Canadian Soldiers in West African Conflicts, 1885Â•Fi1905

Canadian Military History

Volume 17 Issue 1 Article 3

2008

Canadian Soldiers in West African Conflicts, 1885–1905

Andrew B. Godefroy Canadian Armed Forces

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Recommended Citation Godefroy, Andrew B. "Canadian Soldiers in West African Conflicts, 1885–1905." Canadian Military History 17, 1 (2008)

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Scholars Commons @ Laurier. It has been accepted for inclusion in Canadian Military History by an authorized editor of Scholars Commons @ Laurier. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Godefroy: West African Conflicts

Canadian Soldiers in West African Conflicts, 1885-1905

Andrew B. Godefroy

“The Scouts were under Lieutenant [A.H.] Macdonnell, DSO, an excellent officer of the permanent forces of Canada.” Lieutenant-Colonel William Heneker’s narrative of the Ibeku-Olokoro Expedition, Southern Nigeria, 19021

he history of the Canadian army at the that a new approach to the analysis of the pre- Tbeginning of the 20th century is most often 1914 Canadian army is required, one that focuses defined by its operational participation in the as much on the influence of those who left Canada South African War. Between 1899 and 1902 for military service as those who remained within Canada dispatched a few thousand soldiers to the ranks of the institution at home. fight for British interests against Boer settlers, a commitment that had a considerable impact on There is little question that the development both the evolution of Canada’s fledgling army as of a better understanding of the pre-Great War well as Canadian politics in general. The sheer Canadian Army is long overdue. Existing literature magnitude of this event overshadowed just about too often focuses solely on how the British army every other British and Canadian army activity at controlled and influenced a nascent Canadian the time, but it was by no means the only conflict militia.3 As this article reveals, not only are such in which Canadian soldiers were then engaged. analyses incomplete but they do not reverse the In addition to helping secure the veldt of the lens and examine how Canada and Canadians Transvaal for Great Britain, Canada’s soldiers influenced the British army and its operations were also active participants in a number of other abroad during the same period.4 A more complete campaigns across equatorial Africa. Though picture of Canadian army evolution can only exist there were fewer troops who served as part of a through such an examination, and this article general frontier force instead of being organized touches on but one topic that brings new evidence into specific Canadian units, their presence was for that reassessment. influential and at times critical for operational success in these other theatres of conflict. The British Empire in West Africa5 This article examines the role played by Canadians at the turn of the century in West uring the late Victorian and Edwardian eras, Africa.2 Though not intended to draw sweeping Dthe relationship of Europe and Africa was conclusions about the influence of such operations in the midst of a great transition. For centuries on the Canadian army as a whole – such analysis Africa had been the “Dark Continent,” a vast must follow at a later time when more contextual and impenetrable unknown to the European evidence is available – it does rediscover a largely adventurer, often perceived as a place of witch forgotten chapter in the origins and evolution of doctors, juju cults, cannibalism, and savagery the army, as well as raise a number of questions into which one dare not venture. Since the late that obviously deserve greater attention. Most 15th century, the valuable trading commodities important, perhaps, this article demonstrates of West Africa were brought from the interior by

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native groups for exchange with the Europeans, mid-19th century. Having begun that century few of whom ever ventured inland from the without ambitions beyond holding their collection trading forts they built along the coast. As British of trading enterprises along the coast, they closed historian R.B. Magor later noted, “The main it by endeavouring to extend their involvement products traded were slaves, palm oil, and gold, to full-fledged imperial rule as deep inland as in that order of importance.”6 possible.

From the beginning of the 19th century, The British, however, were not the only however, the British renounced their participation Europeans with designs on ruling the region. in the slave trade, and set themselves to blocking The Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish had all been everyone else engaged in the activity. Both the there, but were no longer serious contenders Europeans and Arabs who shipped the slaves against the rising British military and commercial and the native kings who sold them were soundly power. Instead it was the French and Germans reproved by British sailors and soldiers who who challenged the British. While the British imposed their anti-slavery views justified by a were seizing the hinterlands of the Gold Coast mixture of religion and reformism backed up [now Ghana] and the Niger coast, the Germans by artillery, Maxim machine guns and rifles. By seized Togoland and Cameroon on the east side extension, the British were developing an interest of these British claims. There was some friction in the internal governance of West Africa by the and disputes among traders and officials on the

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scene, but agreements were soon reached in a military units then in West Africa into a unified more or less gentlemanly fashion. The manner regional army, known as the West African Frontier in which Europeans resolved their African Force (WAFF). Frederick Dealtry Lugard was boundaries is neatly described in the comments gazetted to be its first commandant on 26 August of Britain’s Foreign Minister Salisbury upon a 1897.10 Though only listed as a captain in his subsequent boundary treaty with the French: “We regiment, within the army he was a brevet-major, have been engaged in drawing lines upon maps and in his new assignment as commanding officer where no white man’s foot has ever trod…We of the WAFF he was granted the local rank of have been giving away mountains and rivers and colonel. lakes to each other, only hindered by the small impediment that we never knew exactly where As an organization the WAFF evolved over the mountains and rivers and lakes were.”7 several years between 1897 and 1901. Initially comprised of two battalions of the Northern Contrary to popular conception, the delegates Nigeria Regiment, by 1902 it also included one at the Berlin Conference of 1885 did not lay out battalion of the Southern Nigeria Regiment, the all the borders of modern Africa.8 While they Lagos Battalion, the Sierra Leone Battalion, a did resolve a few disputes about jurisdiction on battalion and a half of the Gold Coast Regiment, certain rivers and a few boundary disputes in and the Gambia Company.11 The ranks of these the Congo basin, the main achievement of the infantry units were comprised of African natives, conference was the establishment of some rules while the officer corps was made up of white men for mitigating disputes among themselves in the from Britain and its colonies. As they had long years to come as they laid their claims to the rest. been doing in India, the British developed strong Over the next three decades, seven European prejudices in favour of recruiting certain races nations extended their dominions inland from for their purported martial qualities. In West the coast, and as they ran up against each other’s Africa, the Hausa was the most favoured tribe, claims, they resolved their boundary disputes in and in English usage “Hausas” was sometimes a series of bilateral treaties. used as a generic term for African soldiers. A detailed treatment of the tribal constituents of While the British had stayed on good terms the WAFF can be found in Haywood and Clarke’s, with the Germans as they worked out their History of the Royal West African Frontier Force, disputes, they nearly went to war with the French which shows that the British, even when local over territorial claims in West Africa. The French recruiting sources were scarce, strove to create as were energetically advancing their territories professional and capable a force as possible, even in the region, while Britain vacillated about if only a small one. Securing officers to lead these whether to expend the effort to move inland. units was another matter, as only “proper white Under Salisbury, British policy was to secure gentlemen” would suffice for such a role. Without east Africa, flanking as it does the vital corridor such resources readily available locally, the War to India, and let the French have most of West Office had to look elsewhere for the solution. Africa without much contest.9 But when Joseph Chamberlain became Colonial Secretary in 1895, While the WAFF was still taking shape in he launched a vigorous drive to prevent any more late 1897 and early 1898, it did its best to show inland and western territory from falling into the flag and thereby validate British claims in French hands by default. As things stood when the disputed areas (Borgu, Bussa, Say, Sokoto, Chamberlain took office, the French already had Katsina) north of Lagos, in the midst of numerically much more territory and troops in West Africa superior French forces who were there doing the than the British. If Britain were to stake out and same. Thus before the WAFF was fully born it was defend anything significant, the forces on hand being used by Colonial Secretary Chamberlain as would have to be strengthened. a sabre to rattle at the French. Had there been a war, the WAFF’s prospects against the vastly In July 1897, as contentions grew sharp larger French forces in the area would have been between British and French rivals over the uncertain no matter what its quality, although regions north of Lagos, Chamberlain instigated British naval preponderance held the promise the amalgamation of the miscellaneous British of eventual success if Britain could commit large

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resources to reverse possible initial defeats. In raised in Canada primarily from British veterans. the end, no war came, and France and England Ottawa politely rejected the offer, suggesting that reached a diplomatic agreement on many West the government was not yet ready to finance a African boundaries in a convention signed on 14 permanent standing force of regular soldiers. June 1898. With the main threat removed for The government did authorize the formation of the moment, the British turned their attention to two regular force artillery batteries to man the securing the local population’s governance for the critical fortresses at Quebec City and Kingston eventual introduction of British commerce and once the British left. This was done just in case trade. Several Canadians would ultimately take the United States saw the British withdrawal as part in shaping these events. an opportunity for another invasion of Canada. These two batteries formed the entirety of the regular Canadian army in 1871. The remainder British Recruiting Policy and of the confederation’s military was composed of Practices in Canada part-time, partially trained militia. Expansion of the permanent force with infantry and cavalry s the British Empire continued to expand schools in 1883 raised the entire strength of Aits influence across the African continent, regular army to barely a thousand personnel. its forces and, in particular, its officer corps was There were few options in Canada for one seeking seriously overstretched. Constantly increasing a career in the military.12 demands for new subalterns since the end of the Second Afghan War (1870-1880), especially Canada’s army had not yet embarked on technically trained ones such as artillery officers its future development as an expeditionary and engineers, pushed the War Office in London force, with the first governments often unable to begin scouting for new officers among its or unwilling to fill requests from London for colonies to fill the widening gap. Canada offered the dispatch of troops in support of British a tempting and easy source. With a nascent army operations overseas while it was still struggling to of its own and a recently created Royal Military create law, order, good government and security College that showed great promise in its focus at home.13 Still, with the exception of the 1885 on technical education and training, the country Northwest Rebellion and the endless requests soon became a preferred recruiting ground for for aid from the various civilian authorities to British operational needs overseas. restore public order, officers could expect little excitement beyond garrison life, social events, Despite the fact that the British North American and daily drill.14 There was little opportunity for colonies had entered into a confederation in real soldiering of the kind witnessed in British 1867, the new dominion remained very much a army actions across the frontiers of the empire, loyal subject of the British Empire and English and British officers posted to Canada during this Canadian families continued to encourage their period often described their assignment as safe, sons to join the ranks of the British army just as healthy, expensive, and dull.15 Thus for those much as Canada’s military. There were plenty of Canadians who saw the military as a calling or reasons for making such a choice ranging from an escape, the British army presented the best the romantic to the practical, but it is perhaps opportunities to bring honour to self and family most important to note that at the time service in in the latter half of the 19th century.16 one army was not perceived as making a sleight towards the other. Though Canada’s permanent force remained relatively small, the Royal Military College of From a practical perspective, in the latter half Canada (RMC) at Kingston, Ontario, was opened of the 19th century those desiring the military life in 1876 to educate and train young gentleman as a professional soldier in Canada were often for service as officers in the militia, but also to left wanting if they stayed at home. Just prior to train them as engineers and managers for the the departure of the British army from Canada civil service and private industry to stimulate in 1871, the War Office in London offered to the economic development of the young country. transfer to Canada the Royal Canadian Rifles, The curriculum was based upon the American a British regular army battalion that had been West Point model, with mathematics forming

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the base of all degrees and certificates.17 The the Royal Engineers and two in the Royal Artillery. first cadets graduated in 1880. Most emerged The Canadian gentlemen cadets soon filled them with qualifications as artillery or engineering all.24 Such offers were indicative of Britain’s officers.18 confidence in Canada’s ability to produce professionally competent officers for service in The War Office in London sent notice to either colonial or British forces. Some might Ottawa offering immediate commissions in argue that London simply had no choice but to the British army for the top four gentleman engage Canadian soldiers, but it did. There was a cadets graduating out of the first RMC class plethora of British militia officers to choose from of 18 officers.19 Major-General Edward Selby not counting its own engineer and artillery officer Smyth, a British officer engaged by the Canadian graduates. However, those Canadian officers government to command the militia, commented who had entered into British service performed in his annual report in 1878 that taking up this admirably, and the War Office could see no reason offer would be “another link in the chain that binds not to continue its exploitation of Canada’s RMC us altogether.”20 It was hoped by some that such and permanent force. By 1889, Britain had British employment of Canadian soldiers would taken 75 RMC cadets into the British army, over change government attitudes about eventually a quarter of all cadets that had graduated from deploying Canadian troops overseas, and act as Kingston thus far.25 a preliminary move towards the establishment of Canadian permanent force units that could be In addition to recruiting directly from RMC, easily interchanged with British units.21 the War Office regularly accepted applications for both imperial commissions as well as The first Canadians commissioned into the secondments from the Canadian permanent British army from RMC showed tremendous force and militia. This policy allowed other ability and promise, and increasing numbers Canadians such as Lieutenant A.H. Macdonnell of Canadian officer graduates were recruited of the permanent force or Lieutenant Henry Read throughout the 1880s in an effort to fill gaps in of the Canadian militia to offer their services and the British army’s officer corps. In some instances obtain local commissions in the WAFF.26 successful recruitment even seemed critical to survival. A Russian victory over Afghan forces at Penjdeh in Transcaspia in March 1885 caused Canadian Officers in West Africa great concern in the War Office in London about the state of operational readiness of the British anadians who left the relatively benign army. It was felt that if Britain had to engage the Cenvironment of Canada for service on the Russians the army would be at a disadvantage dangerous and deadly West African coast were because of large shortages of qualified officers. well aware of the challenges that awaited them. Since the mid-1860s, both British and American In April 1885 the War Office offered to Canada newspapers carried regular dispatches from an additional 26 commissions in the British “the dark continent,” written explorers and army over and above the four commissions missionaries.27 They presented sometimes hair- normally offered every year. In particular it raising yet alluring characterizations of life and sought six artillery officers, ten engineer officers, service in Africa, and the fame and fortune often and ten officers of either infantry or cavalry.22 accorded to such intrepid travelers certainly Furthermore if RMC and its recent graduates seemed worth the potential risks involved. could not fill the positions, London was prepared to offer the commissions to officers of the An examination of the existing evidence Canadian permanent force and even the active indicates that Canadian officers in British and militia if suitable candidates might be found. Canadian service were present in operations in Britain eventually received 28 officers from RMC Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Northern and alone in that year.23 Southern Nigeria, all of the theatres of conflict in western Africa except the Gambia, which will In 1888 the War Office offered, in addition to nevertheless be discussed in the interests of the usual four commissions, six commissions in completeness.

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The Gambia the Bechuanaland Expedition in 1884-85.30 He was appointed Commanding Royal Engineers f all the West African theatres during the (CRE) in West Africa in 1887, and later served Operiod, the Gambia saw the least amount in Sierra Leone where he assisted Colonel Sir of conflict. A series of punitive expeditions were Francis Walker de Winton in the 1887-88 punitive carried out against the local ruler, Chief Fodeh expeditions against the Yonnie tribe. It was an Cabbah, who was resisting incursions by the arduous and dangerous campaign against a Anglo-French Boundary Commission through skillful adversary, and Captain Mackay came his country during 1891 and 1892. The following close to being killed on a number of occasions year another expedition was launched, this time as the expedition was repeatedly ambushed against Chief Fodeh Silah, a cunning slave raider on its way to destroy the Yonnie stronghold at and skillful tactician who for some time was Robari. For his consistently outstanding efforts launching forays against the district west of Cape and personal courage Mackay was awarded the St. Mary and generally threatening the fledging Distinguished Service Order.31 While serving as British colony of Gambia.28 British attempts to acting administrator to the Imperial British East capture Silah and put an end to his activities met Africa Company he contracted fever and died at with considerable difficulties, and only after a Mombassa on 10 April 1891. It was an all-too couple of failed attempts were the British finally typical end for a man serving in West Africa at able to launch a successful expedition and force that time. Silah to flee in March 1894. No other serious conflicts occurred in the region, save for a single Perhaps the most notable Canadian to serve punitive expedition in early 1900 to chase down in Sierra Leone was William Henry Robinson. a band of men who had murdered two British Born in Saint John, New Brunswick in July traveling commissioners and their escort. 1863 he entered the Royal Military College at Kingston in 1879. Upon graduation he accepted The nature of the inland water operations in a commission in the Royal Engineers, completing the Gambia precluded the large-scale involvement his training at Woolwich, England. Soon after he of land forces, with the majority of forces being received orders for service in West Africa. made up of Royal Navy sailors, Royal Marines, or members of the West India Regiment.29 In 1889 Captain Robinson replaced Captain Mackay as the CRE in West Africa. He was serving in Sierra Leone in 1891 when a local warrior Sierra Leone leader named Karimu attacked a patrol of the Sierra Leone Frontier Police. Karimu had already ierra Leone was witness to a number of local made a name for himself in the region leading Sconflicts between 1887 and 1905. Comprising bands of fighters belonging to Chief Bari Bureh a region of approximately 77,700 square against local tribes under British protection near kilometers and a population of approximately the Limba Susu border. Karimu operated out two million, the borders of Sierra Leone stretched of a stockade stronghold at Tambi on the River from the Great Scaries River in the north to the Scaries, and the Sierra Leone Frontier Police Great Bum River in the south and as far inland as mounted an operation to kill or capture him. the Niger River tributary. Very little of the region In March 1892 Captain Robinson was assigned stood far above sea level, consisting mostly of the task of leading a small force to Tambi to swampy mangrove bush and thick rain forest get Karimu and kill or disperse his men. When that became grasslands and orchard bush only Robinson and his party of Sierra Leone Frontier some 160 kilometers inland from the coast. In Police attacked the stockade on 14 March, this area two Canadians distinguished themselves however, Karimu was ready and repulsed the in combat. initial assault. The momentum lost, Captain Robinson tried to rally the attack by personally Born in Kingston, Ontario in March 1858, setting explosive charges at the gates to blow them Captain Huntley Brodie Mackay graduated open and allow his men to rush through. Despite from RMC with a commission in the Royal heavy fire he succeeded but was shot dead during Engineers and first served in Africa as a Special the assault. Their leader killed, the frontier Service Officer under Sir Charles Warren in police were repulsed and soon abandoned the

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fight. Captain William H. Robinson was the first graduate of RMC to be killed in action.32

The untimely death of Captain Robinson caused a tremendous outrage in London. New officers were immediately sent out from England to organize a response, and soon assembled 550

Born in Kingston and a graduate of RMC, Captain Huntley Brodie Mackay served in Bechuanaland in 1884-85 and then after in Sierra Leone as the Commanding Royal Engineer for West Africa. Awarded the DSO, he died on active service in 1891. Royal Military College of Canada (RMCC) photo archives

men of the West India Regiment, 125 Sierra Leone Frontier Police, 400 local African militia, as well as a naval landing party of 175 men equipped with 7-pounder artillery pieces, rockets, and Maxim machine guns. Within a month, the Tambi fort was breached and destroyed, with the remnants of Karimu’s force fleeing to another stronghold named Toniataba. The British-led expedition assaulted it on 28 April, effectively putting an The Gold Coast end to Karimu and his allies for good. he Asante (or Ashanti) Empire, with whom In December 1899 an editorial in a Canadian Tthe British fought a series of wars between newspaper suggested that Robinson would have 1820 and 1900, occupied a large region of the been awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions Gold Coast between the River Komoe and the at Tambi had he not been killed in action. At Volta Rivers. The Ashanti were perhaps the most the time of his death, the standing policy was difficult adversaries ever faced in West Africa and that VCs were not awarded posthumously. their eventual subjugation was difficult, lengthy, This changed in 1902 to allow such awards, and very costly in lives on both sides.33 but a clause making it retroactive for previous actions was not added until 1907. By that time, Early British attempts to colonize the area unfortunately, Robinson’s valiant actions against along the Gold Coast foreshadowed the difficulties an unknown warlord in an obscure part of West to come. When the Ashanti began raiding British Africa 15 years earlier were all but forgotten. settlements in the 1820s, the colony’s governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, organized the Royal Active service in Sierra Leone was often African Colonial Corps (RACC) of Light Infantry deadly and Canadian officers knew it. Gentleman to protect his citizens. In 1824 the Ashanti king Cadet Bertie Harold Oliver Armstrong was lucky annihilated the RACC at Isamankow where to survive his own experience. He graduated the governor was also killed. Triumphant, the from RMC in 1893 and received a commission Ashanti King Osei Bonsu added MacCarthy’s into the Royal Engineers and was also assigned skull to his royal regalia as a drinking cup. to West Africa. Captain Armstrong served as an intelligence officer in Sierra Leone in 1898-99 British footholds along the Gold Coast were during the uprising later known as the “Hut not solidified until after the Ashanti War of Tax War,” where he was largely responsible for 1873-74. Canadians began entering this theatre assessing enemy strengths and fortifications and sometime after, with many seeing action against assisting with the development of operational the Ashanti at one point or another. RMC’s plans to defeat the insurgency. Following the end Gentleman Cadet No.79 John Irvine Lang-Hyde of the conflict in March 1899, Armstrong was was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in appointed CRE for West Africa, making him the 1883, and a decade later he was assigned to West fourth Canadian to hold this post since 1887. Africa to conduct an extensive survey of the Gold

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Northern and Southern Nigeria

f all the areas of conflict on the West African Ocoast, Nigeria presented perhaps the largest challenge for British forces. A vast theatre divided into a northern and southern region, the WAFF was embroiled in continuous conflict in Nigeria between 1892 and the end of the First World War.

The Nigerian operations demanded huge expeditions and many white officers to lead them. Canadians were present, often in large numbers. Existing evidence suggests that the

Captain William Henry Robinson was the ﬁrst RMC graduate killed in action in West Africa. He was recommended for the VC and his death caused outrage both in London and Ottawa. (RMCC Photo)

largest concentration of Canadians in West Africa was here, including many RMC graduates, one of whom often served as expedition commander. As well, a number of the Canadians serving were not in the British Army, but rather remained officers in the Canadian permanent force or Coast while serving as the second-in-command militia seconded for duty in the WAFF. This is of the Attabalu Expeditionary Force. He went on particularly interesting, as it is not well known to be employed in the Anglo-French boundary that Canadian officers served as members of the commission in Nigeria during 1900-1, completing Canadian Forces in combat operations abroad a survey of both the railway as well as the most during this period. western boundary of the Gold Coast colony. He was later made a Companion of the Order of St. Kenneth J.R. Campbell was one of the Michael and St. George (CMG) for his efforts, first Canadians to serve in this theatre. Having and eventually served with the Royal Engineers graduated from RMC in 1881 he was unable during the First World War. to secure a commission in either the British or Canadian forces and ended up enlisting as private Captain Casimir VanStraubanzee, another soldier in the Gloucester Regiment. It was not RMC graduate who obtained a commission long before his superiors became aware of his with the Royal Artillery, served in the 1895- RMC qualification and provided a commission 96 Ashanti War as a special service officer. Yet in the 6th Dragoon Guards. He soon transferred another, Captain D.S. MacInnes, also served in to the Suffolk Regiment as he sought an infantry the Gold Coast in 1897-98.34 During this time a command. In 1894, he served in operations in vast number of expeditions were launched from the Niger Coast Protectorate against Chief Nanna Accra in all directions as the British attempted on the Benin River. Captain Campbell fought at to occupy some of the hinterland that was then the capture of Brohemie with distinction and being rapidly parceled out among French and was mentioned-in-dispatches and awarded the German expeditions. As a Royal Engineer officer Distinguished Service Order.35 At the time of this supporting these expeditions, MacInnes was action, Campbell was already serving as deputy responsible for communications and logistics, as consul-general and acting commissioner of the well as a number of engineering duties such as Oil River Protectorate, eventually becoming the route maintenance, geographical survey, bridges, consul-general.36 Campbell later commanded the and general construction. Both VanStraubanzee Naval Brigade at the Relief of Pekin during the and MacInnes survived their tours of duty in West Boxer Rebellion in 1900. He also served in the Africa and had lengthy military careers. navy and the army during the First World War. 28

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Other Canadians followed. Captain H.C. carriers for this massive operation. The white Carey served with the Royal Engineers in the European officer ranks included at least a dozen Niger Coast Protectorate between 1895 and 1896. Canadian officers at all levels and functions Captain Robert Cockburn, a militia officer serving across the force. Major William Heneker was in the 3rd Canadian Dragoons, transferred first perhaps the most senior Canadian present in to the Suffolk Regiment and then later to the West this campaign, being second in authority only African Field Force. Records show that he served to Lieutenant-Colonel Montanaro, the force in theatre between 1899 and 1902.37 commander. Heneker was born and raised in Sherbrooke, Quebec, and attended Bishop’s Captain L.C.A. de B. Doucet was one of College before completing his education at the few francophone Canadians to serve in RMC. After graduation in 1888 he accepted a West Africa. After graduating from the Royal commission in the Cannaught Rangers, and was Military College with a commission in the Royal seconded for duty in West Africa in June 1897. Engineers, he was assigned to West Africa in He would eventually become one of the most 1903. Doucet was an expert geographer, having successful and noted commanders in the entire shown considerable skill in his early career. In theatre. theatre, he was tasked to a special duty under the Colonial Office in connection with the Yola-Chad In November 1901 Lieutenant-Colonel Boundary Commission, a difficult mission that Montanaro dispatched four converging he performed admirably. columns towards Aro-Chuku [modern spelling Arochukwu], the capital of the Aro families. It was also considered to be the centre for Juju worship The Anglo-Aro War and was therefore Montanaro’s primary target. in Southern Nigeria Major Heneker commanded No.4 Column of this expedition, his force consisting of 19 European anadian participation in the pacification of officers as well as one local officer, 479 local CWest Africa appeared to climax in late 1901 rank and file, one Maxim gun and crew, 13 gun when the British launched a substantial civil- carriers, and 225 general carriers.40 Concentrated military operation against the group of the Ibo at Itu, his orders were to make a feint advance tribe whose influence extended between the Niger and Cross rivers. The total area of the operation was 193 kilometres east to west and 144 kilometres north to south, and operations lasted over four months.38 The British had a number of objectives that required a series of expeditions

RMC graduate John Irving Lang-Hyde served with the Royal Engineers and was second-in-command of the Attabalu Expeditionary Force in West Africa in 1893. He was awarded the CMG for his role in the Nigerian Anglo-French Boundary Commission in 1901. (RMCC Photo)

against various factions of the Aro tribe. First and foremost, they wanted to open the Ibo country to peaceful trading and British-directed commerce and prevent further massacres and subjugations of the local populations by slave hunters and raiders. Second, they were keen to suppress the native Long Juju practices once and for all.39

Lieutenant-Colonel A.F. Montanaro, then commanding the West African Field Force, deployed just over 2,000 soldiers and 2,300

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towards Aro-Chuku to fix Wayling survived the Aro the Aro forces at or near expedition, being mentioned- their capital. This allowed in-dispatches three times for the remaining columns to his service.43 conduct other operations across the country and The lion of West Africa. Born move towards the Aro in Sherbrooke, Quebec, and capital without being a graduate of RMC, William Heneker would ﬁght in over frequently ambushed a dozen campaigns along along the way. the Gold Coast and end his career as a full general in M a j o r H e n e k e r the British Army. conducted a series of (RMCC Photo) reconnaissances-in- force along the Enyong Sporadic fighting River until he reached continued across the the village of Esu-Itu on region well into the 29 November. There he spring of 1902. A large made a fortified camp engagement was fought at and then continued on 8 Edimma on 18 January, December with a smaller where a small force led by force in the direction of Captain J.C. Graham of Aro-Chuku. His force was the Highland Light Infantry joined by No.2 Column was attacked by a much under the command of larger enemy contingent. Major A.M.N. Mackenzie During the fight, “Lieutenant on 20 December, which was A.E. Rastrick, Canadian incorporated into Heneker’s Militia…who was in command own column. A sizeable enemy of the Maxim, used it with great force attacked him on the night effect, and so good was the fire of 24 December, and British force control and discipline that the spent Christmas day and most of the enemy was forced to retreat….”44 The next day in constant contact with their young Canadian officer not only brought adversary. the Aro attack to a dead stop, he forced them back into a rout that resulted in the subsequent Under Heneker’s command during the capture of Edimma. For his actions, Rastrick was fighting was a young Canadian named James mentioned-in-dispatches.45 Wayling. Commissioned as a major in the 12th Battalion, Canadian Militia (now the Royal York The Aro expedition came to a climax when the Rangers), Wayling had volunteered for West British columns converged at Bende on 2 March Africa and was subsequently seconded to the 1902 to face the last concentrated resistance. Southern Nigeria Regiment in 1901. Though he Major Heneker led the assault against the town, still retained his major’s rank in the Canadian capturing it, and two senior Aro chiefs, within militia, locally he was gazetted as a lieutenant. a day. Though the pacification and subjugation Wayling survived the Christmas battle and several of the entire region was far from complete, the subsequent engagements, including the capture capture of Aro-Chuku and Bende meant that for 41 and destruction of the Long Juju at Aro-Chuku. the time being the main adversary was defeated. His luck nearly ran out, however, a few weeks Lieutenant-Colonel Montanaro’s main force later in an ambush at Ikotobo on 26 January returned to the coast where he prepared his 42 1902 while defending a water party. Wayling was official dispatches for London. saved from certain death at the last minute by the timely arrival of three fellow officers who were Despite this massive operation small local able to force the ambushers to retire. Lieutenant conflicts persisted, and British punitive and

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Godefroy - West Africa.indd 30 14/02/2008 12:56:52 PM Godefroy: West African Conflicts Imperial War Museum MPG 1/669 Order 5518/6515 Imperial War

An operational planning map for the 1899 Benin Expedition showing key locations, travel distances, and timings hand drawn by William Heneker. The map is remarkably accurate and he often credited his RMC education and training for being able to produce such documents.

pacification expeditions in Southern Nigeria Such actions were a regular occurrence in continued until 1910. Archibald Hayes Macdonell, Southern Nigeria, and Lieutenant Macdonell born in Toronto, served first as a scout, and quickly became one of Major Heneker’s best then later as a platoon and company level reconnaissance officers and combat leaders. commander in several of these operations.46 He had joined the Canadian militia in February 1886 Lieutenant Macdonell went on to serve in and was a company commander with the 2nd seven separate expeditions between 1901 and (Special Service) Battalion, The Royal Canadian 1904.48 By the time of his return to the Canadian Regiment of Infantry during the South African militia he was one of its most experienced small War. Macdonell was awarded the Distinguished wars veterans. Reverting to his rank of major, Service Order for his actions at the Battle of Macdonell later passed the Army’s staff college Paardeberg. In 1901 Macdonell was seconded and was subsequently appointed to command to the WAFF, and first saw action when he was The Royal Canadian Regiment (RCR). Lieutenant- attacked outside the town of Onor during the Colonel Macdonell took that unit overseas in Ibeku-Olokoro expedition in Southern Nigeria in 1914, led it in action on the western front, late 1902. His commander, Major Heneker, later subsequently commanding the 5th Canadian wrote of the engagement, Infantry Brigade in 1916 upon his promotion to brigadier-general. Half a mile out of the friendly town of Onor the road ran along a narrow causeway about Still, Major William Heneker remains the most 100 yards in length, and with a deep swamp intriguing Canadian who served in this theatre. on either side; there was a small stream at the enemy’s end of it which had to be waded. Fire Between 1897 and 1906 he fought in no less was opened on [Macdonell’s] scouts…the scouts than a dozen separate campaigns ranging from kept the enemy employed while the 75-milimetre peacetime military engagements to major combat and maxim were got into position. A heavy fire operations, earning the DSO for his efforts. More was then poured in….”47 important perhaps, in 1907 he published Bush

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for his innovative approach to operations in complex terrain that influenced later British and Canadian doctrines, or even his writings on the relationships between conflict and diplomacy.53

In addition to those men detailed here there

Already a decorated veteran of the South African War, Major A.H. Macdonell served in West Africa between 1901-1904 and fought in seven major expeditions. He went on to command the RCR and later the 5th Canadian Infantry Brigade in the First World War. (Library and Archives Canada PA-007525)

was several other serving Canadian militia officers who were seconded for duty in Nigeria. Lieutenant J.L.R. Parry, Canadian Militia, was mentioned-in-dispatches for his services during the Aro Expedition along with James Wayling.54 Two brothers, Captain B.M. Read and Lieutenant Henry Read, as well as Second Lieutenant F. Homer-Dixon, all Canadian militia officers, served in this theatre beginning in 1902.55 Wayling would eventually be promoted to major and mentioned- in-dispatches several further times. It is very Warfare,49 a 196-page book which is an astute, likely that there were many others who served articulate, and detailed study of small wars that in this theatre as well but whose names have was perhaps intended to advance if not supercede slipped through the cracks of history. Further the ideas initiated by Charles Callwell’s well- investigation of the subject is certainly needed. known 1896 publication, Small Wars: Their Principles and Practice.50 Almost completely forgotten by both British and Canadian military Conclusion historians today, this book served as one of the trilogy51 of small war “bibles” for the British army here are many points one could draw from until well after the First World War. In 1934 the Tthe experience of Canadian officers in West War Office institutionalized the lessons of men Africa. Perhaps most important is the obvious like Callwell and Heneker, when it finally released fact that a significant aspect of the history of its own internally-produced manual titled, Notes Canada’s Victorian and Edwardian army remains on Imperial Policing.52 untold and little understood. With the main focus of published works on politics56 or operations in Heneker went on to serve in India and the Saskatchewan and South Africa, little attention northwest frontier before returning to Europe has been paid to other minor operations or the as a brigade commander and later division army’s intellectual and institutional evolution. A commander on the western front during the First more thorough examination of subjects like the World War. In 1920 he was appointed the first service of Canadian officers with British forces commander of the British Army on the Rhine, overseas will undoubtedly revise existing views and then served as commander of the Inter- and conclusions about what the Canadian army Allied Commission of Management in Upper was and was not as well as how it evolved. Silesia, stabilizing the tenuous borders between Germany and Poland. He retired in 1932 at the This article reaffirms the fact that Canadian rank of full general after serving as commander- army biography is underdeveloped, and that in-chief of Southern Command, India. Yet many important personalities such as Lieutenant- Heneker is completely unknown in Canada, Colonel William Heneker and the young Lieutenant and like many of his colleagues, has yet to be Archibald H. Macdonell remain forgotten. This recognized by Canadian military historians either is especially true regarding those officers and

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men who served abroad prior to This study also reinforces the 1939, many of whom are lost in the argument that the Canadian army folds of national ambiguity between was shaped by individual as well as Canadian and British military service. collective experiences prior to 1914. Yet regardless of the uniform they Many of the officers studied in this wore at the time, their knowledge article returned to Canada at some point after their deployments to The African General Service Medal with bar provide briefings, lectures, articles, for the Aro Campaign. (Andrew Godefroy collection) and papers on what would be identified today as “lessons learned.” Narratives and experiences was often shared and analyses of their experiences between the two forces, and one appeared in professional Canadian cannot consider and assess the pre- military journals and magazines, Great War evolution of the Canadian and transcripts of their presentations army at home without giving some were often reprinted in media such consideration to those Canadians as The Proceedings of the Royal who served overseas. As well, it is Military College Club of Canada or important to appreciate that on many magazines published by the Royal occasions Canadians influenced the Canadian Military Institute in Toronto British army just as much as the or the Montreal Hunt Club. As well, in British influenced the Canadian army. keeping with British army traditions That three successive Canadians of the day, professional development held the post of Commanding Royal and operational corporate knowledge Engineers for all of West Africa between 1887 in Canada’s army was often passed along and 1894 with a fourth Canadian following soon verbally or through the publication of private after, for example, is a point of leadership that analyses such as Lieutenant-Colonel Heneker’s must be recognized.57 Bush Warfare, rather than via official doctrine manuals.58 Heneker notes this informal approach The evidence in this article suggests that to sharing knowledge and teaching lessons in the the Canadian officer corps was more engaged introduction to his book: “Should any officer… in international affairs, military operations, happen to peruse these notes, and should he, and strategic studies than has previously been perchance, come across anything which may be credited. As well, there is a poor understanding of use to him, the following pages will have served of how these external relationships affected the the purpose for which they were written.”59 evolution of the Canadian army at home and how or why these influences did or did not do more to Finally, it is very likely that better knowledge create a certain type of field force. Current debates of the experiences of Canadian officers with concerning Canadian army conceptual and British forces prior to the Great War will force doctrinal design, for example, regularly criticize a reassessment of the nature of relationships its networked approach to force development in the Canadian Expeditionary Force as well as as paying too little consideration to Canadian the nature of its British influences, particularly culture and military traditions. Yet as more of the within the 1st Canadian Division. Many active army’s history is examined, it becomes clearer service field grade officers (majors and above) that its evolution has always been one of blending in the Canadian army in 1914 had spent the influences and best practices from a wide range majority of their careers up to that point seconded of experiences. Canadians serving in West Africa to the British army and fighting small wars between 1885 and 1905 very likely cared much and counterinsurgencies in places like Africa, less whether or not they were uniquely identified northwestern India, and southeast Asia. This as “British” or “Canadian” than the historians previous experience obviously influenced their who examine them today. Though always proud early ideas about what combat would be like on of their origins, the transparency of their national the western front. It also revealed their potential allegiance and service was beneficial to both the limitations as commanders. Campaigning in West Canadian and British armies, who defended the Africa seldom involved more than a brigade of interests of the same empire. troops, and though the logistics were complicated

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the staff work was not. The massive expansion 10. Frederick John Dealtry Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard, of forces and the corps and army level scale of GCMG, CB, DSO, PC (22 January 1858–11 April 1945) was a British soldier, explorer of Africa, and colonial operations proved a tremendous challenge for administrator. He served in the Second Afghan War officers who spent the majority of their careers (1878-1880), the Sudan (1884-1885) and Burma fighting small wars and counterinsurgencies. (1886-1887). He was severely wounded in Nyasaland in May 1888 while leading a British expedition against Arab slave traders near Lake Nyasa. He raised the In the past too much has been made WAFF in 1897 and served as its first commander until of the fact that a large portion of the early 1899. Lugard was later Governor of Hong Kong (1907– volunteers for the first Canadian contingent 1912) and Governor-General of Nigeria (1914–1919). were British expatriates. As ongoing research 11. Ukpabi, p.85. The strength of the force at the end of 1901 is given as (not including officers) 6,208 other is demonstrating, Canadians made substantial ranks. commitments to imperial defence not just during 12. E.K. Senior, Roots of the Canadian Army: Montreal the flashpoint that was the South African War, but District 1846-1870 (Montreal, The Society of the rather constantly during the late 19th and early Montreal Military and Maritime Museum 1981), p.14. 60 See also G.W.L. Nicholson, The Gunners of Canada: 20th centuries. Between 1885 and 1905 British The History of the Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery, law and order in West Africa was ending the large- Vol.1. (Toronto: McLelland and Stewart, 1967). scale enslavement of Africans and bringing them 13. Such a political stance was not entirely unreasonable. into the British sphere of influence. Canadians During the mid-19th century Canada was repeatedly invaded by special interest groups from the United serving in both the Canadian and British armies States, and the large territory to the west of Kingston played a substantial role in this process. It and Ottawa had yet to be brought under the mattered little to them whether one was born in government’s influence and control. London or Ottawa. 14. Between 1867 and 1890 the military was called out on no less than 37 occasions to restore public order. These events included electoral rioting, religious disputes, railway strikes, Crown land disputes, and the guarding of public hangings. See Andrew B. Notes Godefroy, “Accustomed to Relying on Soldiers: Aid to the Civil Power and the Canadian Militia, 1867-1890”, unpublished paper presented at Concordia University 1. Lieutenant-Colonel WCG Heneker, DSO, Bush Warfare history symposium, May 1995. (London: Hugh Rees Limited, 1907), p.19. 15. S.J. Harris, “The Permanent Force and Real Soldiering, 2. Canadian involvement in Central and East African 1883-1914,” in Marc Milner, ed., Canadian Military conflicts during this period will be the subject of a History: Selected Readings. (Toronto: Irwin Publishing, separate article. 1998), pp.35-54. Both Harris and British historian 3. For example see Desmond Morton, Ministers and Richard Holmes comment on how British officers Generals: Politics and the Canadian Militia, 1868-1904 preferred postings to Africa or India over Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970); Stephen where the cost of living was less expensive and there Harris, Canadian Brass: The Making of a Professional was more opportunity to gain both fame and fortune. Army, 1860-1939 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, See also Richard Holmes, Sahib: The British Soldier in 1988). India (London: Harper Perennial, 2005) for comments 4. A notable exception is Norman Penlington Canada on cost of living in this theatre. and Imperialism, 1896-1899 (Toronto: University 16. The large number of RMC officer candidates seeking of Toronto Press, 1965). See also Guy R. MacLean, imperial commissions instead of a place in Canada’s “The Canadian Offer of Troops for Hong Kong, 1894,” permanent force between 1880s and early 1900s is but Canadian Historical Review, Vol.38:4 (December 1957), one example of this trend. For statistics on the numbers pp.275-283. of RMC graduates serving abroad at the beginning of 5. The author would like to acknowledge the assistance the 20th century see RMC, The Proceedings of the of Mr. Lawren Guldemond in researching and Royal Military College Club of Canada, 1901 No.18. writing an earlier draft of this section for a separate (Montreal: Chronicle Printing Co., 1902), p.26. Each publication. of the Proceedings for years 1894 through 1913 offers 6. R.B. Magor, African General Service Medals (London: detailed statistics and biographical notes on college The Naval & Military Press, 1993), p.25. graduates serving in other forces including the British 7. Sam C. Ukpabi, The Origins of the Nigerian Army: A and Indian armies. History of the West African Frontier Force 1897-1914 17. Government of Canada, Parliamentary Papers, 1870, (Zaria, Nigeria: Gaskiya Corporation Ltd, 1987), p.8. XXV, pp.635-637, Colonel P. MacDougall, Account of 8. J.D. Hargreaves, “The Work of the Berlin Conference,” the System of Education at the United States Military in Robert O. Collins, ed., The Partition of Africa: Illusion Academy at West Point. Precis in Militia Report 1873, or Necessity (Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969), Appendix No.9, 221-223. p.106. 18. Richard Preston, Canada’s RMC: A History of the Royal 9. Ukpabi, p.8. Military College (Toronto, 1969), pp.74-76.

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19. Ibid, pp.66-68. 35. Mention-in-dispatches recorded in the London Gazette, 20. Ibid, pp.65-66. 21 December 1894. Created a Companion of the 21. Ibid, p.66. Distinguished Service Order, announced in the London 22. United Kingdom [UK], Public Records Office [PRO], Gazette 10 April 1896 - “Kenneth Jeffrey Rankin Colonial Office [CO] 42/783, 69-75. See also Richard Campbell, Capt, The Suffolk Regiment. In recognition Preston, Canada and “Imperial Defense”: A Study of of services during the recent operations on the Benin the Origins of the British Commonwealth’s Defence River.” Campbell was the first RMC graduate to be Organization, 1867-1919 (North Carolina: Duke mentioned-in-dispatches. He was later also awarded University Commonwealth Studies Centre, 1967), Royal Humane Society bronze medal for rescuing a pp.162-163. local African man from crocodile-infested river. 23. C.P. Stacey, “John A. Macdonald on Raising Troops 36. For his personal account of the battle see Lieutenant in Canada for Imperial Service, 1885,” Canadian J.R. Campbell. “The Capture of Brohemie, Niger Coast Historical Review, Vol.38:1 (March 1957), pp.37-40. Protectorate, West Africa,” paper read before the 24. UK PRO CO papers. Ibid, CO 42/783, pp.69-75. Royal Military College Club of Canada, 1 March 1895, 25. By 1889 a total of 302 cadets had been allotted reprinted in the Royal Military College Club of Canada numbers at the college of which 292 entered for Review, 1896. Kingston: … studies. 37. LG 18 June 1901. P.4098. Captain Cockburn served 26. See below in this article for details of their African in the 3rd Canadian Dragoons. He was transferred/ service. Seconded to the Suffolk Regiment and subsequently 27. For more on the exploits of H.M. Stanley, one of the to the WAFF effective 30 December 1899. most famous explorers, see Tim Jeal, Stanley: The 38. Histories of the details of this conflict are few in Impossible Life of Africa’s Greatest Explorer (London: number. Notable works include J.U.J. Asiegbu, Nigeria Faber and Faber Ltd, 2007). RMC cadet No.52 and Its Invaders, 1851-1920 (Lagos: Nok Publishers Lieutenant William Grant Stairs served under Stanley International, 1984), and R.B. Magor, African General during the infamous Emin Pasha relief expedition Service Medals (London: Bourne Press Limited, 1993). 1887-90, and is commemorated on the college’s The best British histories remain the contemporary memorial arch. Stair’s own exploits are analyzed in writings of the commanders. See Colonel A.F. Roy MacLaren, African Exploits: The Diaries of William Montanaro, Hints for a Bush Campaign (London: Sands Stairs, 1887-1892 (Montreal and Kingston: McGill- Publishers, 1901); and Heneker, Bush Warfare. Queen’s University Press, 1998). 39. Ibid, p.77. 28. Magor, African General Service Medals, p.38. 40. Campaigning in West Africa during the late 19th 29. UK PRO War Office [WO] 100/76 and 100/91 Gambia century was a logistical nightmare. The broken Service; see also UK PRO ADM 171/45, 171/46, and ground, marshes, rivers, deep forest and jungle, as 171/356 Gambia service entitlements. An examination well as the ever present tsetse fly ensured that no of the RMC graduate list service also did not reveal any pack animal would survive for more than a few days. participants in the campaign in British service. As a result, almost everything needed for operations 30. RMC Archives. (No.39) Gentleman Cadet H.B. Mackay. from ammunition to food had to be carried by hand. Mackay was the first RMC graduate to be awarded Locals were contracted and paid to act as porters for the DSO. A memorial plaque with brief biographical these operations. data on Mackay was presented to RMC by the Corps 41. After the capture of Aro-Chuku the British forces of Royal Engineers and currently hangs in the front claimed they had destroyed the temple of the “Long entrance of the Mackenzie Building at the college. See Juju” as part of their information operations campaign also RMC Club of Canada, Directory of Ex-Cadets of against the Aro and their slave trading partners. Recent the Royal Military College of Canada (Kingston, RMC archaeological research, however, has contested this Club, December 1935), n.d. claim and suggests that the British destroyed a decoy 31. London Gazette [LG]. Citation for being made a site and not the actual “Long Juju” temple or oracle, companion of the Distinguished Service Order, 12 which remained hidden from Montanaro’s force. See April 1889. “Huntly Brodie Mackay,Lieutenant, Johnston A.K. Njoku’s Nigerian Slave Routes Project Royal Engineers, having local rank of Captain while (Western Kentucky University) accessed in August commanding Royal Engineers on the West Coast of 2007 at URL http://www.wku.edu/~johnston.njoku/ Africa. For services during the operations in the Suly- intro/arochukwu/ mah District.” 42. LG 12 September 1902, p.5882. Dispatches from 32. See reprint from the Yukon Sun and Klondike Pioneer, Lieutenant-Colonel A.F. Montanaro, Comanding Aro 19 December 1899 in RMC, Proceedings of the Royal Field Force, dated 5 April 1902. Military College Club of Canada (Quebec: The Chronicle 43. MiD LG 12 September 1902; see also MiD LG 23 Printing Company, 1899), p.86. February 1906, p.1338 for services at Obukpa. Source 33. Primary studies of the Britain-Asante Wars remain LG 23 February 1906; and again in LG 18 September Alan Lloyd, The Drums of Kumasi: The Story of the 1906 p.6312 for services in minor operations. Captain Ashanti Wars (London: Longmans Green and Co. Ltd. Wayling also has the distinction of being the figure who 1964), and Robert B. Edgerton, The Fall of the Asante brought this entire subject to the author’s attention. Empire: The Hundred-Year War for Africa’s Gold Coast In 2005 I was made aware of this officer’s medals (New York: Free Press, 1995). in a private collection, which included an African 34. Gentleman Cadet D.S. MacInnes graduated from RMC General Service Medal. Victorian campaign medals in 1891, and obtained a commission in the Royal named to Canadians, other than the Queen’s South Engineers. He was mentioned in dispatches for his Africa Medal (1899-1902), are rare. It also led to the services in the Gold Coast between 1897-98.

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obvious question, “What was the Canadian Militia 57. For more on the subject of Canadian influence on the doing fighting in West Africa?” evolution of the pre-1914 British army see Andrew B. 44.G L 12 September 1902, p.5885. Disptach from Godefroy, “For Queen, King, and Empire: Canadians Lieutenant-Colonel A.F. Montanaro, Commanding Aro Recruited into the British Army, 1858-1944,” Journal Field Force, dated 5 April 1902. of the Society for British Army Historical Research. 45.G L 12 September 1902 p.5885. MiD for actions at (accepted for publication 2008). Edimma, 18 January 1902. 58. See Thomas R. Mockaitis, “The Origins of British 46.G L 21 January 1902 p.455. Lieutenant in Royal Counter-Insurgency,” in Small Wars and Counter- Canadian Regiment of Infantry (Major Canadian Insurgencies, Vol. 1, No. 3 (1990), p.223. Mockaitis Militia), granted local rank lieutenant in army whilst noted that the traditonal custom of the British army employed with WAFF, dated 28 December 1901. of the period was to rely on its senior officers and 47. Heneker, Bush Warfare, p.19. NCOs to pass along their knowledge to newcomers, 48. These expeditions, their dates, plus the campaign an approach that, “worked reasonably well so long as clasps to his Africa General Service Medal he received there was an unbroken string of similar conflicts, for for them is listed in his entry in the Distinguished in each ensuing campaign there would always be a Service Order Encyclopedia, p.226. core of soldiers who could remember how things used 49. Heneker, Bush Warfare. to be done.” 50. Charles Callwell, Small Wars: Their Principles and 59. Heneker, Bush Warfare, preface. Practice. 60. Ibid, Andrew B. Godefroy, “For Queen, King, and 51. Heneker’s commander, interestingly, wrote the third Empire: Canadians Recruited into the British Army, book. See Colonel A.F. Montanaro, Hints for a Bush 1858-1944,” Journal of the Society for British Army Campaign (London: Sands Publishers, 1901). Historical Research. 52. Notes on Imperial Policing (London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1934). 53. The author is currently editing Bush Warfare along with a biography of Heneker for publication in 2007. Andrew B. Godefroy is an historian and 54. LG 12 September 1902. p.5886. strategic analyst with the Canadian Army 55. LG 3 April 1903 p.2233, Captain B.M. Read granted as well as the editor of the Canadian Army local rank of captain in army whilst employed with WAFF, dated 31 January 1903. LG 5 May 1903 Journal. He holds a Ph.D. in War Studies p.2843, Lieutenant H. Read Canadian Militia, granted from the Royal Military College of Canada and local rank of lieutenant in the army whilst employed has has authored over a dozen studies on the with WAFF, dated 4 April 1903. LG 20 February 1903 Canadian Expeditionary Force. He is currently p.1133. Second Lieutenant F. Homer-Dixon, Canadian Militia, granted local rank lieutenant in army whilst editing the memoirs of Brigadier-General employed with WAFF, dated 31 January 1903. George S. Tuxford as well as researching a 56. The most notable work remains Desmond Morton, definitive biography of Lieutenant-General Ministers and Generals: Politics and the Canadian Sir Arthur Currie. Militia, 1868-1904 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1970).

CMH Mailbox Historians are right to be wary journals during this period, one will (continued from page 4) of these and other official postwar find similar superfluous compliments. German publications, and their caution This activity, along with other officially Der Weltkreig is an invaluable does not stem simply from a lack of published German apologia and contemporary source, and that it understanding of the language or its protection of military reputations, is the must be considered in the analysis of form. As well, as Strachan correctly backdrop against which Der Weltkreig the history and historiography of the points out, neither would serious must be examined and understood. First World War. However, using this scholars attribute this caution to the At the end of the day, Canadian quote out of context to overstate the possible influences of Nazism. As military historians will benefit from the factual correctness of these volumes recently discussed by historian Alan translation of Der Weltkreig, as it will is folly. Reichsarchiv files made Kramer in his examination of culture allow at least more balanced general available since the end of the Cold War and mass killing in the First World narratives of CEF operations to be undeniably confirm the value of the War, it has become common knowledge written in the future. For more detailed official work, but these new sources that in the 1920s Germany launched a historical analyses, however, historians have also demonstrated where there mammoth historical research project must remain vigilant in their scrutiny are significant weaknesses in the official in which the foreign ministry secretly of the accuracy of these accounts in histories, especially when addressing paid both German and foreign scholars, the corroboration of facts concerning issues regarding grand strategy and the notably in France and the USA, to German operations on the western roles played by senior command. Among support written accounts that stated front. For it is corroboration and others, historian Robert Foley made this Prussia was not to blame for the war. context, not compliments, which will very clear in his recent study of Erich Therefore it is hardly surprising to determine the value of Der Weltkreig von Falkenhayn, which demonstrates find western contemporary quotes, as evidence. considerable differences between newly such as that from Alexander Johnson available primary sources and the (MHC vol.16/3 p.58), which portrays Andrew Godefroy, “official” German account published Der Weltkreig in a positive light. In any Kingston, ON after the war. brief survey of other American historical 36

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