Ganoderma lucidum, G. tsugae, G. adspersum, Trametes versicolor) and excellent edibility (e.g., Boletus edulis, Cantharellus cibarius, Morchella esculenta, Pleurotus ostreatus) are widely distributed in the studied area. The biological resources of macrofungi growing in Mazandaran Province of Northern Iran possess medicinal, nutritional, and cosmetic values and could be further used for biotechnological exploitation to develop mushroom-derived pharmaceuticals, nutriceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmeceuticals.

Keywords: macrofungi, medicinal, edible, Northern Iran, biotechnological potential

International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, Volume 21, 2019 Issue 11, pages 1099-1106

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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2020, Vol. 22, Issue no.1

The Birch Bracket Medicinal Mushroom, Fomitopsis betulina (Agaricomycetes) - Bioactive Source for Beta-Glucan Fraction with Tumor Cell Migration Blocking Ability Miriam Sari, Katharina Toepler, Carolin Roth, Nicole Teusch, & Reinhard Hambitzer

Outdoor-Cultivated Royal Sum Medicinal Mushroom, Agaricus brasiliensis KA21 (Agaricomycetes) Reduces Anticancer Medicine Side Effects Katsuya Tajima, Hoichi Amano, Akitomo Motoi, Daisuke Yamanaka, Ken-ichi Ishibashi, Yoshiyuki Adachi, & Naohito Ohno

On the Typification of Ganoderma sichuanense (Agaricomycetes) — the Widely Cultivated Lingzhi Medicinal Mushroom Yi-Jian Yao, Yu Li, Zhuo Du, Ke Wang, Xin-Cun Wang, Paul M. Kirk, & Brian M. Spooner

Fomes fomentarius and Tricholoma anatolicum (Agaricomycetes) Extracts Exhibit Significant Multiple Drug Resistant Modulation Activity in Drug Resistant Breast Cancer Cells Hasan Hüseyin Doğan, Meltem Demirel Kars, Özdem Özdemir, & Ufuk Gündüz

Antibacterial Activity of Fruiting Body Extracts from Culinary-Medicinal Winter Mushroom, Flammulina velutipes (Agaricomycetes) against Oral Pathogen Streptococcus mutans Chen Cui, Hui Xu, Hua Yang, Rui Wang, Yu Xiang, Bingxuan Li, Xuedong Zhou, Ruijie Huang, & Shujie Cheng

Effects of Substrates on the Production of Fruiting Bodies and the Bioactive Components by Different Cordyceps militaris Strains (Ascomycetes) Shu-Xia Tao, Dan Xue, Zi-Hui Lu, & Hai-long Huang

The Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma neo‒japonicum (Agaricomycetes) from Malaysia: Nutritional Composition and Potentiation of Insulin-like Activity in 3T3-L1 Cells Sarasvathy Subramaniam, Vikineswary Sabaratnam, Chua Kek Heng, & Umah Rani Kuppusamy

Medicinal Mushroom Grifola gargal (Agaricomycetes), Lowers Triglyceride in Animal Models of Obesity and Diabetes and in Adults with Prediabetes Etsuko Harada, Toshihiro Morizono, Tomomi Kanno, Masayoshi Saito, & Hirokazu Kawagishi

Lingzi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes) Ameliorates Spatial Learning and Memory Deficits in Rats with Hypercholesterolemia and Alzheimer’s Disease Mohammad Azizur Rahman, Shahdat Hossain, Noorlidah Abdullah, & Norhaniza Aminudin

A Study on the Antioxidant Properties and Stability of Ergothioneine from Culinary-Medicinal Mushrooms Xinqi Liu, Yiwen Huang, Jinyan Wang, Shuai Zhou, Yili Wang, Mengting Cai, Qingjiu Tang, & Ling Yu

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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2020, Vol. 22, Issue no.2

Characterization of Polysaccharides from Wild Edible Mushrooms from Thailand and Their Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Antihypertensive Activities Khwanta Kaewnarin, Nakarin Suwannarach, Jaturong Kumla, Sadapong Choonpicharn, Keerati Tanreuan, & Saisamorn Lumyong

Isolation and Characterization of Chemical Constituents from the Poroid Medicinal Mushroom Porodaedalea chrysoloma (Agaricomycetes) and Their Antioxidant Activity András Sárközy, Norbert Kúsz, Zoltán Péter Zomborszki, Attila Csorba, Viktor Papp, Judit Hohmann, & Attila Ványolós

Comparative Studies on Bioactive Compounds, Ganoderic Acid Biosynthesis and Antioxidant Activity of Pileus and Stipes of Lingzi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes) Fruiting Body at Different Growth Stages Xujiao Ren, Juying Wang, Lingling Huang, Kaisen Cheng, Meifang Zhang, & Hailong Yang

Effect of the King Oyster Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom Pleurotus eryngii (Agaricomycetes) Basidiocarps Powder to Ameliorates Memory and Learning Deficit in Ability in Aβ-Induced Alzheimer's Disease C57BL/6J Mice Model Chih-Hung Liang, Po-Chang Huang, Jeng-Leun Mau, & Shen-Shih Chiang

Antioxidant and Genotoxic Effects of Aqueous and Methanol Extracts from Two Edible Mushrooms from Turkey in Human Peripheral Lymphocytes Bugrahan Emsen, Busranur Guven, Yasin Uzun, & Abdullah Kaya

The Biosynthetic Pathway of Ergothioneine in Culinary-Medicinal Winter Mushroom, Flammulina velutipes (Agaricomycetes) Xueqin Yang, Shuoxin Lin, Jinde Lin, Yuyao Wang, Junfang Lin, & Liqiong Guo

White Button Mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Agaricomycetes) and a Probiotics Mixture Supplementation Correct Dyslipidemia Without Influencing the Colon Microbiome Profile in Hypercholesterolemic Rats Farhan Asad, Haseeb Anwar, Hadi M Yassine, Muhammad I Ullah, Aziz-ul-Rahman, Z Kamran, & Muhammad U Sohail

Antioxidant and Neuroprotector Influence of Endo-Polyphenol Extract from Magnesium Acetate Multi-Stage Addition in the Oak Bracket Medicinal Mushroom Phellinus baumii (Agaricomycetes) Fu-Chun Jiang, He-Nan Zhang, Lei Zhang, Jie Feng, Wen-Han Wang, Zhong Zhang, Abubakr Musa, Di Wu, & Yan Yang

Antitumor Effects of Extract of the Oak Bracket Medicinal Mushroom, Phellinus baumii (Agaricomycetes), on Human Melanoma Cells A375 In Vitro and In Vivo Yue Yang, Lan Zhang, Qian Chen, Wei-Li Lu, & Ning Li

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International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 2020, Vol. 22, Issue no.3

The Shaggy Ink Cap Medicinal Mushroom, Coprinus comatus (Agaricomycetes), a Versatile Functional Species: A Review Hui Cao, Dawei Qin, Hong Guo, Xiaowei Cui, Shanshan Wang, Yumeng Wu, Wenxiu Zheng, Xiaofei Zhong, Haonan Wang, Jiyang Yu, Chunchao Han, & Hua Zhang

Medicinal Coprinoid Mushrooms (Agaricomycetes) Distributed in Armenia. (Review) Susanna M. Badalyan

Quantification of β-glucan from Culinary-Medicinal Mushrooms Using Novel Artificial β-glucan Recognition Protein Takashi Kanno, Yoshiyuki Adachi, Ken-ichi Ishibashi, Daisuke Yamanaka, & Naohito Ohno

Extracellular Polysaccharopeptides from Fermented Turkey Tail Medicinal Mushroom, Trametes versicolor (Agaricomycetes) Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Hyperglycemia and Hyperlipidemia in Rats with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Hui-Chen Lo, Tai-Hao Hsu, & Chien-Hsing Lee

Preventive Effect of Small Molecular Fraction of Irpex lacteus (Agaricomycetes) Fruiting Body against Chronic Nephritis in Mice and Identification of Active Compounds Yu Han, Lie Ma, Haiying Bao, Tolgor Bau, & Yu Li

Effect of Ethanolic Extracts from Taiwanofungus camphoratus and T. salmoneus (Agaricomycetes) Mycelia on Osteoporosis Recovery Yu-Ming Liu, I-Ju Lin, Ci-Wei Huang, Rao-Chi Chien, Chen-Zou Mau, & Jeng-Leun Mau

Protective Effects of the King Oyster Medicinal Mushroom, Pleurotus eryngii (Agaricomycetes) Polysaccharides on β- Amyloid-Induced Neurotoxicity in PC12 Cells and Aging Rats, In Vitro and In Vivo Studies Chun-Jing Zhang, Jian-You Guo, Hao Cheng, Li Lin, Ying Liu, Yan Shi, Jing Xu, & Hai-Tao Yu

Tropical Milky White Mushroom, Calocybe indica (Agaricomycetes): An Effective Antimicrobial Agent Working in Synergism with Standard Antibiotics Suhana Datta, Jyoti Dubey, Shweta Gupta, Ayoshi Paul, Payel Gupta, & Arup Kumar Mitra

Effect of Carbon Source on Properties and Bioactivities of Exopolysaccharide Produced by Trametes ochracea (Agaricomycetes) Jiafeng Bai, Xuewei Jia, Yichang Chen, Zhengxing Ning, Shaohua Liu, & Chunping Xu

Investigation of Chemical Compounds and DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity of Oudemansiella raphanipes (Agaricomycets) Based on Fermentation Xuan Zhou, Cailing Yang, Qingfeng Meng, Yang Cui, Yudan Wang, Xin Chen, & Shaobin Fu

The Influence of Complex Additives on the Synthesis of Aroma Substances by Gray Oyster Culinary-Medicinal Mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus (Agaricomycetes) during of the Substrate Cultivation Ekaterina Vlasenko, & Olga Kuznetsova

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Points and Reviews

The Cultivation and Environmental Impact of Mushrooms (Part II)*

Shu Ting Chang1 and Solomon P. Wasser2

1Chinese University of Hong Kong, Ainslie, Australia; 2Institute of Evolution and Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa, Israel

Subject: Agriculture and the Environment Online Publication Date: Mar 2017

DOI: 10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.231

*PRINTED FROM the OXFORD RESEARCH ENCYCLOPEDIA, ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE (environmentalscience.oxfordre.com). (c) Oxford University Press USA, 2016. All Rights Reserved. Personal use only; commercial use is strictly prohibited. Please see applicable Privacy Policy and Legal Notice (for details see Privacy

Policy).

Summary and Keywords

The word mushroom may mean different things to different people in different countries. Specialist studies on the value of mushrooms and their products should have a clear definition of the term mushroom. In a broad sense, “Mushroom is a distinctive fruiting body of a macrofungus, which produce spores that can be either epigeous or hypogeous and large enough to be seen with the naked eye and to be picked by hand.” Thus, mushrooms need not be members of the group Basidiomycetes, as commonly associated, nor aerial, nor fleshy, nor edible. This definition is not perfect, but it has been accepted as a workable term to estimate the number of mushrooms on Earth (approximately 16,000 species according to the rules of International Code of Nomenclature). The most cultivated mushrooms are saprophytes and are heterotrophic for carbon compounds. Even though their cells have walls, they are devoid of chlorophyll and cannot perform photosynthesis. They are also devoid of vascular xylem and phloem. Furthermore, their cell walls contain chitin, which also occurs in the exoskeleton of insects and other arthropods. They absorb O2 and release CO2. In fact, they may be functionally more closely related to animal cells than plants. However, they are sufficiently distinct both from plants and animals and belong to a separate group in the Fungi Kingdom. They rise up from lignocellulosic wastes: yet, they become bountiful and nourishing. Mushrooms can greatly benefit environmental conditions. They biosynthesize their own food from agricultural crop residues, which, like solar energy, are readily available; otherwise, their byproducts and wastes would cause health hazards. The spent compost/substrate could be used to grow other species of mushrooms, as fodder for livestock, as

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a soil conditioner and fertilizer, and in environmental bioremediation. The cultivation of mushrooms dates back many centuries; Auricularia auricula-judae, Lentinula edodes, and Agaricus bisporus have, for example, been cultivated since 600 AD, 1100 AD, and 1650 AD, respectively. During the last three decades, there has been a dramatic increase in the interest, popularity, and production of mushrooms through farming worldwide. The cultivation methods can involve a relatively simple farming activity, as with Volvariella volvacea and Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii (=P. sajor-caju), or a high-technology industry, as with Agaricus bisporus, Flammulina velutipes, and Hypsizygus marmoreus. In each case, however, continuous production of successful crops requires both practical experience and scientific knowledge.

Mushrooms can be used as food, tonics, medicines, cosmeceuticals, and as natural biocontrol agents in plant protection with insecticidal, fungicidal, bactericidal, herbicidal, nematocidal, and antiphytoviral activities. The multidimensional nature of the global mushroom cultivation industry, its role in addressing critical issues faced by humankind, and its positive contributions are presented. Furthermore, mushrooms can serve as agents for promoting equitable economic growth in society. Since the lignocellulose wastes are available in every corner of the world, they can be properly used in the cultivation of mushrooms, and therefore could pilot a so-called white agricultural revolution in less developed countries and in the world at large. Mushrooms demonstrate a great impact on agriculture and the environment, and they have great potential for generating a great socio-economic impact in human welfare on local, national, and global levels.

Keywords: mushroom, mushroom cultivation, lignocellulose waste, mushroom industrial uses, medicinal mushrooms, dietary supplements, nutriceuticals, non-green revolution, bioremediation, environmental impact

Continued from previous issue:

The Cultivation of Mushrooms

Brief History of Mushroom Cultivation

Throughout recorded history there are repeated references to the use of mushrooms as food and for medicinal purposes, and it is not surprising that the intentional cultivation of mushrooms had a very early beginning. China can boast that it was the first to successfully cultivate many popular mushrooms species—for example, Auricularia auricula-judae (estimated date, 600 AD), Flammulina velutipes (800–900 AD), Lentinula edodes (1000–1100 AD), Volvariella volvacea (1700 AD), and Tremella fuciformis (1800 AD). Prior to the 1900s, Agaricus bisporus (1650 AD only major, only major, commercially cultivated mushroom species that was not first cultivated in China (Chang & Miles, 2004). The extensive use of mechanized cultivation techniques for producing mushrooms in great quantities for food, like so many other large-scale agricultural activities, is a phenomenon of the 20th century. Agaricus bisporus has been a favorite mushroom in Western countries, where it is variously known as the button mushroom, the white mushroom, the cultivated mushroom, or champignon. Mushroom cultivation techniques were introduced from France to other European countries, to North America, and recently to countries throughout the world. Following World War II, there was a great spurt in the production of Agaricus, and the past few decades have also seen great increases in production of Lentinula, Flammulina, and Pleurotus and, to a lesser extent, Volvariella. (Chang & Buswell, 2008) The development of mushroom cultivation technology has been largely responsible for the increase in

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mushroom production. In the following section, many of the cultivation techniques are described that have been developed for different mushrooms in various parts of the world.

Principles of Mushroom Cultivation and Production

The cultivation of mushrooms ranges from a relatively primitive farming activity to a highly technological industry. In each case, however, continuous production of successful crops requires both practical experience and scientific knowledge. Mushroom cultivation is both a science and an art. The science is developed through research; the art is perfected through curiosity and practical experience. Mushroom growth dynamics involve some developmental aspects, which are in consonance with those exhibited by our common agricultural crop plants. For example, there is a vegetative growth phase, in which the mycelia grow profusely, and a reproductive (fruiting) growth phase, when the umbrella-like body that we call a mature mushroom develops. In agricultural plants such as sunflowers, when the plants switch from the vegetative growth to the reproductive growth, any further growth of the tips is retarded, and the plant is said to be mature. After the vegetative (mycelial) phase has reached maturity, what the mushroom farmer needs to do next is referred to as the induction of fruiting. This is the time mycelial growth at the tips should be slowed down and redirected by regulating specific environmental factors. These factors, generally called “triggers” or “environmental shocks,” can be switching on the light, providing fresh air, lowering temperatures, spraying the mushroom beds with water, and in some cases, reducing nutrients to trigger fruiting (Figure 6).

Figure 6. The two major phases of mushroom growth and development: vegetative phase and reproductive phase (modified from Chang, 2001). The triggers for the transition from the vegetative phase to reproductive phase comprise the various environmental factors important for induction of fruiting. The two broken lines without labels could be nutritional factors or pH values, depending on the mushrooms cultivated.

Although the principles of cultivation are commonly similar for all mushrooms, the practical approaches can be quite different for different species cultivated. The approaches have to be modified and adjusted according to the local climatic conditions, materials available for substrates, and varieties of the mushroom used.

The Major Practical Steps of Mushroom Cultivation

Mushroom cultivation is a complex business requiring precision. Indeed, it is not as simple as what some people often loosely suppose. It calls for adherence to precise procedures. The major practical steps/segments of mushroom cultivation, as described by Chang and Chiu (1992), and Chang and Mshigeni (2013), are:

Selection of an acceptable mushroom species: Before any decision to cultivate a particular mushroom is made, it is 22

important to determine if that species possesses organoleptic qualities acceptable to the indigenous population, or to the international market if the suitable substrates for cultivation are plentiful, and if environmental requirements for growth and fruiting can be met, without excessively costly systems of mechanical control.

Securing a good-quality fruiting culture: A “fruiting culture” is defined as a culture with the genetic capacity to form fruiting bodies under suitable growth conditions. The stock culture selected should be acceptable in terms of yield, flavor, texture, fruiting time, etc.

Development of a robust mushroom spawn: A medium through which the mycelium of a fruiting culture has grown and which serves as the inoculum of “seed” for the substrate in mushroom cultivation, is called the “mushroom spawn.” Failure to achieve a satisfactory harvest may often be traced to unsatisfactory spawn used. Consideration must also be given to the nature of the spawn substrate, since this influences rapidity of growth in the spawn medium, as well as the rate of mycelial growth and the filling of the beds following inoculation.

Preparation of selective substrate/compost: While a sterile substrate free from all competitive micro-organisms is the ideal medium for cultivating edible mushrooms, systems involving such strict hygiene are generally too costly and impractical to operate on a large scale. Substrates for cultivating edible mushrooms normally require varying degrees of pre-treatment to promote growth of the mushroom mycelia to the practical exclusion of other micro- organisms. The substrate must be rich in essential nutrients, in forms that are readily available to the mushroom, and also free of toxic substances that inhibit the growth of the spawn. Moisture content, pH, and good gas exchange between the substrate and the surrounding environment are important physical factors to consider.

Care of mycelial (spawn) running: Following composting, the substrate is placed in beds, where it is generally pasteurized by steam to kill off potential competitive microorganisms. After the compost has cooled, the spawn can either be sown over the bed surface, then pressed down firmly against the substrate to ensure good contact, or they can be inserted 2 to 2.5 cm deep into the substrate. “Spawn running” is the phase during which mycelia grow from the spawn and permeate into the substrate. Good mycelial growth is essential for mushroom production.

Fruiting/mushroom development: Under suitable environmental conditions, which may differ from those adopted for spawn running, natural germination occurs and is then followed by the production of fruiting bodies. The appearance of mushrooms normally occurs in rhythmic cycles called “flushes.”

Harvesting mushrooms carefully: Harvesting is carried out at different maturation stages, depending upon the species, and upon consumer preferences and market value.

If you ignore one critical step/segment, you are inviting trouble, which could lead to a substantially reduced mushroom crop yield and mushroom marketing value.

The Brief Background with References for Cultivation of a Few Selected Mushrooms

Mushroom cultivation involves a wide range of technologies. The choice of these technologies depends upon the species cultivated, substrates, capital available, etc. Examples of six representative mushroom species are presented here: Agaricus bisporus, Lentinula eddoes, Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii, Volvariela volvacea, Agaricus brasilienesis, and Ganoderma lucidum. During the last three decades, in addition to Agaricus mushroom, many other species have been cultivated at a larger scale. In the 19th ISMS (The International Society for Mushroom Science) 23

Congress held in the Netherlands from May 29 to June 2, 2016, it was worth noting that of the nearly 120 lectures and presentations that were submitted, approximately half concerned mushrooms other than Agaricus bisporus mushroom (Wach, 2016).

Agaricus bisporus

Agaricus bisporus (champignon, button mushroom, Figure 7) is simply the most commonly cultivated mushroom. In Western countries, cultivation of this mushroom has developed over the past 500 years, but from the onset it was considered to be a risky venture to as a predictable and controllable industrial process, particularly in France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. The culture of this mushroom originated in Paris (France) in areas in which mushrooms were frequently obtained on used compost issued from melon crops. At a later date, it was observed that this mushroom could grow without light. Therefore, its successful culture was undertaken inside caves (Delmas, 1978). France continued to lead the world as mushroom grower until the outbreak of the Second war in 1939. From that time on, the U.S. has assumed the dominant position. The mushroom-growing method in standard house was developed and adopted by the English-speaking countries.

Furthermore, in western countries cultivation of Agaricus mushroom is a professional business, and for large-scare farmers it is an industrial enterprises. The improvements of cultivation techniques, for example, separating heat rooms with growing rooms, depth of beds, compost, spawn and spawning, casing, crop management, pest and disease control, harvesting etc. are not only greatly increased and stabilized the crop yield but also improved the mushroom quality. Another move was to use hybrid strains, which has enabled the growers to produce the quality mushrooms necessary for expanding domestic and export sales of fresh mushrooms. These innovative changes had to expand and to meet the changing needs of the markets. In no small measure, this remarkable achievement in modern mushroom industrial development may be attributed to contributions from vigorous research conducted at mushroom agricultural laboratories, centers, and stations. (e.g., P. B. Flegg and D. Wood, Glasshouse Crops Research Institute, Littlehampton, U.K.; G. Fritsche and L. J. Van Griensven, Mushroom Research Institute, Horst, Holland; D. J. Royse and I. C. Schisler, Department of Plant Pathology, Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, PA).

The specifics of this mushroom have been very well established through the repeating practical experiments of researchers like San Antonio (1975), Chang and Hayes (1978), Van Griensven (1988), Quimio, Chang, and Royse, (1990) and Kaul and Dhar (2007). The composting process for Agaricus cultivation is of particular interest here as a basic illustration of mushroom-based agriculture (Buth, 2016; Hayes, 1977; Hilkens, 2016; Nair, 1993).

Figure 7. Agaricus mushrooms grown on horse manure compost.

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Generally, composting refers to the piling up of substrates for a certain period of time and the changes due to the activities of various microorganisms, which result in the composted substrate becoming chemically and physically different from the starting material. This is sometimes referred to as a solid-state fermentation. Two types of composting are commonly described. One type involves the decomposition of heaps of organic wastes and the subsequent application of the residue to the soil. The aim of this type of composting is to reduce, in a sanitary manner, both the volume and the carbon and nitrogen ratio of the organic waste so that is it suitable for manuring the soil to improve the growth of plant crops. When given directly to the soil without composting, organic waste with a high C:N ratio (such as straw) can give rise to a temporary nitrogen deficiency, which will then result in a reduction in yield of the plant crop.

The role of second type of composting is the production of a selective substrate that will preferentially support the growth of the mycelium of the mushroom. The basis of this selectivity, however, cannot be attributed to one factor or one aspect of the entire system. The physical, chemical, and biological aspects of composting are fundamentally interrelated, but can be artificially separated for the convenience of investigation and discussion.

Mushroom growers use their sense of sight, smell, and touch to evaluate the progression of the composting process and the quality of the final product. The gross characteristics of compost, usually referred to as “structure,” result from a number of complex physical, chemical, and microbial processes that comprise composting (Nair, 1993).

Composting is prepared in accordance with well-documented commercial procedures (Chang & Hayes, 1978; Kaul & Dhar, 2007; Van Griensven, 1988). In Phase I of the process (outdoor composting), locally available raw materials are arranged into piles, which are periodically turned and watered. The initial breakdown of the raw ingredients by microorganisms takes place in Phase I. This phase is usually complete within 9 to 12 days, when the materials have become pliable, dark brown in color, and capable of holding water. There is normally a strong smell of ammonia. The aeration—a good supply of oxygen—has been recognized recently to be significantly important in phase I compost (Buth, 2016). Phase II (indoor fermentation) is pasteurization, when undesirable organisms are removed from the compost. This is carried out in a steaming room where the air temperature is held at 60 °C for at least 4 hours. The temperature is then lowered to 50 °C for 8 to 72 hours, depending upon the nature of the compost. CO2 is maintained at 1.5 to 2%, and the ammonia level drops below 10 PPM. Following Phase II composting, the substrate is cooled to 30 °C for A. bitorquis and to 25 °C for A. bisporus for spawning.

Production of Phase III or Phase IV composts for growing Agaricus mushrooms has been an advanced technological development in recent years in Western countries. The production of Phase III compost is Phase II compost spawn run in a bulk tunnel, and ready for casing when delivered to the grower. If the Phase III compost is then cased, and spawn develops into a casing layer before dispatching to the growing unit or delivering to growers, it is named as Phase IV compost. The successes of bulk Phase III and Phase IV depend a lot on the quality of Phase I and Phase II processes.

Phase II composting undertaken on shelves produces an average of 4.1 crops per year. Since 1999, growers using Phase III production have enjoyed an average of 7.1 crops per year. In recent years, Phase IV can generate 10–12 crops per year (Dewhurst, 2002; Lemmers, 2003). So, good compost is vital for supporting cultivation and represents 85% of the power behind mushroom production (Heythuysen, 2015).

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Lentinula edodes

Lentinula edodes (Xiang-gu, shiitake, oak mushroom, Figure 8) is one of the most important edible mushrooms in the world from the standpoint of production, and it is the most popular fungus cultivated in China, Japan, and in some other Asian countries. For a long time, this mushroom has been valued for its unique taste and flavor and as a medicinal tonic. It can be cultivated either on wood log or on synthetic substrate logs (Chang & Miles, 2004; Quimio et al., 1990; Stamets, 2000).

Figure 8. Lentinula edodes grown on sawdust synthetic logs.

Lentinula edodes is a kind of wood rot fungus. In nature, it grows on dead tree trunks or stumps. In general, the wood for the mushroom growth consists of crude protein, 0.38%; fat, 4.5%; soluble sugar, 0.56%; total nitrogen, 0.148%; cellulose, 52.7%; lignin, 18.09%; and ash, 0.56%. Generally speaking, the C/N in substrate should be in the range from 25 to 40:1 in the vegetative growth stage and from 40 to 73:1 in the reproductive stage. If the nitrogen source is too rich in the reproductive phase, fruiting bodies of the mushroom are usually not formed and developed.

The optimum temperature of spore germination is 22–26 ºC. The temperature for mycelial growth ranges from 5– 35 ºC, but the optimum temperature is 23–25 ºC. Generally speaking, L. edodes belongs to low temperature mushrooms, the initial and development temperature of fruiting body formation is in the range of 10–20 ºC, and the optimum temperature of fructification for most varieties of the mushroom is about 15 ºC. Some varieties can fruit in higher temperatures, 20–23 ºC. These high temperature mushrooms usually grow faster and have a bigger and thinner cap (pileus), and a thin and long stalk (stipe). Their fruiting bodies are easily opened and become flat grade mushrooms, which are considered to be low quality. The optimum pH of the substrate used in making the mushroom bag/log is about 5.0–5.5 (Chang & Miles, 2004; Stamets, 2000).

Culture media and preparation: The mushroom can grow on a variety of culture media and on different agar formulations, both natural and synthetic, depending on the purpose of the cultivation. Synthetic media are often expensive and time-consuming in preparation; hence they are not commonly used for routine purposes.

The potato dextrose agar, or PDA, is the simplest and the most popular medium for growing the mycelium of the mushroom. It is prepared as follows:

Ingredients: Diced potato 200 gm; dextrose (or ordinary white cane sugar), 20 gm; powdered agar (or agar bars), 20

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gm; and distilled water (or tap water) 1 liter.

Procedure: Peeled potatoes are washed, weighed, and cut into cubes. They are boiled in a casserole with at least one liter of water until they become soft (around 15 minutes). The potatoes are removed and water is added to the broth to make exactly 1 liter. The broth is returned to the casserole, and dextrose and the agar added. The solution is heated and stirred occasionally until the agar is melted. The hot solution is then poured into clean flat bottles. For pure or stock cultures, the test tubes are filled with at least 10 ml of the liquid agar solution. The bottles or test tubes are plugged with cotton wool. When Petri dishes are available, these can be used to produce mycelial plugs for inoculation of mother spawn.

The L. edodes mushroom is produced on both cottage and commercial scale. The following section outlines some of the issues associated with the different cultivation styles.

Cottage scale cultivation: There are many formulas for the composition of the substrate. The ingredients can vary from place to place and country to country depending upon the raw materials available and local climatic conditions. In general, after mixing the dry ingredients by hand or with a mechanical mixer, water is added to the mixture so that the final moisture content of the substrate is between 55 and 60%, depending on the capacity of the sawdust to absorb water. The ingredients are then packed into autoclavable polypropylene or high-density polyethylene bags. Although they are more expensive, polypropylene bags are the most popular since polypropylene provides greater clarity than polyethylene. After the bags have been filled (1.5 to 4 kg wet wt.) with the substrate, the end of the bag can be closed either by strings or plugged with cotton wool stopper. Four formulas in the preparation of the substrate for the cultivation of the mushroom are given here as reference: (a) Sawdust 82%, wheat bran 16%, gypsum 1.4%, potassium phosphate, dibasic 0.2%, and lime 0.4%; (b) Sawdust 54%, spent coffee grounds 30%, wheat bran 15%, and gypsum 1%; (c) Sawdust 63%, corncob powder 20%, wheat bran 15%, calcium superphosphate 1%, and gypsum 1%; (d) Sawdust 76%, wheat bran 18%, corn powder 2%, gypsum 2%, sugar 1.2%, calcium superphosphate 0.5%, and urea 0.3%.

Commercial scale cultivation: In general, the operation can use oak or other hard wood sawdust medium to grow the mushroom. The basic steps are (a) to mix the sawdust, supplements, and water; (b) bag the mixture; (c) autoclave the bags to 121 ºC and cool the bags; (d) inoculate and seal the bags; (e) incubate for 90 days to achieve full colonization of the sawdust mixture, in other words, to allow the mycelium be established for ready fructification; (f) fruit the colonized and established sawdust logs/bags/blocks 6 times using a 21 days cycle at 16 to 18 ºC; and (g) harvest, clip steps, grade, box, and cold store for fresh market, or harvest, dry, cut steps, grade, and dry again before box for dry market.

Major equipment used in production consists of mixer/conveyor, autoclave, gas boiler, cooling tunnel, laminar-flow cabinet, bag sealer, air compressor for humidification, shelves to incubate.

Incubation can be done in two rooms and in two shipping containers. The two shipping containers can be installed near the fruiting rooms. Temperature during incubation is held between 18 and 25 ºC.

Fruiting can be done in six rooms so that the blocks/logs can be moved as a unit. With compartmentalization, blocks in each room can be subjected to a cycle of humid cold, humid heat, and dry heat.

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Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii

Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii (=P. sajor-caju) (Chang’s oyster mushroom) is comparable to the high temperature species in the group of Pleurotus (oyster) mushrooms, with high temperatures required for fructification. This mushroom has a promising prospect in tropical and subtropical areas. Its cultivation is easy with relatively less complicated procedures (Chang & Miles, 2004; Kaul & Dhar, 2007; Zmitrovich & Wasser, 2016, Figure 9).

Figure 9. Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii grown on cereal straw substrate.

The temperature for growth of mycelium is 10– 35 ºC. The optimum growing temperature of the mycelium is 23–28 ºC. The optimum developmental temperature of the fruiting body is 18–24 ºC. The optimum pH of the substrate used in making the mushroom bag/bed is 6.8–8.0. The C/N ratio in the substrate is in the range of 30–60:1. A large circulation of air and reasonable light are required for the development of the fruiting bodies.

Spawn substrate: (a) Wheat grain + 1.5% gypsum or lime; (b) Cotton seed hull, 88%; wheat bran, 10%; sugar, 1%; and gypsum, 1%; (c) Sawdust, 78%; wheat bran, 20%; sugar, 1%; and gypsum, 1%; (d) Sawdust, 58%; spent coffee grounds/spent tea leaves, 20%; water hyacinth/cereal straw, 20%; sugar, 1%; and gypsum, 1%.

Cultivation substrate: (a) Cotton seed hull, 95%; gypsum, 2%; lime, 1%; and calcium superphosphate, 2%; (b) Rice straw, 80%; cotton waste, 18%; gypsum, 1%; and lime, 1%;

(c) Water hyacinth, 80%; cereal straw; 17%, gypsum, 2%; and lime, 1%.

For demonstration purpose, this mushroom can be nurtured to grow into a tree-like shape (Figure 10). The cultivation method, which has been tested successfully, is as follows: Cotton waste or rice straw mixed with water hyacinth is used as the substrate. Tear large pieces of cotton waste into small parts or cut the straw and water hyacinth into small segments. Add 2 % (w/w) lime and mix with sufficient water to get moisture content of about 60–65%. Pile the materials up, cover with plastic sheets, and leave to stand overnight. Load the substrate into small baskets or onto shelves for pasteurization, or cook the substrate with boiled water for 15 minutes. After cooling to approximately 25 ºC, mix around 2% (w/w) spawn thoroughly with the substrate and pack into columns of 60- cm- 28

long tubes that have hard plastic (PVC) tubing of 100 cm (4 cm in diameter) as central support, and plastic sheets as outside wrapping (Chang, Lau, & Cho, 1981).

Figure 10. Robust growth of Pleurotus pulmonarius var. stechangii as a mushroom tree.

Incubate these columns at around 24 to 28 ºC, preferably in the dark. When the mycelium of the mushroom has ramified the entire column of substrate after three to four weeks, remove the plastic wrapping and switch on white light. Watering is needed occasionally, to keep the surface from drying. In around three to four days, white primordia start to appear over the whole surface. After another two to three days, the Pleurotus mushrooms are ready for harvesting. During the cropping period, watering is very important if many flushes are required.

Volvariella volvacea

Volvariella volvacea (patty straw mushroom, Chinese mushroom, Figure 11) is a fungus of the tropics and subtropics and has been traditionally cultivated in rice straw for many years in China and in Southeast Asian countries (Chang, 1965). In 1971, cotton wastes were first introduced as heating material for growing the straw mushroom (Yau & Chang, 1972). In 1973, cotton wastes had completely replaced the traditional paddy straw for growing mushrooms (Chang, 1974). This was a turning point in the history of straw mushroom cultivation because the cotton waste compost through the pasteurization process brought the cultivation of the mushroom to an industrial scale—first in Hong Kong and then in Taiwan, Thailand, and China. Several techniques are adopted for the cultivation of the mushroom, which thrives in temperature ranges of 28 to 36 ºC and a relative humidity of 75–85%. Detailed descriptions of the various methods are given by Chang and Miles (2004), Kaul and Dhar (2007), and Quimio et al. (1990). Choice of technologies usually depends on personal preference, on the availability of substrates, and the amount of resources available. While more sophisticated indoor technology is recommended for industrial-scale production of the mushroom, most other technologies are low-cost and appropriate for rural area development, especially when production is established at the community level.

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Figure 11. Different stages of fruiting bodies of the straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) grown on cotton waste as substrate

Agaricus brasiliensis

In recent years, A. brasiliensis (Royal Sun Agaricus, Himematuatake, Figure 12), formerly called A. blazei Murrill (Wasser, Didukh, Amazonas, Nevo, Stamets, & da Eira, 2002) has rapidly become a popular mushroom. It has been proved to be not only a good tasting and highly nutritious mushroom, but also an effective medicinal mushroom, particularly for anti-tumor active polysaccharides.

Figure 12. Different stages of Agaricus brasiliensis mushroom grown in straw compost with case soil.

A. brasiliensis originated as a wild mushroom in south eastern Brazil, where it was consumed by the people as a part of their diet. The culture of the mushroom was brought to Japan in 1965, and an attempt to cultivate this mushroom commercially was made in 1978. In 1992, this mushroom was introduced to China for commercial cultivation (Chang & Miles, 2004).

A. brasiliensis belongs to the so-called “middle temperature mushrooms.” The growth temperature for mycelium ranges from 15 to 35 ºC and the optimum growth temperature ranges from 23 ºC to 27 ºC. The temperature for fruiting can be from 16 ºC to 30 ºC, and the optimum developmental temperature of fruiting bodies is 18 ºC to 25 ºC. The ideal humidity for casing soil is 60–65%. The air humidity in a mushroom house prefers 60– 75% for mycelium growth and 70–85% for fruiting body formation and development. The optimum pH of the compost used in making the mushroom bed is 6.5–6.8. The optimum pH of the casing soil is 7.0. A good circulation of air is required for the development of the fruiting bodies. These conditions are similar to those needed for the cultivation of A. bisporus. Under natural conditions, the mushroom can be cultivated for two crops each year. Each crop can harvest three flushes. According to the local climates, the farmer can decide the spawning time in the year in order to have

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mushrooms for harvest within 50 days after spawning.

Preparation of mushroom bed (Stamets, 2000): A. brasiliensis is a kind of mushroom belonging to the straw-dung fungi and prefers to grow on substrate rich in cellulose. The waste/by-productive agro-industrial materials, such as rice straw, wheat straw, bagasse (squeezed residue of sugar cane), cotton seed hull, corn stalks, sorghum stalk, and even wild grasses, can be used as the principal component of the compost for cultivation of the mushroom. It should be noted that these materials have to be air dried first and then mixed with cattle dung, poultry manure, and some chemical fertilizers. The following formulas for making compost are for reference only. They should be modified according to the local available materials and climatic conditions: (a) Rice straw, 70%; air-dry cattle dung, 15%; cottonseed hull, 12.5%; gypsum, 1%; calcium superphosphate, 1%; and urea, 0.5%; (b) Corn stalks, 36%; cottonseed hull, 36%; wheat straw, 11.5%; dry chicken manure, 15%; calcium carbonate, 1%; and ammonium sulphate or urea, 0.5%; (c) Rice straw, 90.6%; rice bran, 2.4%; fowl droppings, 3.6%; slaked lime, 1.9%; superphosphate, 1.2%; and ammonium sulphate/urea, 0.3%; (d) Bagasse, 75%; cottonseed hull, 13%; fowl droppings, 10%; superphosphate, 0.5%; and slaked lime, 1.5%.

Ganoderma lucidum

Although the medicinal value of G. lucidum (lingzhi, Reishi, Figure 13) has been treasured in China for more than two thousand years, the mushroom was found infrequently in nature. This lack of availability was largely responsible for the mushroom being so highly cherished and expensive. During ancient times in China, any person who picked the mushroom from the natural environment and presented it to a high-ranking official was usually well rewarded (Chang & Miles, 2004).

Figure 13. The fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum grown on short-wood segments that were then buried in the soil base for fruiting.

Artificial cultivation of this valuable mushroom was successfully achieved in the early 1970s and, since 1980 and particularly in China, production of G. lucidum has developed rapidly. Currently, the methods most widely adopted for commercial production are the wood log, short wood segment, tree stump, sawdust bag, and bottle procedures (Chang & Buswell, 1999; Stamets, 2000; Hsu, 1994; Mizuno et al., 1995).

Log cultivation methods include the use of natural logs and tree stumps, which are inoculated with spawn directly under natural conditions. The third alternative technique involves the use of sterilized short logs, about 12 cm in

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diameter and approximately 15 cm long, which allow for good mycelial running. This method provides for a short growing cycle, higher biological efficiency, good quality of fruiting bodies, and consequently, superior economic benefit. However, this production procedure is more complex and the production costs much higher than natural log and tree stump methods. For this production procedure, the wood logs should be prepared from broad-leaf trees, preferably from oak. Felling of the trees is usually carried out during the dormant period, which is after defoliation in autumn and prior to the emergence of new leaves the following spring. The optimum moisture content of the log is about 45–55% .The flow- routine for the short-log cultivation method is as follows: selection and felling of the tree; sawing/cutting the log into short segments; transference of segments to plastic bags; sterilization; inoculation; spawn running; burial of the log in soil; tending the fruiting bodies during development from the pinhead stage to maturity; harvesting of the fruiting bodies; drying of the fruiting bodies by electrical driers; packaging. It should be noted that the prepared logs/segments are usually buried in soil inside a greenhouse or plastic shed. The soil should allow optimum conditions of drainage, air permeability, and water retention, but excessive humidity should be avoided.

Examples of cultivation substrates, using plastic bags or bottles as containers, include the following (please note that these examples are for reference purposes only and can be modified according to the strains selected and the materials available in different localities): (a) Sawdust, 78%; wheat bran, 20%; gypsum, 1%; and soybean powder, 1%; (b) Bagasse, 75%; wheat bran, 22%; cane sugar, 1%; gypsum, 1%; and soybean powder, 1%; (c) Cotton seed hull, 88%; wheat bran, 10%; cane sugar, 1%; and gypsum, 1%; (d) Sawdust, 70%; corn cob powder, 14%; wheat bran, 14%; gypsum, 1%; and cereal straw ash, 1%; (e) Corn cob powder, 78%; wheat/rice bran, 20%; gypsum, 1%; and straw ash, 1%. After sterilization, the plastic bags can be laid horizontally on beds or the ground for fruiting.

(...to be continued)

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Call for Papers

Aiming to build the relationship between the members and the Society, the publication of the newsletters was proposed before the launching of the Society. The newsletters represent one of the key official publications from the Society. Contents of the newsletters will include notifications of the decisions made by the committee board, reviews or comments contributed by ISMM committee members, conferences or activities to be organized, and the status updated in research, industrialization, and marketing for medicinal mushrooms. The newsletters will be released quarterly, by the first Monday of every January, April, July, and October, with possible supplementary issues as well. The Newsletter is open to organizations or professionals to submit news, comments, or scientific papers relating to medicinal mushroom research, marketing, or industry.

Contact information

For any inquiry in membership enrollment, subscribing to ISMM newsletters, upcoming activities and events organized by ISMM, or submitting news reports, statements, or manuscripts to the Society, please contact the secretariat’s office in Beijing, China.

ISMM Secretariat Office, Beijing Room D-1216, Jun Feng Hua Ting, No. 69 West Beichen Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, China. Tel: +86-10-58772596, 87109859 Fax: +86-10-58772190 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.ismm2013.com/

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