Renewable Energy Systems This Volume Collects Selected Topical Entries from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology (ESST)

Renewable Energy Systems This volume collects selected topical entries from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology (ESST). ESST addresses the grand challenges for science and engineering today. It provides unprecedented, peer-reviewed coverage of sustainability science and technology with contributions from nearly 1,000 of the world’s leading scientists and engineers, who write on more than 600 separate topics in 38 sections. ESST establishes a foundation for the research, engineering, and economics supporting the many sustainability and policy evaluations being performed in institutions worldwide.

Editor-in-Chief ROBERT A. MEYERS, RAMTECH LIMITED, Larkspur, CA, USA

Editorial Board RITA R. COLWELL, Distinguished University Professor, Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA ANDREAS FISCHLIN, Terrestrial Systems Ecology, ETH-Zentrum, Zu¨rich, Switzerland DONALD A. GLASER, Glaser Lab, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, Berkeley, CA, USA TIMOTHY L. KILLEEN, National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA HAROLD W. KROTO, Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA AMORY B. LOVINS, Chairman & Chief Scientist, Rocky Mountain Institute, Snowmass, USA LORD ROBERT MAY, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK DANIEL L. MCFADDEN, Director of Econometrics Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA THOMAS C. SCHELLING, 3105 Tydings Hall, Department of Economics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA CHARLES H. TOWNES, 557 Birge, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

EMILIO AMBASZ, Emilio Ambasz & Associates, Inc., New York, NY, USA CLARE BRADSHAW, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden TERRY COFFELT, Research Geneticist, Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, AZ, USA MEHRDAD EHSANI, Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA ALI EMADI, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL, USA CHARLES A. S. HALL, College of Environmental Science & Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY, USA RIK LEEMANS, Environmental Systems Analysis Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands KEITH LOVEGROVE, Department of Engineering (Bldg 32), The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia TIMOTHY D. SEARCHINGER, Woodrow Wilson School, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA Martin Kaltschmitt, Nickolas J. Themelis, Lucien Y. Bronicki, Lennart So¨der and Luis A. Vega (Eds.)

Renewable Energy Systems

With 1193 Figures and 290 Tables Editors Lucien Y. Bronicki Martin Kaltschmitt Ormat Technologies, Inc. German Biomass Research Centre Reno, NV, USA Leipzig, Germany and Lennart So¨der Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Royal Institute of Technology Economics Electric Power Systems Hamburg University of Technology Stockholm, Sweden Hamburg, Germany Luis A. Vega Nickolas J. Themelis Hawaii Natural Energy Institute Earth Engineering Center School of Ocean And Earth Science And Technology Columbia University University of Hawaii at Manoa New York, NY, USA Honolulu, HI, USA

ISBN 978-1-4614-5819-7 ISBN 978-1-4614-5820-3 (eBook) ISBN 978-1-4614-5862-3 (print and electronic bundle) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-5820-3 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2012953387

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

This book consists of selection from the Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology edited by Robert A. Meyers, published by Springer New York in 2012.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Editors

Renewable Energy From Biomass Waste to Energy

MARTIN KALTSCHMITT NICKOLAS J. THEMELIS German Biomass Research Centre Earth Engineering Center Leipzig Columbia University Germany New York, NY and USA Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Economics Hamburg University of Technology Hamburg Germany vi Editors

Geothermal Power Stations Ocean Energy

LUCIEN Y. BRONICKI LUIS A. VEGA Ormat Technologies, Inc. Hawaii Natural Energy Institute Reno, NV School of Ocean And Earth Science And Technology USA University of Hawaii at Manoa Honolulu, HI USA Wind Power

LENNART SO¨ DER Royal Institute of Technology Electric Power Systems Stockholm Sweden Sections

Geothermal Power Stations Editor: Lucien Y. Bronicki

Engineered Geothermal Systems, Development and Sustainability of Geothermal Energy Utilization Geothermal Energy, Geology and Hydrology of Geothermal Energy, Nature, Use, and Expectations Geothermal Field and Reservoir Monitoring Geothermal Power Capacity, Sustainability and Renewability of Geothermal Power Conversion Technology Geothermal Power Economics Geothermal Power Stations, Introduction to Geothermal Resources Worldwide, Direct Heat Utilization of Geothermal Resources, Drilling for Geothermal Resources, Environmental Aspects of Hydrothermal Systems, Geochemistry of Reservoir Engineering in Geothermal Fields

Ocean Energy Editor: Luis A. Vega

Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Environmental Challenges Ocean Energy, Introduction Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Offshore Wind Energy Technology Trends, Challenges, and Risks Tidal Energy

Renewable Energy From Biomass Editor: Martin Kaltschmitt

Algae, a New Biomass Resource Biodiesel Bioethanol from Celluloses Bioethanol from Starch Bioethanol from Sugar: the Brazilian Experience Biofuels: A Technical, Economic and Environmental Comparison Biofuels: Upgraded New Solids Biogas for Electricity Generation, Hi-tech Applications Biogas Production and Energy crops Biogas Production, Developing Countries viii Sections

Biogas Substrates from Municipalities and Industries Biomass as Renewable Source of Energy, Possible Conversion Routes Biomass Combustion for Electricity Generation Biomass Energy Heat Provision for Cooking and Heating in Developing Countries Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Large-Scale Systems Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Small-Scale Systems Biomass Energy Small-Scale Combined Heat and Power Systems Biomass Gasification for Electricity and Fuels, Large Scale Biomass Gasification for Rural Electrification, Small Scale Biomass Production Biomass Provision and Use, Sustainability Aspects Biomass Pyrolysis Biomass Resources, Worldwide Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Concepts and Their Assessment Biomass Use on a Global Scale Biomethane from Anaerobic Processes Biosynthetic Natural Gas Co-combustion of Wood in Coal-Fired Large-Scale Power Plants Hydrogen from Biomass Lignocellulosic Energy Crops, Production and Provision Plant Oil Fuels Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Renewable Energy from Biomass, Introduction Solid Biofuels, Fuels and Their Characteristics

Waste to Energy Editor: Nickolas J. Themelis

Gasiﬁcation and Liquefaction Alternatives to Incineration in Japan Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction by Waste-to-Energy Hitachi Zosen Inova Technology Incinerator Grate Combustion Phenomena Life Cycle Comparison of Waste-to-Energy to Sanitary Landﬁll Martin Waste-to-Energy Technology Plasma-Assisted Waste-to-Energy Processes Thermal Treatment of Waste: Key Element for Sustainable Waste Management Waste Management for Sustainable Society Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in Europe Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in the United States Waste-to-Energy Facilities as Power Plants Waste-to-Energy for District Heating Waste-to-Energy Using Refuse-Derived Fuel Waste-to-Energy, Introduction Waste-to-Energy: Decreasing the Entropy of Solid Wastes and Increasing Metal Recovery Waste-to-Energy: Energy Resource in Solid Wastes Waste-to-Energy: Fluidized Bed Technology Sections ix

Wind Power Editor: Lennart So¨ der Electricity Generation with Small Wind Turbines Global Wind Power Installations Meterology and Wind Power Offshore Wind Power Wind Power Balancing Wind Power Generator Systems and Local Power System Interconnection Wind Power Grid Integration: Transmission Planning Wind Power, Aerodynamics and Blade Technology Wind Power, Introduction Wind Power: Basic Challenge Concerning Social Acceptance Wind Power: Economy, Market, Subsidies, Payment Mechanisms, and Capacity Credit Wind Turbine Noise Emissions

Table of Contents

Algae, a New Biomass Resource Cinzia Formighieri, RobertoBassi...... 1 Biodiesel Martin Mittelbach ...... 27 Bioethanol from Celluloses Mats Galbe, Guido Zacchi ...... 45 Bioethanol from Starch Anton Friedl ...... 72 Bioethanol from Sugar: The Brazilian Experience Suani Teixeira Coelho, Regiane Gorren, Patricia Guardabassi, Renata Grisoli, Jose´ Goldemberg ...... 86 Biofuels: A Technical, Economic and Environmental Comparison Franziska Mueller-Langer, Stefan Majer, Anastasios Perimenis ...... 110 Biofuels: Upgraded New Solids Marco Klemm, Ralf Schmersahl, Claudia Kirsten, Nadja Weller ...... 138 Biogas for Electricity Generation, Hi-tech Applications Frank Scholwin, Michael Nelles ...... 161 Biogas Production and Energy Crops Christoph Strauß, Armin Vetter, A. Von Felde ...... 170 Biogas Production, Developing Countries Heinz-Peter Mang, Zifu Li, Martina de Mantopi Porres Lebofa, Elisabeth-Maria Huba, Dishna Schwarz, Roland Schnell, Nguyen Gia Luong, Christopher Kellner, Johannes Selke ...... 218 Biogas Substrates from Municipalities and Industries Ulrike Seyfert, Daniela Thra¨n ...... 247 Biomass as Renewable Source of Energy, Possible Conversion Routes Martin Kaltschmitt ...... 257 Biomass Combustion for Electricity Generation Andreas Wiese ...... 290 Biomass Energy Heat Provision for Cooking and Heating in Developing Countries Ralph P. Overend ...... 328 Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Large-Scale Systems Ingwald Obernberger, Friedrich Biedermann ...... 343 Biomass Energy Heat Provision in Modern Small-Scale Systems Hans Hartmann, Volker Lenz ...... 382 Biomass Energy Small-Scale Combined Heat and Power Systems Daniel Bu¨chner, Volker Lenz ...... 432 Biomass Gasiﬁcation for Electricity and Fuels, Large Scale Hermann Hofbauer ...... 459 xii Table of Contents

Biomass Gasification for Rural Electrification, Small Scale Marco Klemm ...... 479 Biomass Production Michaela Ernst, Achim Walter, Ulrich Schurr ...... 510 Biomass Provision and Use, Sustainability Aspects Daniela Thra¨n, Marek Gawor ...... 522 Biomass Pyrolysis Andreas Hornung ...... 553 Biomass Resources, Worldwide Andre´ Faaij ...... 567 Biomass to Liquid (BtL), Concepts and Their Assessment Franziska Mueller-Langer, Niels Jungbluth ...... 620 Biomass Use on a Global Scale Ausilio Bauen, Raphael Slade ...... 644 Biomethane from Anaerobic Processes Frank Scholwin, Jo¨rgen Held ...... 656 Biosynthetic Natural Gas Michael Seiffert, Stefan Ro¨nsch ...... 665 Co-combustion of Wood in Coal-Fired Large-Scale Power Plants Egbert Broßmann, Martin Kaltschmitt, MarcKoch ...... 680 Electricity Generation with Small Wind Turbines G. J. W. van Bussel ...... 696 Engineered Geothermal Systems, Development and Sustainability of Roy Baria, L. Mortimer, G. Beardsmore ...... 714 Gasification and Liquefaction Alternatives to Incineration in Japan Kunio Yoshikawa ...... 728 Geothermal Energy Utilization JohnW.Lund...... 744 Geothermal Energy, Geology and Hydrology of William E. Glassley ...... 761 Geothermal Energy, Nature, Use, and Expectations Barry Goldstein, Gerardo Hiriart, Jeff Tester, Luis Gutierrez-Negrin, Ruggero Bertani Christopher Bromley, Ernst Huenges, Arni Ragnarsson, Mike Mongillo, John W. Lund, Ladislaus Rybach, Vladimir Zui, Hirofumi Muraoka ...... 772 Geothermal Field and Reservoir Monitoring TrevorM.Hunt ...... 783 Geothermal Power Capacity, Sustainability and Renewability of Subir K. Sanyal ...... 804 Geothermal Power Conversion Technology Lucien Y. Bronicki ...... 818 Geothermal Power Economics Subir K. Sanyal ...... 924 Table of Contents xiii

Geothermal Power Stations, Introduction to Lucien Y. Bronicki ...... 936 Geothermal Resources Worldwide, Direct Heat Utilization of JohnW.Lund...... 939 Geothermal Resources, Drilling for John T. Finger ...... 966 Geothermal Resources, Environmental Aspects of TrevorM.Hunt ...... 1002 Global Wind Power Installations Thomas Ackermann, Rena Kuwahata ...... 1020 Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction by Waste-to-Energy Bernd Bilitewski, Christoph Wu¨nsch ...... 1039 Hitachi Zosen Inova Technology10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_398 Craig Kedrowski, Peter Chromec ...... 1060 Hydrogen from Biomass Ralf Schmersahl, Marco Klemm, Ruth Brunstermann, Renatus Widmann ...... 1100 Hydrothermal Systems, Geochemistry of David Nieva, Rosa Marıá Barragań, Vıćtor Arellano ...... 1118 Incinerator Grate Combustion Phenomena J. Swithenbank, Vida N. Sharifi ...... 1135 Life Cycle Comparison of Waste-to-Energy to Sanitary Landfill10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3_409 P. Ozge Kaplan, Joseph F. DeCarolis, Morton A. Barlaz ...... 1155 Lignocellulosic Energy Crops, Production and Provision Iris Lewandowski ...... 1181 Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Environmental Challenges Andrea E. Copping ...... 1192 Martin Waste-to-Energy Technology Johannes J. E. Martin, Ralf Koralewska ...... 1201 Meterology and Wind Power Erik Lundtang Petersen, Peter Hauge Madsen ...... 1249 Ocean Energy, Introduction LuisA.Vega...... 1271 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion LuisA.Vega...... 1273 Offshore Wind Energy Technology Trends, Challenges, and Risks James F. Manwell ...... 1306 Offshore Wind Power Go¨ran Daleń...... 1339 Plant Oil Fuels Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Klaus Thuneke ...... 1360 Plasma-Assisted Waste-to-Energy Processes Nickolas J. Themelis, Armelle M. Vardelle ...... 1377 xiv Table of Contents

Renewable Energy from Biomass, Introduction Martin Kaltschmitt ...... 1393 Reservoir Engineering in Geothermal Fields Enrique Lima, Hiroyuki Tokita, Hideki Hatanaka ...... 1397 Solid Biofuels, Fuels and Their Characteristics Hans Hartmann ...... 1422 Thermal Treatment of Waste: Key Element for Sustainable Waste Management Paul H. Brunner ...... 1453 Tidal Energy Ian G. Bryden ...... 1466 Waste Management for Sustainable Society Brian Bahor, MichaelVanBrunt...... 1475 Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in Europe Juergen Vehlow ...... 1493 Waste-to-Energy Ash Management in the United States Floyd Hasselriis ...... 1510 Waste-to-Energy Facilities as Power Plants M. A. J. (Marcel) van Berlo ...... 1532 Waste-to-Energy for District Heating Lasse Tobiasen, Bettina Kamuk ...... 1542 Waste-to-Energy using Refuse-Derived Fuel Floyd Hasselriis, Patrick F. Mahoney ...... 1561 Waste-to-Energy, Introduction Nickolas J. Themelis ...... 1604 Waste-to-Energy: Decreasing the Entropy of Solid Wastes and Increasing Metal Recovery Helmut Rechberger ...... 1615 Waste-to-Energy: Energy Resource in Solid Wastes Dieter O. Reimann ...... 1627 Waste-to-Energy: Fluidized Bed Technology Franz P. Neubacher ...... 1640 Wind Power Balancing Lennart So¨der, Hannele Holttinen ...... 1663 Wind Power Generator Systems and Local Power System Interconnection Torbjo¨rn Thiringer ...... 1700 Wind Power Grid Integration: Transmission Planning Dale Osborn ...... 1740 Wind Power, Aerodynamics and Blade Technology Martin O. L. Hansen ...... 1769 Wind Power, Introduction Lennart So¨der...... 1780 Table of Contents xv

Wind Power: Basic Challenge Concerning Social Acceptance Maarten Wolsink ...... 1785 Wind Power: Economy, Market, Subsidies, Payment Mechanisms, and Capacity Credit10.1007/978-1-4419- 0851-3_89 Michael Milligan, Lori Bird, Suzanne Tegen, Kevin Porter, Sari Fink, Brendan Kirby ...... 1822 Wind Turbine Noise Emissions Karl Bolin, Mats A˚bom...... 1843

List of Contributors

MATS A˚ BOM ROBERTO BASSI KTH Royal Institute of Technology, KTH-The Marcus Dipartimento di Biotecnologie Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Universita` di Verona Research Verona Stockholm Italy Sweden

AUSILIO BAUEN THOMAS ACKERMANN Centre for Energy Policy and Technology Energynautics GmbH Imperial College Langen London Germany UK

V´ICTOR ARELLANO G. BEARDSMORE Instituto de Investigaciones Ele´ctricas Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd Cuernavac, Morelos South Yarra, Victoria Mexico Australia

BRIAN BAHOR RUGGERO BERTANI Covanta Energy Corporation Enel Morristown, NJ Rome USA Italy

ROY BARIA FRIEDRICH BIEDERMANN EGS Energy Ltd Bios Bioenergiesysteme GmbH Penance Cornwall Graz UK Austria and MORTON A. BARLAZ BIOENERGY 2020+ GmbH Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering Graz North Carolina State University Austria Raleigh, NC USA BERND BILITEWSKI Institute of Waste Management and Contaminated ROSA MARI´A BARRAGA´ N Site Treatment Instituto de Investigaciones Ele´ctricas Technical University of Dresden Cuernavac, Morelos Pirna Mexico Germany xviii List of Contributors

LORI BIRD DANIEL BU¨ CHNER National Renewable Energy Laboratory German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) Golden, CO Leipzig USA Germany

KARL BOLIN G. J. W. VAN BUSSEL KTH Royal Institute of Technology, KTH-The Marcus Aerospace Engineering Section Wind Energy Wallenberg Laboratory for Sound and Vibration Delft University of Technology Research Delft Stockholm The Netherlands Sweden

EGBERT BROßMANN PETER CHROMEC Vattenfall Europe Wa¨rme AG Hitachi Zosen Inova U.S.A. LLC Berlin Norcross, GA Germany USA

HRISTOPHER ROMLEY C B SUANI TEIXEIRA COELHO GNS Science CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass Wairakei Research Centre University of Sa˜o Paulo Taupo Sa˜o Paulo New Zealand Brazil

LUCIEN Y. BRONICKI Ormat Technologies, Inc. ANDREA E. COPPING Reno, NV Marine Sciences Laboratory USA Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Seattle, WA

PAUL H. BRUNNER USA Institute for Water Quality, Resource and Waste Management GO¨ RAN DALE´N Vienna University of Technology WPD Scandinavia AB Vienna Stockholm Austria Sweden

RUTH BRUNSTERMANN JOSEPH F. DECAROLIS Department of Urban Water and Waste Management Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering University of Duisburg-Essen North Carolina State University Essen Raleigh, NC Germany USA

IAN G. BRYDEN Head of Institute for Energy Systems, School of MICHAELA ERNST Engineering IBG-2: Plant Science The University of Edinburgh Forschungszentrum Ju¨lich Edinburgh Ju¨lich UK Germany List of Contributors xix

ANDRE´ FAAIJ and Copernicus Institute, Department of Science, Geologisk Institut Technology and Society University of Aarhus Utrecht University Aarhus Utrecht Denmark The Netherlands

JOSE´ GOLDEMBERG JOHN T. FINGER CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass Sandia National Laboratories, retired University of Sa˜o Paulo Albuquerque, NM Sa˜o Paulo USA Brazil

SARI FINK BARRY GOLDSTEIN Exeter Associates Pirsa Petroleum Group Columbia, Maryland Adelaide, SA USA Australia

CINZIA FORMIGHIERI REGIANE GORREN Dipartimento di Biotecnologie CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass Universita` di Verona University of Sa˜o Paulo Verona Sa˜o Paulo Italy Brazil

ANTON FRIEDL RENATA GRISOLI Vienna University of Technology CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass Vienna University of Sa˜o Paulo Austria Sa˜o Paulo Brazil

MATS GALBE Department of Chemical Engineering PATRICIA GUARDABASSI Lund University CENBIO – The Brazilian Reference Center o Biomass Lund University of Sa˜o Paulo Sweden Sa˜o Paulo Brazil

MAREK GAWOR German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) LUIS GUTIERREZ-NEGRIN Leipzig Mexican Geothermal Association Germany Mexico

WILLIAM E. GLASSLEY MARTIN O. L. HANSEN Energy Institute DTU Mechanical Engineering University of California Technical University of Denmark Davis, CA Lyngby USA Denmark xx List of Contributors

HANS HARTMANN ELISABETH-MARIA HUBA Technologie- und Fo¨rderzentrum im Technologies for Economic Development Kompetenzzentrum fu¨r Nachwachsende Rohstoffe Maseru (TFZ) Lesotho Straubing, Bavaria Germany ERNST HUENGES GFZ-Potsdam Germany FLOYD HASSELRIIS Hasselriis Associates TREVOR M. HUNT Forest Hills, NY GNS Science USA Wairakei Geothermal Research Centre Taupo HIDEKI HATANAKA New Zealand West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc Chuou-ku, Fukuoka NIELS JUNGBLUTH Japan ESU-services Uster Switzerland JO¨ RGEN HELD

Swedish Gas Centre MARTIN KALTSCHMITT Malmo¨ German Biomass Research Centre Sweden Leipzig Germany

GERARDO HIRIART and Energı´as Alternas Institute of Environmental Technology and Energy Estudios y Proyectos Economics Mexico Hamburg University of Technology Hamburg Germany HERMANN HOFBAUER Institute of Chemical Engineering BETTINA KAMUK Vienna University of Technology Ramboll Energy – Waste-to-Energy Vienna København S Austria Denmark

P. OZGE KAPLAN HANNELE HOLTTINEN National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Technical Research Centre of Finland VTT Office of Research and Development VTT U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Finland Research Triangle Park, NC USA ANDREAS HORNUNG European Bioenergy Research Insitute – EBRI CRAIG KEDROWSKI Aston University Hitachi Zosen Inova U.S.A. LLC Aston Triangle, Birmingham Norcross, GA UK USA List of Contributors xxi

CHRISTOPHER KELLNER ZIFU LI Water and Sanitation Association of Zambia Centre for Sustainable Environmental Sanitation Lusaka University of Science and Technology Zambia Beijing China

BRENDAN KIRBY National Renewable Energy Laboratory ENRIQUE LIMA Golden, CO West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc USA Chuou-ku, Fukuoka Japan

CLAUDIA KIRSTEN JOHN W. LUND German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) Geo-Heat Center Leipzig Oregon Institute of Technology Germany Klamath Falls, OR USA MARCO KLEMM

German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) NGUYEN GIA LUONG Leipzig Biogas Technology Centre (BTC) of the Vietnam Germany Union of Science and Technology Association (VUSTA) MARC KOCH Hanoi Vattenfall Europe Wa¨rme AG Vietnam Berlin Germany PETER HAUGE MADSEN Wind Energy Division, Risø DTU National Laboratory

RALF KORALEWSKA for Sustainable Energy Martin GmbH fu¨r Umwelt- und Energietechnik Technical University of Denmark Munich Roskilde Germany Denmark

PATRICK F. MAHONEY RENA KUWAHATA Energy Answers International, Inc. Energynautics GmbH Albany, NY Langen USA Germany

STEFAN MAJER VOLKER LENZ German Biomass Research Centre Non Profit German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) Research Company (DBFZ) Leipzig Leipzig Germany Germany

IRIS LEWANDOWSKI HEINZ-PETER MANG Department of Biobased Products and Energy Crops German Society for sustainable Biogas and Institute for Crop Science, Hohenheim University Bioenergy Utilization Stuttgart Freudenberg-Boxtal, Baden-Wuerttemberg Germany Germany xxii List of Contributors

JAMES F. MANWELL MICHAEL NELLES Department of Mechanical and Industrial Department Waste Management Engineering University of Rostock University of Massachusetts Rostock Amherst, MA Germany USA FRANZ P. NEUBACHER JOHANNES J. E. MARTIN UV&P Environmental Engineering M.S. Chemical Martin GmbH fu¨r Umwelt- und Energietechnik Engineering (T.U. Graz) M.S. Technology & Munich Policy (M.I.T) Germany Vienna Austria MICHAEL MILLIGAN National Renewable Energy Laboratory DAVID NIEVA Golden, CO Instituto de Investigaciones Ele´ctricas USA Cuernavac, Morelos Mexico MARTIN MITTELBACH Institute of Chemistry INGWALD OBERNBERGER Karl-Franzens-University of Graz Bios Bioenergiesysteme GmbH Graz Graz Austria Austria and MIKE MONGILLO BIOENERGY 2020+ GmbH GNS Science Graz Wairakei Research Centre Austria Taupo and New Zealand Institute for Process and Particle Engineering Graz University of Technology

L. MORTIMER Graz Hot Dry Rocks Pty Ltd Austria South Yarra, Victoria Australia DALE OSBORN Midwest ISO

FRANZISKA MUELLER-LANGER Columbus, OH German Biomass Research Centre gGmbH (DBFZ) USA Leipzig Germany RALPH P. OVEREND Golden, CO HIROFUMI MURAOKA USA National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology ANASTASIOS PERIMENIS Institute for Geo-Resources and Environment German Biomass Research Centre Non Profit (GREEN) Research Company (DBFZ) Tsukuba, Ibaraki Leipzig Japan Germany List of Contributors xxiii

ERIK LUNDTANG PETERSEN SUBIR K. SANYAL Wind Energy Division, Risø DTU National Laboratory GeothermEx, Inc for Sustainable Energy Richmond, CA Technical University of Denmark USA Roskilde Denmark RALF SCHMERSAHL Deutsches BiomasseForschungsZentrum GmbH MARTINA DE MANTOPI PORRES LEBOFA German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) Technologies for Economic Development Leipzig Maseru Germany Lesotho and Institute of Agricultural Engineering Bornim e.V. KEVIN PORTER (ATB) Exeter Associates Potsdam Columbia, Maryland Germany USA

ROLAND SCHNELL ARNI RAGNARSSON Graskraft Ltd Iceland GeoSurvey Berlin Reykjavı´k Germany Iceland

HELMUT RECHBERGER FRANK SCHOLWIN Institute of Water Quality, Resource and Waste University Rostock Management Germany Vienna University of Technology Vienna ULRICH SCHURR Austria IBG-2: Plant Science Forschungszentrum Ju¨lich DIETER O. REIMANN Ju¨lich Confederation of European Waste-to-Energy Plants Germany (CEWEP) Bamberg Germany DISHNA SCHWARZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fu¨r Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH STEFAN RO¨ NSCH German Biomass Research Centre (Deutsches Eschborn Germany BiomasseForschungsZentrum gemeinnu¨tzige GmbH)

Leipzig MICHAEL SEIFFERT Germany German Biomass Research Centre (Deutsches BiomasseForschungsZentrum gemeinnu¨tzige LADISLAUS RYBACH GmbH) Geowatt AG Leipzig Switzerland Germany xxiv List of Contributors

JOHANNES SELKE SUZANNE TEGEN International Biogas & Bioenergy Centre of Expertise National Renewable Energy Laboratory (IBBK GmbH) Golden, CO Stuttgart USA Germany

JEFF TESTER ULRIKE SEYFERT Energy Institute, Cornell University German Biomass Research Centre Ithaca, NY Leipzig USA Germany

NICKOLAS J. THEMELIS VIDA N. SHARIFI Earth Engineering Center Energy and Environment Engineering (EEE) Columbia University Sheffield University New York, NY Sheffield USA UK and EEE Group, Chemical and Biological Engineering TORBJO¨ RN THIRINGER Sheffield University Department of Energy and Environment, Division of Sheffield Electric Power Engineering UK Chalmers University of Technology Go¨teborg Sweden RAPHAEL SLADE Centre for Energy Policy and Technology Imperial College DANIELA THRA¨ N London German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) UK Leipzig Germany and LENNART SO¨ DER Royal Institute of Technology, Electric Power Systems Helmholtz–Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) Stockholm Leipzig Sweden Germany

CHRISTOPH STRAUß KLAUS THUNEKE Plant Production and Agricultural Ecology Technologie- und Fo¨rderzentrum im Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture Kompetenzzentrum fu¨r Nachwachsende Rohstoffe Dornburg (TFZ) Germany Straubing Germany

J. SWITHENBANK Energy and Environment Engineering (EEE) LASSE TOBIASEN Sheffield University Ramboll Energy – Waste-to-Energy Sheffield København S UK Denmark List of Contributors xxv

HIROYUKI TOKITA ACHIM WALTER West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc IBG–2: Plant Science Chuou-ku, Fukuoka Forschungszentrum Ju¨lich Japan Ju¨lich Germany M. A. J. (MARCEL) VAN BERLO and Free University of Amsterdam and AEB-Amsterdam ETH Zu¨rich Amsterdam Institute of Plant, Animal and Agroecosystem The Netherlands Sciences, Professorship of Crop Science Zurich MICHAEL VAN BRUNT Switzerland Covanta Energy Corporation Morristown, NJ USA NADJA WELLER German Biomass Research Centre (DBFZ) Leipzig ARMELLE M. VARDELLE Laboratoire Sciences des Proce´de´sCe´ramiques et de Germany Traitements de Surface University of Limoges RENATUS WIDMANN Limoges Cedex Department of Urban Water and Waste Management France University of Duisburg-Essen Essen LUIS A. VEGA Germany Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, School of Ocean And Earth Science And Technology University of Hawaii at Manoa ANDREAS WIESE Honolulu, HI Energy Division USA Lahmeyer International GmbH Bad Vilbel JUERGEN VEHLOW Germany Karlsruhe Institute for Technology, Institute for Technical Chemistry

Karlsruhe MAARTEN WOLSINK Germany Department of Geography, Planning and International Development Studies ARMIN VETTER University of Amsterdam Plant Production and Agricultural Ecology Amsterdam Thuringian State Institute for Agriculture The Netherlands Dornburg Germany CHRISTOPH WU¨ NSCH A. VON FELDE Institute of Waste Management and Contaminated Energy Plants Site Treatment KWS SAAT AG Technical University of Dresden Einbeck Pirna Germany Germany xxvi List of Contributors

KUNIO YOSHIKAWA VLADIMIR ZUI Frontier Research Center Belarusian Research Geological Prospecting Institute Tokyo Institute of Technology Belarus Yokohama Japan

GUIDO ZACCHI Department of Chemical Engineering Lund University Lund Sweden