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The Lunisolar Calendar: a Sociology of Japanese Time The Lunisolar Calendar: A Sociology of Japanese Time Jessica Kennett Cork DISSERTATION.COM Boca Raton The Lunisolar Calendar: A Sociology of Japanese Time Copyright © 2010 Jessica Kennett Cork All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. Dissertation.com Boca Raton, Florida USA • 2011 ISBN-10: 1-61233-760-0 ISBN-13: 978-1-61233-760-9 Table of Contents Introduction ......................................................................................................... …….3 Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................................... 5 The Cultural Significance of the Lunisolar Calendar as Viewed Through Classical Texts Chapter 2 ................................................................................................................... 38 Calendar Reform as an Instrument of Political Control Chapter 3 ................................................................................................................... 57 The Lunisolar Calendar Today Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 66 Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 69 References.................................................................................................................. 74 2 Introduction “No single aspect of life is more fundamental to the way we, as humans, experience our existence than our concept of time.” -Patricia Gándara (2000, 1) On the ninth day of the Eleventh Month of Meiji 5 (1872), the people of Japan received the startling news in the form of an imperial decree that the notations on the calendar they had been using for over 1,200 years “are false, have no factual basis, and hinder the development of human knowledge,” and the emperor would “abolish the old calendar, adopt the solar calendar, and order the realm to obey it for eternity” (Okada, 1994, 118). This study shall explore the social and political significance of the so-called kyūreki, the “old calendar” the new Meiji government was so eager to abolish. The lunisolar calendar was the principal method of timekeeping in Japan from 604 to 1872, but has received little attention from English speaking scholars. Perhaps this is because scholars have accepted the “temporality of modernity” (Tanaka, 2004, 14), or because the Meiji government was so successful at naturalizing modern time into Japanese history and society (Tanaka, 2004, 17), or because we tend to take time for granted due to its ever-present nature (Zerubavel, 1981, ix). Regardless of the reasons for its neglect, I shall argue that the study of the lunisolar calendar is essential to gaining a comprehensive understanding of pre-Meiji society and political history because a calendar is a symbolic reflection of a society‟s values (Zerubavel, 1977, 872; Zerubavel, 1982, xiv). In the words of Hughes (1958, 18), “the calendar embodies the social memory…[it] is the warp of the fabric of society, running lengthwise through time, and carrying and preserving the woof, which is the structure of relations 3 among men, and things we call institutions.” Chapter 1 shall use a detailed analysis of an actual lunisolar calendar coupled with passages from pre-Meiji historical and literary texts to support Doggett‟s (2005, 575) contention that “the common theme of calendar making is the desire to organize units of time to satisfy the needs and preoccupations of society.” This exercise will show that the lunisolar calendar reflects the value pre-Meiji society placed on minute seasonal changes, the phases of the moon, and divination controlled by various directional deities. It shall also demonstrate how an understanding of the lunisolar calendar is vital to fully comprehend classical Japanese texts. Chapter 2 shall explore how calendar reform has been enacted throughout Japanese history to promote the values of new political regimes. The Yamato kings in the fifth century, Empress Suiko and Shōtoku Taishi in the seventh century, Empress Shōtoku in the eighth century, and the Tokugawa Shōgunate in the seventeenth century all implemented a calendar reform in order to legitimate their regimes, consolidate political authority, and impose their own values onto society. The Meiji government went a step further by abolishing the lunisolar calendar entirely because it reflected the cultural values of the localized, agrarian-based society the government was trying to replace with a centralized, industrial society. Chapter 3 will discuss the state of the lunisolar calendar in modern Japan, first analyzing how the calendar survived the Meiji government‟s attempt to obliterate it and the effect the Meiji calendar reform had on how the lunisolar calendar is understood today. It will then discuss how the current revival of interest in the lunisolar calendar reflects the value modern society places on nostalgia for the past, which has arisen as part of the modernization process. 4 Chapter 1 The Cultural Significance of the Lunisolar Calendar as Viewed Through Classical Texts For over 1,200 years, Japanese society undulated to the rhythm of the lunisolar calendar. This is clearly reflected in classical texts, which often reference lunisolar dates, moon phases, lunisolar calendar-based seasonal changes, annual events, and calendar-based divination. Writers of these texts frequently supplied only one piece of information, such as the date, because they expected that readers would automatically understand the corresponding moon phase, season, or event, but this implicit information is often lost on modern readers unfamiliar with the lunisolar calendar. This chapter will use a line-by-line analysis of a lunisolar calendar from 1844 coupled with passages from classical texts to illustrate how the elements included on the calendar reflect social values at the time. This exercise will demonstrate that knowledge of the lunisolar calendar is vital to understanding classical Japanese texts. The calendar that originated in China in the thirteenth century BCE (Aslaksen, 2009, 40) and is used throughout Asia is often called a “lunar calendar” in English, but this is a misnomer. This calendar is actually a lunisolar calendar, or a calendar that “integrates the solar-based unit of the year with the lunar-based unit of the month…[paying] attention to the waxing and waning of the moon while also observing the solstices and equinoxes” (Dalby, 2007, xix). This contrasts with pure lunar calendars, such as the Islamic calendar, on which “no attempt is made to keep the start of the year in synchrony with the sun” (Richards, 1999, 99-100). The following is an Ise calendar from Tempō 15 (1844), a prime example of a 5 kana-goyomi, or regional calendar written in Japanese script. The Ise calendar was the most widely used calendar in the Edo period (1603-1868) (Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan [KKT], 1984, 25). 6 7 ① The first line of the calendar indicates that the calendar was made in Ise Watari-gun Yamada, present day Ise City in Mie Prefecture. ② Yamaguchi Uhei, the name of the publisher. ③ Since Tempō 15 was the first year that the Tempō calendar was used, it contains an explanation of the changes that have been made. They include designating nine bell tolls, or approximately 12:00 am, rather than six bell tolls, or approximately 6:00 am, as the start of a new day, and switching from the fixed time method, in which day and night were of equal lengths, to the unfixed time method, in which the length of an hour changes according to the season in order to synchronize the calendar with astronomical time. ④ The calendar year is expressed both by era name (fifteenth year of the Tempō era) and sexagenary cycle (kinoe-tatsu). The sexagenary cycle, which dates to the twelfth century BCE in China, is a cycle of sixty made by pairing two systems of enumeration, the Ten Stems and the Twelve Branches, as follows: Ten Stems Chinese Character Chinese reading Japanese reading Element 甲 Kō Kinoe1 Wood 乙 Otsu Kinoto 丙 Hei Hinoe Fire 丁 Tei Hinoto 戊 Bo Tsuchinoe Earth 己 Ki Tsuchinoto 庚 Kō Kanoe Metal 辛 Shin Kanoto 壬 Jin Mizunoe Water 癸 Ki Mizunoto 1 The Japanese reading for each of the Ten Stems contains the element and then the term e (older brother) or to (younger brother). E is the yáng, or positive, essence and to is the yīn, or negative essence (Ichinoe, 1913, 53). 8 Twelve Branches Chinese Chinese Japanese Associated solar Animal Month Direction Element character reading reading stem Ele- Tōji “Winter 子 Shi Ne Rat venth North (0°) Water solstice” Month Daikan North- Twelfth 丑 Chū Ushi Ox “Greater northeast Earth Month cold” (30°) East- Usui “Rain First 寅 In Tora Tiger northeast Wood and water” Month (60°) Shunbun Second 卯 Bō U Rabbit “Vernal East (90°) Wood Month equinox” East- Koku-u Third 辰 Shin Tatsu Dragon southeast Earth “Grain rain” Month (120°) Shōman South- “Initial Fourth 巳 Shi Mi Snake southeast Fire filling of the Month (150°) grain” Geshi Fifth 午 Go Uma Horse “Summer South (180°) Fire Month solstice” Taisho South- Sixth 未 Mi Hitsuji Sheep “Greater southwest Earth Month heat” (210°) Shosho West- Mon- Seventh 申 Shin Saru “Cessation of southwest Metal key Month heat” (240°) Shūbun “Autum- Eighth 酉 Yū Tori Cock West (270°)
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