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Home , Salyut 1, Salyut 4, Salyut 5, Salyut 6, Salyut 7, Soyuz 14

Salyut Activities

Launch dates of Salyut space stations an- cabin’s atmosphere to escape. The cosmonauts, nounced by the Soviets: 14 wearing no spacesuits, perished. * From then un- til the launch of T-3 in 1980, Soyuz vehicles Salyut I ., . . .Apr. 19, 1971 Salyut 2...... Apr. 3, 1973 (failed) were redesigned to allow the crew to wear space- Salyut 3...... June 25,1974 suits. Crew size was reduced to two to provide Salyut4 . .Dec. 26,1974 sufficient room for the suits and related equip- ...... June 22, 1976 ment. was intentionally removed from Salyut6 ... ..Sept. 29, 1977 175 days after launch. ...... Apr. 19, 1982

Salyut 1 Salyut 2

The first in the Salyut series carried an This vehicle did not achieve stability in orbit, I telescope for obtaining spectrograms of stars in began to tumble, and broke up before crews could the 2,OOO to 3,OOO angstrom region of the elec- occupy it. tromagnetic spectrum; a gamma-ray telescope, called Anna III, provided observations unattain- Salyut 3 able from . Several optical and multispec- Unlike Salyut 1, which had two sets of fixed tralcameras were used for astronomical and Earth solar panels fore and aft, Salyut 3 carried two photography. Photo sessions of geological and larger panels attached just aft of the centerbody, meteorological phenomena were coordinated with on the rear transfer module .15 These panels could aircraft flights and orbiting weather satellites. be rotated so the craft could continue to receive Making use of a hydroponic farm, biological ex- solar power whenever it was in sunlight, whatever periments centered on the effects of its orientation. Salyut 3 was also modified so that on plant growth and nutrition. Long-term impli- 16 its docking port was aft . Other noteworthy mod- cations of the effects of microgravity on the ifications included higher efficiency power and human organism were also studied. life-support systems and more convenient interior A first attempt to board the station by a three- design. man crew on Soyuz 10 was thwarted by faulty Cosmonauts aboard Salyut 3 conducted some docking equipment on the Soyuz. A second at- 400 scientific and technical experiments, includ- tempt by cosmonauts was successful; ing high-resolution photo reconnaissance and/or this three-man crew became the world’s first oc- Earth resources observation, spectrographic study cupants of what some would describe as a true of aerosol particles in the Earth’s atmosphere, the “”-i.e., long-term in-space in- culturing of bacteria, and the recycling of water. frastructure that accommodates human beings— residing in Salyut for 23 days. This initial success, The crew of resided aboard Salyut however, was followed by an unhappy ending. 3 for 14 days, but a follow-on crew A valve, intended for equalizing internal and ex- proved unable to effect docking. Overall, the sta- ternal pressures as the descended tion remained operational for twice its design life- through the atmosphere during recovery, jerked time. Some 2 months after Salyut 3’s final crew open at the instant of the explosive separation of departed, a data capsule was ejected and recov- the command and orbital modules, permitting the ered on Earth. That only a few photographs,

ldco~mos 557, launched May 11, 1973, has been identified in ● The cause of death was embolism, i.e., the formation of bub- Western circles as a successfully orbited Salyut, although the sta- bles in the bloodstream. tion suffered a propulsion or command-sequencer failure, render- “Although all subsequent Salyuts retained this midship mount- ing it useless for human occupation. The vehicle rapidly decayed ing of solar panels, they were placed farther aft on Salyuts 3 and in orbital altitude, reentering the atmosphere on May 22, 1973. See, 5 than on Salyuts 4, 6, and 7. See, for example, AlV&ST, Dec. 4, “Reception of Radio Signals From Cosmos 557, ” The Kettering 1978, p. 17. Group, Space flight, vol. 16, 1974, pp. 39-40. ‘*Ibid,

21 22 .-

6.98 m

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/

6,700 Kg.

Credit C P V/ck, 1983 l/SaIyut 1. Total volume: 100.3 m3. Total weight: 25,600 kg. Total solar panel surface area: 42m2 showing noncritical interior equipment aboard about 2.5 tonnes, was of much greater variety and Salyut 3, have been released encourages specula- capability than that carried on previous stations. tion that its primary mission was probably mili- The cosmonauts’ time was devoted each day to tary. a specific area of investigation-astronomical, Earth resources, or biomedical. X-ray, solar, and infrared spectrometric telescopes were among the host of instruments employed. Making repeated The design of this station, seemingly primari- observations of agricultural patterns, forests, and ly civilian in character, allowed the crew more maritime areas, the crew collected a large body ready access for repair and replacement purposes. of data on Earth resources. They also studied Two navigation systems for the station’s automat- micro-organisms, higher plants, and the human ic control were evaluated, as was a new teletype cardiovascular system, measuring the tone of system. Onboard scientific equipment, weighing blood vessels and the circulation of blood to the ——.— —

23

6.98 m

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14.42 m 16 m 2 I .4 m < #<, 1 23 m I < *

Credtt ~ C P V/ck, 1983 /Salyut 4: Total volume: 100,3 m’. Total weight: 25,600 kg. Total solar panel surface area: 60 m’ Solar panel span: 17 m brain, The cosmonauts also evaluated the effec- aboard were the Soyuz 18B team; they remained tiveness of various exercise and diet regimes for on the station for 62 days. Soyuz 20, a vehicle counteracting the reconditioning effects of micro- without crew, carried biological specimens; it gravity, docked and remained at the station for 89 days before returning to Earth. Part of its mission was The first crew to board Salyut 4 arrived on to determine whether Soyuz could remain without ; they remained for 29 days. The mis- power for a relatively long time before restarting sion of their scheduled successors, the crew of 17 its power supply without mishap—an important Soyuz 18A, was aborted during ascent, Next consideration in planning for one crew to remain aboard a Salyut for a lengthy mission. Salyut 4 1-18A is the U.S. designation. The Soviets refer to this event as was purposely taken out of orbit after 770 days the April .S anomaly, of flight. 24

Salyut 5 on Salyut 3, that was used to study mineral de- posits, seismic areas, environmental damage Salyut 5, the second station thought by Western caused by mud streams and railway construction analysts to be primarily military, was the last in paths. A device for smelting certain metals—bis- the Salyut series to carry only one docking port, muth, tin, lead, and cadmium-and a crystal a design characteristic which effectively prevents growth experiment were evaluated in the station’s a resupply vehicle from docking when a crew of microgravity environment. As in previous Sal- cosmonauts is already aboard. * Salyut 5 demon- yuts, biological experiments on fish, plants, and strated a high-resolution camera, similar to that fruit flies were also conducted; algae and higher order plants were cultivated to examine the ef- *It is technically possible, but too risky, to back off one spacecraft fects o~ the environment on their de- and then dock another while the crew is on board the station. velopment and growth.

.2 ?

I

6,800 1($

14.4 m ? 21.38 m ? I 22.38 m ?

Cred/t. ~ C. P VIck, 1983

“Military” Salyut Conceptional Design: Total volume: 99 m3. Total : 25,300 kg. Total solar panel surface area (estimated): over 50 m2. Total mass: over 25,000 to 25,300 kg. Only a few written descriptions, a few movie film segments, and a few photographs of the internal and external design layout of the Miiitaw Salyut 3 and 5 vehicles have been released 25

Over the course of Salyut 5’s stay in orbit, Cosmonauts routinely worked as in-orbit re- brought a two-man crew, who remained pairmen, enabling the station’s design life of 18 on the station for 49 days; the crew of months to be greatly surpassed. Because of the failed to dock; and the crew of remained longevity of , perhaps to the surprise even aboard for 16 days. of the Soviets themselves, its crews registered an impressive list of accomplishments. Space applica- Like Salyut 3, this station ejected a recoverable tions and Earth observations each accounted for pod to Earth after its last crew departed, and, as about one-third of the cosmonauts’ work sched- with Salyut 3, the Soviets have released only in- ule; the final third was split between biomedical ternal photographs of limited interest. The sta- studies and astrophysics. tion remained in orbit for 412 days before it was commanded to reenter. The two docking ports permitted 33 successful dockings using vehicles with and without cosmo- nauts. At least two crews tried but failed to dock with the station. Five long-duration cosmonaut Salyut 6 crews and 11 visiting crews accumulated a total of 676 days of operation. New duration records By far the most productive of Soviet space sta- for were successively estab- tions, this “second generation” Salyut included lished: 96, 140, 175, and 185 days. During Salyut two docking ports, fore and aft; the station was 6’s lifetime, eight cosmonauts from the Soviet bloc fashioned to support a new propulsion system resided in Salyut for short periods; , car- capable of being refueled in orbit. A water- rying a non-Soviet crewmember, along with a So- regeneration device became a standard feature of viet pilot, failed to dock. * Salyut 6 operations in- the life-support system, supplying crewmembers troduced the use of Soyuz T and vehic- with wash water; fresh drinking water was stored. les, multiple-crew dockings, refueling in orbit, and Many of the experimental systems tested on earlier the Cosmos 1267 module. * * stations became operational on Salyut 6. A new multispectral camera (which had been flight-tested Cosmos 1267 docked with Salyut 6 in June 1981 on ) and astronomical telescopes were for a long series of what were described as check- flown. During its mission, cosmonauts assembled outs of automated systems and “dynamic tests” and deployed from Salyut’s aft end a dish anten- of the overall response of the structure to maneu- na used in mapping radio emissions from the vers while docked with another vehicle. Accord- and the Milky Way, although the ultimate suc- ing to Soviet space planners, Cosmos 1267 rep- cess of this experiment is in doubt. 18 Several resented a “prototype space module, ” built to materials processing furnaces were appraised, and expand the operations of future stations; such infrared-sensitive semiconductors were produced. modules could be dedicated to materials process- Other experiments produced superconductors, eu- ing and astronomical or other scientific pursuits, tectics, alloys, pure metals, glass, ionic crystals, or they could be outfitted as living quarters. They and metal oxides. Salyut 6 cosmonauts also could also be undecked from Salyut, flown along- tested newly designed extravehicular spacesuits. side the station and reconnected. This configura- tion would be particularly useful for the conduct of experiments in materials processing, because ‘HCraig Covau]t, “Radio Telescope Erected cm Salyut 6,” AW&ST, it could avoid perturbations caused by the sta- Aug. 13, 1979, pp. 54-55 See also “Soviets Ready Salyut 6 Crew Return, ” AW&ST, Aug. 13, 1979, p. 21. tion’s reactions to movements of the cosmo- 20 “lames C. Brown, Materials processing on the Soviet Sa/yut 6 nauts . Space Station Memorandum SWN481-1OO4I, Central Intelligence Agency, Natlona] Foreign Assessment Center, Apr. 1, 1981. Soviet The Soviets apparently were undecided about research In the materials processing-in-space arena appears exten- using their long-lived Salyut 6 for future missions, wve. According to MIT protessor Harry Catos, before a House space —— subcommittee review of space processing, a large new Soviet research ‘ with two Soviet crew also failed to dock with Salyut 6. inst } t u te empl(~ys several hundred full-time sclent ists worh ing on * *There was no crew aboard either Cosmos 1267 and Salyut 6 space material~ processing. Other countries involved in this institute during their docking of 40 days, after which both were deorbited. Include , Hungarv, , and France, See ‘“From Sputnik to Sa@t: 25 Years of the , !Novosti Astronautics and Aeronautics, September 1979, p. 9. Press Agency Publishing House, 1982, passim.

25-291 0 - El 3 - 3 : QL 3 26 ——.— —.— -— -. —

698m

I I I

PROGRESS 6,800 K g. 18,900 K g . 7,020 Kg.

13.050 m

29 m

Credit - C P Vick, 1983

Salyut 6 and attached transport vehicles Soyuz and Progress in various combinations; diagram shows, left to right, Soyuz, Salyut and Progress: Total mass with two Soyuz: 32,500 to 32,600 kg. Total mass with one Soyuz and one Progress: 32,720 to 32,770 kg. Total mass with one Soyuz: 25,700 to 25,750 kg. Total volume with two Soyuz: 110.6 m3. Total volume with one Soyuz and one Progress: 106.9 m3. Total volume with one Soyuz: 100.3 m3. Total solar panel surface area: 60 mz. Solar panel span: 17 m 27 — —— — —.

and twice had Cosmos 1267 boost the complex Salyut 7—the result of experiments conducted on into a higher orbit. After Salyut 7 was launched, other stations—allows its crews to operate the Cosmos 1267 propelled Salyut 6 into a destruc- facility in more automatic modes.25 Recommen- tive reentry on July 29, 1982. The stay of Salyut dations from cosmonauts who had lived aboard 6 in orbit lasted 4 years and 10 months.21 22 Salyut 6 led to an interior “modernization pro- gram” to make Salyut 7 more livable. Designers Salyut 7 have taken special care to protect certain obser- vation windows, shielding both inside and out- Currently, the is maintaining Sal- side panels with removable covers, because con- yut 7 in orbit. Soviet space officials indicate it is taminants from propulsion unit firings, as well as similar in size and shape to its predecessor .23 24 impacts from micrometeorites, degraded the win- Two docking ports are again provided, one of dows on Salyut 6. The color scheme was changed which has been modified to handle larger space- to improve the residential and working environ- craft. The standard station control system on ment, and a refrigerator was installed. .——. ..———

“Peter Smolders, “Saluting Saiyut’s Space Recordr ” ,Vem Scien- Salyut 6 carried a submillimeter wavelength in- tiSt, Oct. 11, 1979, PP. 118-121. frared telescope; Salyut 7 contains a complex of “’’TASS Reports Termination of Flight c~f Salyut 6 Station, ” I+av- da, July 30, 1982, p. 1 X-ray equipment, The first long-duration crew “B. Konovalov, “A Trip Through the ‘Salyut 7,’ “ lz~’est~jra, hlay 18, 1982, p, 3 -“’The N’em’ Salyut 7’ 1~ a \lt~dernl~vd Statl~, n, ‘ A]r and (’oimo,” ““Salyut 7 Incorporates State-o[-Art Upgrades, ‘ A il’&.ST, ]uly N() Q!O, ]une 5 1Q82, p 43 26, 1982, pp 26-27,

.

Crewmen on Station Aboard Salyut 7 28 used a new computer-controlled 300-lb materials- processing furnace to produce several pounds of semiconductor monocrystals. This furnace oper- ates automatically when the station is unoccupied. New systems for medical examination and diag- nosis have improved the range of biomedical parameters that can be monitored, either onboard by the cosmonauts or remotely from the ground. For example, a thorough electrocardiogram can be obtained automatically. Measurements of blood circulation in the cerebral cortex, an im- portant parameter in near-weightless conditions, are receiving particular attention. Performing about 300 experiments, the station’s first long-term crew worked to meet orders from 500 national economic and scientific centers. So- viet officials stated that, for the first time, a Salyut space station undertook “direct research produc- Phofo crertlt. Novos/I tion tasks. ”26 Some 20,000 photographs of the Members of the Soyuz-9 space mission Earth’s surface were reportedly taken during the first phase of this operation. Initial operations of Salyut 7 relied on Progress vehicles for resupply and refueling .27 The Soyuz a crew of three aboard failed to dock with the T-5 transported a crew of two to the Salyut in 29 May 1982. Subsequently, a Soyuz T-6 with three complex in April 1983, a two-person crew aboard, including a French spationaut, and a boarded the station on June 28, 1983, and remain Soyuz T-7 with three, including the world’s sec- aboard as of this writing. ond woman cosmonaut, visited the primary crew The Salyut-7/Cosmos-1443 orbital complex on separate occasions. The primary crew set a new was thought capable of housing as many as six world endurance record for spaceflight: 211 days. crewmembers. * Stationing of that many people aboard the complex would have born out earlier On March 2, 1983, “a modular transport ship, ” Cosmos 1443 (a Cosmos 929-class module), was Soviet pronouncements that this configuration launched, and docked with Salyut 7 on March 10 was a prototype for future larger scale space sta- in a configuration similar to the Salyut-6/Cos- tions. On August 14, 1983, Cosmos 1443, along 28 mos-1267 complex. Although a Soyuz craft with with its descent module (with a capacity for re- ————— turning one-half tonne of cargo, but not a crew 1“’Kuznetsov Presents Awards to Salyut 7 Cosmonauts, ” Moscow member) was undecked from Salyut 7.** Then Domestic Service, LD291458, Dec. 29, 1982. on September 19, 1983, Cosmos 1443 was inten- “In the early phase of Salyut 7, two small “subsatellites” were launched from the station by its first long-duration crew. These sat- -—.——. ellites, Iskra 2 and Iskra 3, were constructed by students of a Moscow “’’Soviet Docking in Space Falls; Mission Aborted, ” Washington Aviation Institute and served as communications satellites for Post, Apr. 24, 1983, pp. A-1, A-12. amateur radio enthusiasts, The two satellites were “launched” from *It is not clear that docking arrangements allow more than one the station’s airlock. For a detailed account of early work on Salyut Soyuz T to dock with a Salyut 7/Cosmos 1443-type combination 7, see: “Salyut Mission Report, ” by Neville Kidger, Spaceflight, Jan- at a time; such a provision wo ~ld be expected in the future. uary 1983, pp. 28-29. ‘•A rather complex sequence of events occurred during August ‘“’’Soviets Launch Module to Enlarge Salyut 7,” AW&ST, Mar. 1983. Cosmos 1443 undecked on August 14. Then on August 16, 7, 1983, p, 19. Soyuz T-9 undecked, the Salyut was rotated through 180 , and the 29 ...——

The crew of the Soyuz T-7 spaceship (from left to right) –crew commander Leon id Popov, Pilot-Cosmonaut of the U. S. S. R.; researcher engineer ; and flight engineer Novosti tionally deorbited, perhaps because of a serious by its design, communications frequencies, , malfunction affecting its operation .30 More recent- onboard equipment, and crew composition. Such ly, Salyut 7 itself has experienced a serious pro- distinctions are virtually impossible to draw for pellant leak, leaving it with two of its three ox- the Salyut 6 and 7 stations. Indeed, now that 6 idizer tanks empty and 16 of its 32 attitude con- years have passed since the last Salyut clearly trol thrusters unusable. Because of the difficulty identifiable as military was used, a separate of making repairs, it is less likely that Salyut 7 military Salyut program may no longer exist. will become a major component of a large mod- ular station. Civilian Salyuts (1 and 4) were flown in higher orbits, increasing their value for astronomical Military Utility of Salyut observations. Telemetry was typical of Soviet nonmilitary spacecraft, and the crew commander, Salyut space stations serve both military and although usually from the Soviet military, was 31 Through th mid-1970’s, each sta- civilian needs. e accompanied by a civilian flight engineer. tion could be distinguished as military or civilian —.— In contrast, military Salyuts (3 and 5) were Soyuz was redocked at the “front” end of the station. On August flown in lower orbits, presumably to get the most 17, Progress 17, bringing additional fuel, air, and water was docked out of the capabilities of onboard photo recon- to the “back” end of the station. On August 19, the descent module from Cosmos 1443 landed in , U.S.S.R. Since the un- naissance assets and activities which replaced the docking of Cosmos 1443 and Salyut 7, the two spacecraft went out astronomical activities of civilian flights. * Flights of and (through firing of the motor of the Progress attached to Salyut ) of these Salyuts, typically using radio frequencies came back into orbital phase, but apparently no attempt was made to redock prior to the intentional deorbiting of Cosmos 1443. ~oA “jatjon ~ee~ & space Technology’, Oct. 10, 1983, P 25 *In order to maintain such a low orbit tor very long, large quan- “Johnson, op. cit., pp. 213-217 tities of propellant must be expended. 30 — ———

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Cred/t - C P V/ck, 1983 Cosmos 1443/Salyut 7/Soyuz T: Total mass: about 47,000 kg, Total solar panel surface area: ‘[00 mz. Total power output: 7 kW. Total volume: 150.3 m3. Solar panel span: 16-17 m 31 . — associated with other Soviet military space mis- any case, the military value of the Soviet space sions, were conducted by all-military crews. They station remains open to question. remained in orbit for shorter periods than their civilian counterparts and ejected capsules for re- Capability Base for Salyut Program covery on Earth. The Soviet technology base must inevitably af- Of course, there must be some military interest fect its space program. A thorough appraisal of in scientific programs. For instance, astronomical this base cannot be obtained because the Soviets investigations completed by Salyut crews main- tightly control what information about the pro- tained the orientation of certain equipment to an gram is made public. Observers, however, have accuracy of a few arc-seconds, a capability related noted these characteristics: 34 to what might be needed to aim directed-energy weaponry. The materials processed in microgravi- Simplicity. —Compared with similar Western ty could range from electronic components to new systems, Soviet components are, in general, pharmaceuticals, relatively less complicated. Commonality. —Once a basic system or sub- Many activities aboard Salyut might be de- system is developed, it is used as much as scribed, in the United States, as civil, but others possible thereafter. With this approach, a rel- might well have military implications. Whether atively narrow technological base can serve military activities aboard these stations pose a much broader needs. serious, near-term threat to the United States can- Gradual Change. —This principle derives not be determined from the open literature. Cer- from the other two. Because each system is tain military operations may have been turned closely related to its predecessor, the risks at- over to automated spacecraft: Soviet advance- tendant on innovation are reduced. ments in satellite photo reconnaissance may have reduced the need for crewmembers to gather these In sum, the Soviets prefer to use a single, reli- data. able basic design over a relatively long time in order to provide several generations of systems Comparisons with the U.S. program are also for similar or related uses. complicated by the fact that no operational re- quirements for U.S. military missions aboard a Professional surveys of industrial technology space station, particularly those requiring crew- in the U.S.S.R. suggest that the Soviets are gen- members, have been formally stated. 32 However, erally unwilling or unable to undertake rapid in- in view of President Reagan’s speech in March, novation. In some cases, however, a few critical 1983, on the subject of defense against ballistic suppliers and supporting industries have been able missiles, this assessment may be changing. 33 In to set priorities that led to rapid change.

“At the Space Station Symposium held in Washington, D.C , in luly 1983, Richard DeLauer, Undersecretary of Defense for the Defensive Technologies Study Team, headed by former NASA

Research and Engineering, reiterated this position. For an earlier Administrator James C. Fletcher, has been reported as concluding discussion, see: Joel Levy, et al,, “Potential Military Applications that “a space-based [ballistic missile defense] system may also re- of Space Platforms and Space Stat ions,” Eascon 82, 15th Annual quire a continuous manned space presence Both cost and ef- Electronics and Aerospace Systems Conference, IEEE Conference fectiveness may justify manned systems . Development of a repair Record 82 CH1828-3, Sept. 20-22, 1982, pp. 269-276. This paper and refurbishment system may be fie key to operational and states: “It is apparent that, at this time, the DOD has not defined economic viability of space-based ballistic missile defense. ” A W’&ST, any firm requirements for space platforms or space stations. ” The Oct. 24, 1983, p. 50. military utility of a manned space station, say for photo recon- “Herbert P. Ely, “Impact of the Technology Base on Soviet naissance, requires detailed tradeoff studies, “ . in order to Weapon Development ,“ Army Research, Development & Acquisi- evaluate whether the increase in system performance due to man’s tion Magazine, May-June 1982, pp. 12-13. For a broader look at presence warrants the increase of approximately an order of conditions of Soviet technology see: Industrial lrrnovat~on in the magnitude in the cost of the program. Any increase in system per- Soviet Union, Ronald Amann and Julian Cooper (New Haven, formance achieved by such means would be measured by some, as Corm.: Yale University Press, 1Q82). The authors discuss Soviet

yet undefined, weighing of factors such as cost, risk, survivability, militar y technologies in detail, and conclude that they do not have reliability, threat recognition and the time to respond. ” the quality and level of sophistication that those of the United States ““President Seeks Futuristic Defense Against Missiles, ” Washing- have. In general, although Soviet industry is slow to respond to new ton Post, Mar, 24, 1983, pp. A-1, A-13. See also, “Reagan Plans R&D initiatives, the technology lag is smallest in the defense and New ABM Effort, ” Science, vol. 220, Apr. 8, 1983. More recently, space sectors. Hampered by a lack of precise instrumentation Salyut.—Although Salyut is smaller than cur- and sophisticated engineering techniques, Soviet rently proposed U.S. concepts, it has accommo- space designers frequently take a “brute-force” ap- dated Soviet crews for as long as 211 days. At- proach to problem-solving .35 Although this ap- tachment of a Cosmos 929-type module should proach has obvious drawbacks, it does tend to markedly improve living conditions. impose—in contrast to the U.S. system of single- Salyut cannot communicate via line-of-sight cir- economy of operation unit production—an cuits directly with Ear-t h stations (in the Soviet through the exploitation of continuing production Union) during every ore of its 15 or 16 daily or- of less complex hardware. Lastly, there is a con- bits. On those orbits when communication is not sensus that an uneven research and development possible, the cosmonauts sleep, and telemetry, base, poor quality control, and poor quality communicated via shortwave circuits, is assurance has impeded Soviet space development sometimes used to monitor basic onboard sys- on many fronts.3b tems. Even during the in-contact orbits, the crew Evidence for these evaluations is provided by can communicate with Earth stations on Soviet the mixed results from lunar probes and interplan- territory for only 25 minutes out of every 90. etary exploration. Crossing the relatively short distance to Earth’s neighboring , Soviet Compared with scientific equipment proposed vehicles were generally successful in achieving soft for any future U.S. “stations,” Soviet scientific landings, trekking across the lunar terrain, and equipment is low in weight and used sporadical- returning samples of the Moon’s surface directly ly; just a small portion of it is replaceable. The back to Earth, Four-month dashes to the station itself can generate 4 kW of power, Cosmos Venus resulted in significant Soviet success in 1443 contributed 3 kW from its own solar panels landing vehicles and-operating their sensors for while it was attached to Salyut, and additional brief periods on the surface of that extraordinarily modules may be expected to do likewise. The low inhospitable world. return-weight of equipment transported back to Earth via Soyuz T is one constraining factor; be- By contrast, 9-month journeys to Mars have cause of the delay in returning photographic film met with repeated failure, and no attempts have to Earth, its use, rather than reliance on advanced been made to probe Mercury, Jupiter, and Saturn. electronics, for remote sensing of the Earth is The outer in particular, the subject of in- another (although the installation of live televi- tense scrutiny by U.S. space vehicles, have so far sion transmission equipment aboard the latest Sal- remained beyond the reach of Soviet probes. The yut has partially overcome this limitation). * The rather limited time during which important sys- life-support system requires regular deliveries of tems aboard Soviet spacecraft remain operational drinking water and supplies for purifying the is still a major limitation. This weakness also ap- cabin atmosphere. * * The current configuration pears in with Soviet crews, who have requires that Salyut be refueled through its aft been able to keep Salyuts operational by under- docking port.37 taking unscheduled maintenance and repair. Soyuz T.—This vehicle, like the original Soyuz, As these operations of Soviet spacecraft are re- is a reliable, though relatively unsophisticated, viewed, certain limitations become apparent: spacecraft. Its onboard computer has no backup. . The latest mission of cosmonauts aboard Salyut “Ursula M. Kruse-Vaucienne and John M. Logsdon, Science and 7 demonstrated an operational lifetime of Soyuz Technology in the Soviet Union–A Profile (Washington, D. C.: T, while attached to the station, of 150 days. Be- Graduate Program in Science, Technology and Public Policy, The George Washington University, 1979), pp. 3-7, ‘bEven though impediments exist, can they be circumnavigated by a concentrated scientific thrust? See, for example: John W. Kiser, 111, “Technology: We Can Learn a Lot From the Soviets, ” The Wash- ‘App. A. ington I’ost, Aug. 14, 1983, pp. Cl, C4. See also: Malcom W. * *Some water is recycled abo,ird Salyut, a capability that U.S. Browne, “Soviet Science Assessed as Flawed But Power ful, ” The spacecraft do not possess. New York Times, May 20, 1980, p. C-3, which describes the buildup ITFor a discussion of rendezvo~ls and docking techniques involv- of the Soviet science work force and its potential for scientific ing Soyuz T and the Salyut stations, see: A viatsiya i Kosmonautika, \urprise. 1979, pp. 36-39, translated in JPRS 74805 Space No. 1, Dec. 20, 1979, 33 cause the Soviets are reluctant to land Soyuz T tute for Automatic Control, which obviously had in the water or at night, they impose strict con- a different orientation. However, the same unre- straints on the duration and scheduling of its liability of automated equipment that has plagued flights. Yet, they have repeatedly demonstrated the Soviets’ long-duration planetary probes has the ability to deviate from these conditions when made the human presence an essential element in necessary. No spacecraft, of course, can land the Salyut program. As a result, the Soviets have without restrictions. Indeed, the U.S. Space Shut- gone far in discovering how the attributes peculiar tle Orbiter operates with even greater restrictions to human beings may be put to effective use in than Soyuz. Major modifications of the U.S. craft conducting unforeseen as well as planned activities would be required if its staytime in orbit were to in the course of maintaining and operating a space 39 approach that of Soyuz T. station. Their growing fund of experience sup- ports and in turn is supported by two related re- General quirements of their ideology and their judgment of their national security interests: that they begin In order to minimize one of these deficiencies, “the inevitable socialist expansion into space, ” and the Soviet Union, according to a plan lodged with that they maintain and enhance their national the International Frequency Registration Board in prestige. These factors have resulted in what 1981, intends to operate a system called the should be appreciated as the cultivation of the Eastern Satellite Data Relay Network (ESDRN), . which will employ radiofrequencies similar to the The Soviets have claimed that people stationed U.S. Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System in space can improve the effectiveness of Earth (TDRSS). The Soviet system would allow reliable, observations. After a period of adjustment of a nearl continuous communication with Salyut y few weeks, cosmonauts report both improved vis- stations and other spacecraft in low-Earth orbit, ual acuity and enhanced perception and differen- commencing perhaps as early as December 1985. tiation of color, making it possible for them to Despite the fact that the Soviet technology base identify land features and ocean phenomena (e. g., advances more slowly and still remains, in most the presence of schools of fish) that were not ex- instances, less sophisticated than that of the pected to be visible from low-Earth orbit. These United States, it is not suggested that these fac- findings have been pursued in real-time aboard tors seriously inhibit what appears to be a con- Salyut space stations.40 41 tinuing and expanding set of objectives for pro- In support of the human presence, the Salyut ductive operations in space, made possible, in stations have served as medical laboratories in part, by people aboard Salyut-class facilities, and which the occupants have completed comprehen- determined by what the Soviets consider valuable. sive programs of biomedical and life-science re- Resupply, repair, and service functions, for ex- search. Much of this data-gathering is dedicated ample, are often performed by cosmonauts, who to answering the following questions: Do long 6. were a key factor in the longevity of Salyut The spaceflights result in unacceptable psychological Soviets regard the adaptability of human beings effects and produce harmful physiological altera- as a form of insurance that permits continuous tions of the human body? If so, can these effects and variegated space station operations .38 be countered? In search of answers, the Soviets Whereas the U.S. program from its inception —.- —— was heavily influenced by the high visibility of “G, T. Beregovoy et al , ‘ Res, arch in Space Psychology, ” the and the continuing presence l’sikhologicheski,v Zhurnai, .?(4 ), Jul\F-August 1082, pp 1(30-167 (In English, JPRS Space, No\T 19, 1Q82 pp. 17-so, ) of test pilots, who insisted that be “in ““Jerry Grey, Beachheads In Space A B]ueprlnt for the F“uture, the loop” whenever possible, the Soviet program New York, 1983, p, 42. at the outset was heavily influenced by the Insti- “Personal communication from Chr I> Dodgy, Science POIICy Research Division, Congressional Researc h $ervice, \4’ashingt(~n, DC., re U, S,-U, S,S. R. \lrorklng Group on ~pace B]t>logy and \led- ‘“G, T Beregovt]y, et a] , EvperImentd] p~jrcho]oglcd] Research ic ine, meet i ng of Ntl\’ember 1981, L“n ltc~rmed Ser\rices L’n I vers] t }’ {n A ~r]at~on and Cosmond utlc-s ( ?vIoscow Navka Press, 1 Q78 ~. of the Health Sc]ences (USUHS 1, Bethesda, hld 34

are planning in-flight missions that would entail to be given a high priority aboard Salyut. Cer- stays up to 1 year for cosmonauts. tain countermeasures have been designed to main- tain good health and high performance during Special exercise and diet regimes are being em- prolonged spaceflight. The most demanding of ployed to counter changes in cardiovascular tone these is exercise, which consumes an average of and muscle systems during flight and to facilitate 2.5 hours during each day in space and involves the subsequent readaptation to gravity. Some the use of specialized gear as well as conventional changes such as the loss of red blood cells have exercise devices. been found to be self-limiting and subsequently reversible. Others, although decreasing in rate The Soviets have devised a comprehensive over time, may not entirely level off. In particular, psychological support program, including the osteoporosis, the loss of calcium from bone, may transport of letters and news to Salyut crews and pose a formidable problem in the context of flight frequent two-way video communication with durations of a year or more in the absence of grav- families and research counterparts on the ground. it y. 4243 Extensive ground-based studies employ- These measures have been instituted to counter ing simulations of weightlessness (including bed the cosmonauts’ isolation and heavy workload. rest and water immersion) are augmenting inflight One challenging goal is a closed life-support research. 44 system aboard Salyut that would generate water Medical studies of the cosmonauts, supple- and air and produce food, independent of exter- mented by onboard diagnostic equipment to mon- nal supply .45 46 A complete growing cycle of high- itor their overall health on long flights, continue er order plants has been evaluated aboard Salyut, as has control of plant diseases and use of vege- tables and herbs as food for human consump- A2Arnauld E. Nicogo ssian and James F. Parker, Jr., SPaCe Physiology and Medicine, Biotechnology Inc., NASA Headquarters tion. ’ Creation of partially closed ecological sys- contract NASW-3469, Washington, DC., September 1982, pp. tems may conceivably lead to completely closed 20-24. systems, suitable for flights of 2 years or more. tsThe Soviets themw]v~ seem undecided about whether very long- term weightlessness will be a general problem. Cosmonaut Georgi Designed in accordance with biomedical informa- Gretchko is quoted (in “Soviets Unveil Space Station Plans, ” by Peter tion derived from past Salyut flights, these closed Smolders, New Scientist, June 301983, p. 944) as saying of a possi- systems could be implemented for eventual flight ble trip to Mars: ‘Your heart and entire organism would have become so accustomed to living in space that you would never be able to to the Moon and neighboring planets; such sys- stand life on Earth again. ” On the other hand, see Grey, op. cit., tems might also lead to substantial cost reductions PP. 41-42: “One of the cosmonauts, , spent a full in Earth orbit operations. year in space (he served on the 175-day and 185-day flights aboard Salyut 6), and was in excellent physical condition after both flights. He walked comfortably only one day after returning to the oppres- ’51. I. Gitelson, et al., Cfosed Ecosystems as the Means for the sive [sic] gravity of Earth, and was jogging happily on the third day. Outer by Mer! (Experimental Results, Perspec- After exhaustive studies of the returned cosmonauts, the Soviets’ tives), IAF-81-164, presented in Rome, Italy, Sept. 6-12, 1981. bioastronautics mentor Oleg Gazenko concluded, ‘I believe that 46Y. Y. Shepelev, “Biological life-Support Systems, ” ch. 10 of humankind can be as happy in space as on Earth. ’ “ Foundations of Space Biology and Medicine, vol. 111: Space Medicine

AAArnauld E. Nicogossion and Courtland S. Lewis, A Critical Re- and Biotechnology, M. Calvin ar[d O. G. Gazenko (eds. ), NASA, view of the U.S. and International Research on Effects of Bedrest 1975. NASA Sp-374, pp. 224-308. on Major Body Systems, Biotechnology, Inc., NASA Headquarters *Borage was grown from seedlings to leaf stage, and spring onions contract No. NASW-3223, Washington, D. C., January 1982. from bulbs to maturity.