Open Access Report

The Critical Risk of Disinformation for Humanitarians – The Case of the MV Aquarius

Sean Healy Head of Reflection and Analysis, Médecins Sans Frontières Operational Centre Amsterdam; [email protected] Victoria Russell Communications Adviser, Médecins Sans Frontières Operational Centre Amsterdam; [email protected]

Abstract The search and rescue of refugees, asylum seekers and migrants on the Mediterranean has become a site of major political contestation in Europe, on the seas, in parliaments and government offices and in online public opinion. This article summarises one particular set of controversies, namely, false claims that the non-government organisations conducting such search and rescue operations are actively ‘colluding’ with people smugglers to ferry people into Europe. In spring and summer 2017, these claims of ‘collusion’ emerged from state agencies and from anti-immigration groups, became viral on social media platforms and rapidly moved into mainstream media coverage, criminal investigations by prosecutors and the speech and laws of politicians across the continent. These claims were in turn connected to far-right conspiracy theories about ‘flooding’ Europe with ‘invaders’. By looking at the experience of one particular ship, the MV Aquarius, run in partnership by MSF and SOS Méditerranée, the authors detail the risks that humanitarian organisations now face from such types of disinformation campaign. If humanitarian organisations do not prepare themselves against this risk, they will find themselves in a world turned upside-down, in which their efforts to help people in distress become evidence of criminal activity.

Keywords: disinformation, conspiracy theory, search and rescue, refugees, Mediterranean, criminalisation, social media, far right, Médecins Sans Frontières, SOS Méditerranée

Introduction homelands’ (statement by Defend Europe, quoted in Holthouse, 2017). From December 2016, this conspiracy This is the story of a meeting between a humanitarian theory spread from the far-right anti-immigrant fringes, operation and a conspiracy theory, and what happened was bolstered by the statements of the European border next. The operation was a search and rescue mission run control agency Frontex, caught fire on social media, was on the Mediterranean by many different non-govern- then repeated by major media outlets, politicians and mental organisations (NGOs), including Médecins Sans prosecutors, and eventually became policy of the then- Frontières,1 aiming to save the lives of migrants, refugees government of Italy, under Interior Minister Matteo and asylum seekers lost at sea. The conspiracy theory2 Salvini. It achieved its moment of (temporary) victory in was that this operation was the opposite of what it 2018 with the closing of Italian ports to NGO vessels and seemed: that it was actually a plot in which search and the halting of search and rescue operations by NGOs on rescue organisations were actively and directly colluding the Mediterranean. The collision of these two wildly with people smugglers to ferry ‘migrants’ from Libya to different points of view provoked significant political Europe. And even that this was only part of a deeper plot and humanitarian consequences across Europe. to ‘invade’ and ‘flood’ the continent and make ‘we There is, of course, nothing new about disinformation, Europeans … a minority in our own European or its use in conflict and crisis, or its implication of

28 Journal of Humanitarian Affairs Volume 3, No. 1 (2021), 28–39 © The authors http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/JHA.056 This is an Open Access article published under the conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence https://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc-nd/4.0

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access h rtclRs fDsnomto o Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The humanitarians. The aphorism, ‘In war, the first casualty rescue operations, all prompted into doing so by two is truth’, goes back to World War I, or perhaps horrific shipwrecks in April 2015 in which 1200 asylum Aeschylus. Throughout their history, humanitarian seekers drowned (Heller and Pezzani, 2016). actors have worked in many conflicts deeply marked The MSF adviser replied that NGOs were in no way not only by the clash of metal and bodies, but also by the colluding with people smugglers but were rather simply din of conflicting words, claims and narratives. But the doing their job of saving lives – and that perhaps Frontex forms that this disinformation has taken have constantly might be better off doing the same (Ponthieu, 2016). This changed as technology has changed, from printing exchange between MSF and Frontex, in public and via presses to wireless and TV and now to social media. the media, and later also in private, was not the first such The rapid growth in internet penetration and social dispute, but it would prove to be the opening salvo in a media usage worldwide has made it easier and quicker to two-year-long propaganda campaign. access and share vast quantities of news, information and entertainment – and this has proved fertile ground for all The Claims kinds of political propaganda, conspiracy theories, Opponents of dedicated search and rescue (SAR) disinformation campaigns and hybrid warfare. missions in the Mediterranean had long criticised such This case of the MV Aquarius highlights the increas- efforts for being a ‘pull factor encouraging more ingly dangerous environment that humanitarians are migrants to attempt the dangerous sea’ (House of now operating in in the early twenty-first century: Lords, 2016)3 or a ‘magnet’ (Farrell, 2014)ora‘bridge’ meaning not the Mediterranean, but the emerging (Anetzberger, 2014) for migrants, refugees and asylum information space. If humanitarian organisations do seekers. Before the arrival of NGO vessels, this same not ready themselves for this space, they will find claim had been made against naval SAR operations such themselves in a world turned upside-down, in which as Mare Nostrum.4 their principles have no meaning, in which suffering is Naval and NGO rescuers and their supporters have, in the fault of those suffering and the responsibility of no- reply, argued that the numbers of people attempting the one, and in which their efforts to help people in distress Central Mediterranean route is largely driven by ‘push become evidence of criminal activity. factors’ such as conflict in the countries of origin, violence in Libya, the closure of other routes and lack The Case of the MV Aquarius of safe and legal pathways. The principal effect of reduced SAR resources, they have claimed, is not reduced numbers of people attempting the journey, but It Begins an increased risk of death. On 13 December 2016, a humanitarian adviser at MSF in For example, MSF conducted its own research Brussels received a call from the correspondent of the (Arsenijevic et al., 2017) into this claim of a ‘pull Financial Times. He wanted to know if MSF had any factor’ which compared the trends in attempted sea comment on a report he had received confidentially from crossings and adverse sea outcomes over three time within the European border agency, Frontex. With a periods: during Operation Mare Nostrum (dedicated headline alleging that search and rescue organisations on SAR mission but no NGO presence), during the period the Mediterranean were actively colluding with people of Operation Triton5 but before the start of NGO smugglers, the eventual article read: operations, and following the start of NGO SAR missions. It found that there were only 1.6 per cent Frontex put its concerns in a confidential report last more attempted crossings in the period of NGO month, raising the idea that migrants had been given ‘clear involvement than during the period of Triton-only indications before departure on the precise direction to be followed in order to reach the NGOs’ boats’. SAR resources. It also found a reduction in adverse sea outcomes (deaths and missing) from 39/1000 attempted The agency made the accusation explicitly in another crossings to 16/1000. Other analyses by different report last week, which stated: ‘First reported case where the criminal networks were smuggling migrants directly on researchers (Steinhilper and Gruijters, 2017; Villa, an NGO vessel’.(Robinson, 2016) 2020) have reached broadly similar conclusions. The commanders of the naval missions have argued likewise, At that point, MSF had been running search and such as Operation Sophia’s commander, Admiral Enrico rescue operations since mid 2015, with three ships then Credendino (quoted in Floris and Bagnoli, 2017). operational on the Mediterranean: the Bourbon Argos, The claim of ‘collusion’, however, made in the the Dignity I and the Aquarius, the latter run in confidential Frontex report and carried by the Financial partnership with SOS Méditerranée (Figure 1). The Times, was an escalation. A ‘pull factor’ might operate organisation was only one of many running such despite the intentions of the rescuers and be simply the 29

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access (2021) 3/1

Journal of Humanitarian Affairs

Figure 1: MSF search and rescue operations – overview Source: MSF, http://searchandrescue.msf.org/ (accessed 28 March 2021).

unfortunate side-effect of a well-meaning endeavour. Maritime Traffic website, with the daily arrival figures ‘Collusion with people smugglers’, ‘trafficking’ and from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees. The ‘being complicit’ implies criminal intent on the part of video comprised a wordless time-lapse on a map of the rescuers. It implies a conspiracy. search and rescue vessels starting close to Libya and finishing in Italy. The report and video presented the The Conspiracies existence of legal and coordinated rescue operations ‘ ’ ‘ ’ from outside Libyan territorial waters as evidence of an The first reported case cited by Frontex (2016) ‘illegal human traffic operation’. The report and video concerned an incident in which a small Libyan-flagged then concluded that more asylum seekers, refugees and fishing boat handed two individuals to a rescue vessel, migrants would ‘undermine Europe’s stability raising the Minden. The Frontex report claimed that this fishing racially motivated social tensions’. boat contained people smugglers, and that the incident was evidence of ‘smuggling migrants directly on an NGO Going Viral maritime vessel’. Meanwhile, when sought for his side of the story, the captain of the Minden claimed that the boat The Gefira reports and video were reblogged by several appeared to be ‘engine fishers’, locals who often appear far-right, Islamophobic and conspiracist websites, such around rescues to salvage the engines from stranded as Infowars and Zerohedge, in English and in Italian and vessels (Campbell, 2017). began circulating among such audiences. These sources Two other accusations originated from a right-wing anti- connected the alleged collusion between smugglers and immigrant foundation in the Netherlands called Gefira rescuers to much larger themes, in particular to the idea (Pellagatta, 2018). A report from the group (Gefira, 2016a) of the ‘Great Replacement’, a white-nationalist con- claimed to have found proof that, in October 2016, the spiracy theory that claims that powerful institutions in Italian coastguard authorities and an SAR vessel had Europe are seeking to supplant white people with foreknowledge of a rescue, showing contact and planning immigrants from the Middle East and Africa with smugglers. The basis for this was a single tweet by a (Holthouse, 2017). YouTube comments (Gefira, 2016c) Dutch journalist on board the rescue vessel Golfo Azzurro on it illustrate the extreme conclusions drawn by some of from 10–12 hours before the rescue occurred. The captain its viewers: ‘When will European people rise up and fight of the Golfo Azzurro counter-claimed that the notification this before their continent is destroyed? It needs to and the rescue were two separate events related to two happen soon for the sake of your kids and grandkids separate vessels (Hopkins, 2017). lives’, ‘All funded by George Soros, the devil in disguise’ A month later, Gefira released another report along and ‘Mass deportations and ethnic cleansing is morally with a YouTube video (Gefira, 2016b). The article and justified to counter this, and these bleeding heart NGO’s 30 video combined AIS data on ships’ locations from the [sic] will be wholly responsible.’

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access h rtclRs fDsnomto o Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The Then, a second video, ‘La verità sui MIGRANTI’ banner reading ‘No way for human trafficking’. The (Donadel, 2017), was uploaded to YouTube in March action was live-streamed on Periscope, shown on 2017 by a 23-year-old Italian right-wing activist and YouTube6 and attracted considerable social media vlogger Luca Donadel. It used a similar methodology as attention (Broderick, 2017). The campaign was called the earlier Gefira video, including tracing the routes of ‘Defend Europe’ and the group behind it was Génération rescue vessels on a map from close to Libya back to Italy. Identitaire, a European white-nationalist group. They But this was produced in a more engaging, received support from US far-right social media sensationalistic and personal style, elements more likely personalities such as Lauren Southern, Breitbart and to help it become viral. This video is credited as a ‘tipping various neo-Nazi sites, as well as Katie Hopkins point in a campaign against NGOs’ (Oliveri, 2017), (Holthouse, 2017). The publicity helped the group raise especially in Italy. It was viewed more than one million $178,000, with which it hired a much larger vessel, the times within two weeks, and millions more since then. It C-Star, to try again to block the Aquarius. was shared by politicians including Matteo Salvini, The far-right activists were to discover that mounting mentioned by major newspapers and shown by an action ‘in real life’ was much harder than online. A mainstream television outlets in Italy, vastly increasing public backlash led by anti-racist activists pressured its reach. websites PayPal and Patreon into cutting off their Over the Easter weekend in 2017, more than 2000 fundraising, the Daily Mail recalled Hopkins, and a people needed to be rescued trying to cross the series of ports in Suez, Cyprus, Tunisia (where fishermen Mediterranean by an operation involving the Italian in Zarzis refused to allow the boat entry) and Malta held coastguard and three NGO vessels, including 1000 by the the boat in custody or banned it from docking altogether. Aquarius alone (CBC Radio, 2017). Claims that NGOs In Famagusta, Cyprus, authorities found 20 Sri Lankan were colluding with people smugglers now reached a men on board, who had each paid $12,000 to be mass audience via the mainstream media, and not only smuggled to Europe; the owner, captain, senior officers in Italy but throughout Europe by a variety of media plus one of the Génération Identitaire activists were outlets. Perhaps most prominently, the controversial but arrested and charged with human trafficking. At one widely followed columnist Katie Hopkins went to Sicily point, they even needed to be rescued themselves, by the in April 2017 to investigate the story for the Daily Mail, Sea-Eye (Mulhall, 2017). Finally they were forced to alleging: cancel the mission on 19 August 2017. On land, the group held protests at commercial entities associated Right under the noses of the Italian authorities and the EU with search and rescue and, in October 2018, invaded the ‘ ’ border agency, Frontex, a charitable ferry service has been Marseilles office of SOS Méditerranée and threatened the launched, with shiny new boats and sympathetic staff staff (SOS Méditerranée, 2018). allegedly colluding with the people smugglers controlling the migrant trade. (Hopkins, 2017) But these actions certainly proved attention-grabbing, especially on social media, which became extremely For evidence of this claim, Hopkins repeated the hostile to rescuers. The Twitter account of the operation, details of both the incident mentioned by the December @MSF_Sea, was routinely ratio-ed by 100s or 1000s of 2016 confidential Frontex report, and copy-pasted racist and trolling comments. A parody Twitter account directly, maps and graphs included, from the report by was set up, and its false stories (such as that MSF was Gefira (2016a) about the October 2016 rescue. She then advocating for the Schengen Agreement area to be turned to themes of criminality, terrorism and the threat extended to North Africa) were even picked up as fact of swamping: by media outlets. Allegations were invented and distrib- uted widely, for example, that MSF’s fundraising had Italy will not survive this. I do not believe Europe will, suffered a ‘vertical drop’. Other rescuers also suffered from – either certainly not as the countries they have been for dirty tricks: Proactiva Open Arms revealed in July 2017 centuries. The monster that drove a truck into the that its AIS data had been hacked to falsely show its Christmas market in Berlin arrived into the EU via boat position as 1 mile off the Libyan coast (Open Arms, 2017). to Italy. My fear is that these NGO ‘ferry services’ will ensure many more monsters to come (Hopkins, 2017). Prosecutors and Politicians Collusion by rescuers with people smugglers was ‘illegal’ and ‘criminal’, its opponents claimed – and a wide From Propaganda to Action variety of politicians and prosecutors sought to make it On 12 May 2017, as the MV Aquarius was leaving the so. The first and most prominent was the prosecutor of port of Catania, a small skiff attempted to impede their Catania, Carmelo Zuccaro (Latza Nadeau, 2017), who in passage, with passengers launching flares and unveiling a March 2017 announced: ‘We have evidence that there 31

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access are direct contacts between certain NGOs and people themselves up to massive public criticism and adminis- traffickers in Libya.’ A month later, he admitted he was trative measures against them, such as vessel seizures and

(2021) 3/1 only raising a ‘hypothesis’ about phone calls and had no closure of ports. Division between the larger, ‘moderate’ proof he could present to a court (Scherer, 2017). The NGOs and the smaller, ‘radical’ ones also might have truthfulness or falsity of the allegations was irrelevant to been an aim, as it was certainly highlighted in the media its spread; indeed, very little eventuated from this inquiry coverage. in terms of legal proceedings, but the accusations were Troubled by this code of conduct, MSF first sought widely publicised and lent great legitimacy to the consultations with the Italian government to clarify their mounting campaign against the rescuers. intent. But the Italian authorities demanded signature The Trapani prosecutor, Ambrogio Cartosio, within a week of receiving the text. Ultimately, MSF Journal of Humanitarian Affairs announced in May 2017 an investigation into the alleged refused to sign the code of conduct, and was greeted with involvement of individuals in human trafficking and exactly the massive public criticism it feared in the Italian abetting illegal migration. Two other prosecutors also media for doing so (Galli della Loggia, 2017; Picardi, 2017). launched inquiries of their own, in Palermo and Cagliari. But its partner on the MV Aquarius, and the charterer of Several MSF staff were informed they were under the ship, SOS Méditerranée, did sign at a later stage, investigation, although none have been charged, as were meaning that the vessel did agree to comply with its terms. staff of Save the Children. The code did not end the issue at all, and seizures of Similar accusations were made by senior government vessels, searches of premises and legal proceedings ministers in Belgium (Baczynska, 2017), in Austria started soon after.7 Perhaps the most serious actions (Die Presse, 2017) and in Germany (Welt, 2017). In were taken in August 2017 against ten staff of the June 2018, French President Emmanuel Macron accused German NGO Jugend Rettet, including the captain of its NGOs of ‘playing into the hands’ of people smugglers ship Iuventa, Pia Klemp (Maritime Executive, 2017a). (RFI, 2018). Those charged face up to 20 years’ imprisonment for Public hearings were launched in the Italian Senate, conducting operations which saved up to 14,000 people allowing a high-profile airing of the explanations of the at sea. Police had bugged the vessel and placed rescuers but also for those accusing them (Heller and informants on other vessels (Boffey and Tondo, 2019). ’ Pezzani, 2017). The Senate committee s May 2017 report The charges included specific accusations of collusion found that there was no evidence of collusion between with people smugglers, namely that on three separate NGOs and smugglers, but it still called for greater occasions, on 10 September 2016 and twice on 18 June government control over search and rescue operations, 2017, the crew of the Iuventa had arranged the direct including the placement of police investigators on board transfer of migrants, refugees and asylum seekers from vessels (Heller and Pezzani, 2017). smugglers and had then returned the empty boats to the In July 2017, the centre-left Italian government of smugglers. A report by Forensic Oceanography and Matteo Renzi took up the recommendations of the Senate Forensic Architecture poured over extensive video inquiry and began efforts to exert greater control over ‘ ’ footage of the rescues turned over by Jugend Rettet and search and rescue vessels, via a code of conduct that they other sources and concluded that there was no evidence attempted to enforce on NGOs (Human Rights Watch, of communication with the smugglers (Heller and 2017). The code included many stipulations which were Pezzani, 2018). already in maritime law and which SAR vessels were But nearly all SAR actors were affected in various ways already following, as well as a range of restrictions, over the course of 2017 and 2018: including preventing rescues from taking place in Libyan waters altogether, banning the use of lights at night, • The Vos Hestia of Save the Children was searched in preventing transfers of the rescued while at sea and October 2017 and equipment seized, leading to the placing police on board vessels. In July, this code of suspension of its operation (Maritime Executive, conduct was endorsed at an informal meeting of the EU 2017b). Save the Children had signed the code of Justice and Home Affairs Ministers (HRW, 2017). conduct, showing how little protection it offered. In the view of those running MSF’s operations, this put • In the same month, the MSF vessel Vos Prudence NGOs in a situation of ‘damned if you do, and damned if ended its operation (MSF, 2017), partly due to the you don’t’. Signing and endorsing the code of conduct reduction in departures from Libya and partly due to would be an admission that NGOs needed regulations the mounting restrictions on operations. (The Vos and control when in fact all SAR NGO operations Prudence had replaced a previous MSF ship, the were already being carried out under the coordination of Bourbon Argos, in March 2017.) the Italian maritime authorities. Those who didn’t • The warehouses and medical stores of MSF in 32 accept, however, would appear intransigent and open Catania were searched in January 2018, with various

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access h rtclRs fDsnomto o Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The allegations of wrong-doing and threatened charges pressure from Italy on the UK government (Budge, 2018). made against staff. The vessel briefly re-registered as a Panamanian vessel, • The vessel of Spanish NGO Proactiva Open Arms but this registration too was withdrawn in September was seized on the request of the Catania prosecutor in 2018 (Heffron, 2018) under direct pressure from the March 2018 (although released by a court order a Italian government. After two months of vain attempts to month later). reflag the ship, SOS Méditerranée and MSF declared • In November 2018, the Catania prosecutor announced defeat and ended its mission on 6 December 2018. MSF’s an investigation into MSF for illicit waste disposal on statement (2018) read: SAR boats, including rescued people’sclothesthatit claimed were highly infectious with diseases such as This is the result of a sustained campaign, spearheaded by HIV. The Aquarius was ordered impounded and bank the Italian government and backed by other European states, to delegitimise, slander and obstruct aid organisa- accounts were frozen (Tondo, 2018). tions providing assistance to vulnerable people. The situation was also worsening on the open seas. The solution long sought after by European governments was Postscript: The Return of the Rescuers for the Libyan government to prevent departures at source Of course, the end of the MV Aquarius’s operation didn’t – via a ‘cash-for-migration-control strategy’ (Reitano and end this story, nor did the closure of Italian ports to Micallef, 2017). On land, this involved armed militias search and rescue vessels. In Italy, the coalition govern- closing down the people smuggling business they had ment between the Five Star Movement and Salvini’sLega been deeply involved in, reportedly in exchange for cash lasted only until August 2019 before collapsing payments. At sea, this involved financing the Libyan (Horowitz, 2019). The subsequent election saw not the coastguard so it could ‘turn back’ boats they found at sea expected triumph of the far right, but a new coalition and forcibly return the people intercepted at sea to the between the Five Star Movement and the Democratic detention centres. Relations between the NGO vessels and Party (De Maio, 2019). Salvini faces his own court cases the Libyan coastguard rapidly deteriorated, including now – prosecutors in Sicily have charged him with botched rescues, threats of legal action, shots fired (Sea- kidnapping over a particular incident involving a ship Watch, 2017). After July 2017, this policy resulted in a containing rescued migrants, asylum seekers and refugees dramatic fall in the number of boat entries into Europe being held in port, and the Senate has lifted his immunity from Libya, and the consequent trapping of people in from prosecution (Pullella, 2020). In August 2020, MSF Libya (Reitano and Micallef, 2017). returned to active search and rescue operations, joining forces with Sea-Watch and providing medical care Final Act: Salvini, Blockade and Closure aboard the vessel, the Sea-Watch 4 (MSF, 2020). In The final act in the story of the MV Aquarius occurred after May 2021, MSF launched a new search-and-rescue the 31 May 2018 Italian election, which was dominated by operation with the vessel Geo Barents (MSF 2021). the issue of migration. Despite his government’s actions to close the entry doors to asylum seekers, refugees and Disinformation as a Phenomenon migrants, Prime Minister Matteo Renzi was heavily defeated. A new government was formed, led by the This was certainly not the first time that humanitarian populist Five Star Movement and including the far-right responders have been targeted by a disinformation Lega, whose leader Matteo Salvini was made interior campaign, nor was it the most serious time, and nor will minister, and the most prominent figure of the government. it be the last time. Several key points are worth Salvini moved quickly to close Italy’s ports to NGO highlighting in this analysis. search and rescue vessels. On 10 June, the MV Aquarius Mobilisation from Fringes into Mainstream was returning to port with 630 migrants, refugees and asylum seekers when it was told that it would be barred In this instance, social media, in particular Twitter, entry. This sparked a diplomatic stand-off at sea, until Facebook and YouTube, played a central role in convey- the government of Spain agreed to welcome the ship at ing the various false claims and conspiracy theories from the port of Valencia, 1300 kilometres away. Himself a their originators, to social media influencers, and then master of the use of social media, Salvini took to into mainstream media and influential figures in politics Facebook with the news: ‘VICTORY! 629 migrants on and the law, and finally into official policy in Italy. board of Aquarius ship, Spain-bound, our first goal has Social media platforms are designed for sharing of been reached!’ (Nadeau et al., 2018). information through self-selected networks, and do so On 20 August, Aquarius’s registration under a Gibral- extremely efficiently. Social media has proven to be more tar flag was officially revoked, reportedly after diplomatic effective at spreading lies than truth, diffusing them 33

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access ‘significantly farther, faster, deeper, and more broadly’, outlets about the various accusations of anti-immigration according to Vosoughi et al. (2018), who found that it activists, questions the journalists justified as ‘being

(2021) 3/1 took the truth six times longer to reach 1500 people than impartial’ and ‘presenting the other side of the story’.It a lie, and that political lies spread more quickly than all mattered less what the truth was. other categories of information. Part of what powers this spread is a concept of novelty, in that novel information Overturning Truth and Falsehood is both more surprising and more valuable to the one Disinformation campaigns often have only loose con- who possesses it. A further explanation for the more nections to objective fact, and frequently rely on rapid spread of falsehoods is connected to the emotions it outrageous lies. And yet in the modern age they manage evokes: not only greater surprise but also greater disgust, to build substantial followings nevertheless, as they tap Journal of Humanitarian Affairs while truth more evokes stronger emotions of sadness, into a set of deeper beliefs and concepts of identity which anticipation, joy and trust. As a result, even ideas which trump ‘truth’. might once have been considered ‘fringe’ or ‘extreme’ Both the facts and the politics of migration and asylum can benefit mightily in the current information seeking across the Mediterranean are worthy of public environment – it significantly increases the amount of discussion and debate. As mentioned, various research- ‘oxygen’ in which such ideas can catch fire and spread ers (e.g. Arsenijevic et al., 2017) have sought to study (Phillips, 2018). whether search and rescue efforts ‘pull’ people towards A particularly important role in the spread of the them or not, and hence might be endangering them. conspiracy theory against SAR vessels was played by a Political contestation is unavoidable when publics across complex of websites and influencers, mostly connected Europe are as divided as they are about the relative value to the European and North American far-right move- of securing the continent’s borders from newcomers or ments: Gefira and Luca Donadel, in the first instance, saving those in need from suffering in Libya or death on but also widely shared conspiracist websites such as the high seas. Infowars and personalities such as Lauren Southern.8 At But what we have seen in this case bends any concept several points, videos, tweets and stories from these of ‘public discussion and debate’ beyond breaking point. influencers were seen and shared millions of times. This In making accusations of collusion between people matches other work, such as the analysis done by smugglers and rescuers, political actors advanced a set Starbird et al. (2018) of the campaign against the of false claims, the factual basis of which was limited to a Syrian humanitarian group, the ‘White Helmets’, small handful of ambiguous incidents which were then which highlighted the importance of tight networks of read in a tendentious and biased way, without any ‘alternative media’, most often on the political far right consideration for other explanations. These were then but also on the left. These sources have grown connected to a set of xenophobic prejudices against considerably in reach and influence due to record-low migrants, refugees and asylum seekers from Africa and levels of trust in mainstream media and due to the the Middle East, amalgamated with terrorism fears, disruption of mainstream media outlets’ production and widespread and growing in Europe, and linked to beliefs distribution models. YouTube has proven an especially that such people pose a civilisational threat – and so the effective mechanism for these influencers, as it allows conspiracy theory proved popular even despite its them to both demonstrate relatability and authenticity falsehood. while connecting with this ‘counter-cultural’ rejection of There is a deep connection between conspiracy mainstream media. theories and populist movements, such as Matteo Finally, once spreading widely in social media, con- Salvini’s Lega in Italy, which also explains part of their spiracytheoriescancrossoverandfindfertilegroundin enduring appeal. Conspiracy theories revolve around the mainstream media as well. This can be via partisan three sets of actors: the conspirators, powerful people media figures who are supporters of the conspiracy theory who have managed to hide their role; the people, who in question – such as Hopkins in this case, or Fox News’ have been duped by the conspirators; and the enligh- Sean Hannity in the case of the campaign against George tened ones who see through the duping to the truth Soros and the Open Society Foundation (Wemple, 2019). (Gyárfášová et al., 2013). An analysis of conspiratorial It can also be via the coverage of more impartial and beliefs in three European countries, conducted before the objective media outlets, which find themselves caught in a 2015 refugee crisis (Gyárfášová et al., 2013: 14), found trap of whether ‘to report or not to report’ on the claims that ‘[t]hose who think that democracy doesn’t work made by conspiracists and therefore often end up well, that politicians don’t care about people like them amplifying them (Phillips, 2018). MSF communications and who trust neither the left nor the right to run the specialists on board the MV Aquarius attest to being country are far more likely to agree with conspiracist 34 constantly asked by journalists from major networks and statements than others’. This overlaps strongly with the

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access h rtclRs fDsnomto o Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The basis of populist political movements, which similarly which impose duties on states and other actors to value posit a corrupt, lying and powerful ‘establishment’ and preserve human life. opposed to the ‘people’ and then a force who will save This disinformation campaign against search and them, the populists themselves.9 rescuers, as well as others like it elsewhere, can be seen Finally, there is a deep connection between conspiracy as a rejection by some of that claim – rather, they theories, populist movements and the targeting of implicitly argue, humanitarian values are not universal. minorities. Such movements cohere and mobilise sup- In this case, opponents rejected the Law of the Sea, porters on the basis of identifying an enemy who which require vessels to rescue any person at sea whose threatens them: ‘Such conspiracy theories name the ship is in danger, and the Refugee Convention, which enemy and legitimise radical measures taken against mandates that no person can be sent back to a country them, as well as helping to maintain the collective self- where their lives are in danger – and underneath that, esteem of the group and satisfying the narcissistic needs they rejected the idea that migrants, refugees and of the group (‘we are sufficiently important that everyone asylum seekers’ lives are worth saving. Instead, they is against us’)’ (Krekó, 2011). In present-day Europe, this argued that these lives and these laws were less is highly visible in conspiracy theories connected to important than their ideal, of a Europe whose borders migrants and refugees, but also in the revival of anti- are protected from ‘invaders’ from the South. ‘Show me Semitic and anti-Roma prejudices in countries such as the bodies… Istilldon’tcare’ (Hopkins, quoted in Hungary. Writing about the utility of conspiracy theories McCarthy, 2015). in the twentieth century, Serge Moscovici wrote: Further, these disinformation campaigns turn the tables on the humanitarians, so that the act of saving Now, in order to accomplish all these persecutions it is not lives itself becomes criminalised. This was clear in this enough merely to control the police or the judiciary. What case, where accusations of collusion with people smug- is most necessary is a certain mode of collective thought, glers provided the basis for the seizure of SAR vessels and which, on the one hand, prepares these persecutions, and, the arrest and prosecution of captains and crews for on the other hand, justifies them. It is essential to reach the conducting rescues at sea. masses and make them take part in manhunt, as well as in soulhunt. Assuredly, the principle of conspiracy forms the substance of this thought. (1987: 153) Conclusions: Prepare Now for New Risks

While the deliberate use of disinformation is mostly The rise of this new type of disinformation campaign associated with authoritarian regimes, its use is also must be treated as a critical risk, for people in need and growing in ostensible democracies. Bradshaw and for humanitarian responders. In the Mediterranean, this Howard (2019) found signs of ‘computational specific disinformation campaign occurred in a specific propaganda’ and the manipulation of public opinion political context marked by European governments and social media in over 70 countries in 2019, mostly which were already seeking to restrict asylum seeker prominent in China, especially in its state response to the entry and to turn public opinion against search and Hong Kong democracy movement, but also in a wide rescue operations, as well as growing political polarisation range of both autocracies and democracies. and the rise of populist, authoritarian and racist move- ments of all kinds – this context meant disinformation could become a highly effective strategy for some political Criminalising the Norms of Humanity and actors. The false accusations made against search and Those Who Enact Them rescue providers contributed significantly to a reduction Disinformation campaigns have been waged not only in the humanitarian space for their operations, by helping against minorities or vulnerable groups, but also against justify the closure of ports, the seizure of vessels and the any who help them. In doing so, they have sought to levelling of criminal charges against rescuers. undermine core humanitarian values, such as the idea In other cases also – in the United States (Achenbach, that all people’s deaths are grievable and all people’s lives 2018), Myanmar (Mozur, 2018), Syria (Di Giovanni, are worthy of being saved (Butler, 2020). 2018), among others – disinformation campaigns helped Humanitarians make a claim that their values are justify the closure of borders to refugees, deliberate universal ones that bind all people, in particular the value violence against minorities and the lethal targeting of and dignity attached to all human life (the principle of civilians and those assisting them, among other things. It humanity) and the ethical duty to help all people without is not difficult to imagine future scenarios elsewhere. discrimination, based on need alone (the principle of While the risks of disinformation are not new, they impartiality). Further, humanitarians have worked to have been greatly accelerated and augmented by new enshrine these universal values into international laws, technologies and the social and political changes they 35

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access have wrought. The rapid growth of internet connectivity, movements. In fact, the opposite, as this case shows. But mobile phone usage and social media has made infor- it still seems to be the best way to both defend ourselves

(2021) 3/1 mation much more accessible and available than ever and to confront those set on dehumanising their targets: before. This has made social media a critically important we make enemies by doing so, but we also help victims terrain of political contestation and conflict – and has become survivors, help actors become allies and help provided new opportunities for authoritarian and popu- bystanders become supporters. list states and movements (among others) to use these new technologies to target their opponents, including humanitarian providers and the people they seek to assist Notes and protect. Journal of Humanitarian Affairs It is very likely that humanitarians will be the target of 1 Médecins Sans Frontières includes five autonomous further campaigns. MSF’s experience in the field of Operational Centres. The authors both work for the Mediterranean search and rescue operations, as outlined Operational Centre Amsterdam, which managed MSF’s here, raises three key lessons for the future. involvement in the MV Aquarius operation. Search and Firstly, humanitarians need to better understand the rescue operations were also run by two other MSF nature of the threat itself, and learn to recognise it when Operational Centres in Brussels and Barcelona. The it appears. Just as humanitarians need to understand authors are writing in their personal capacities and the who is acting and how in the physical spaces they work views expressed do not necessarily represent those of their in, so too will they need to understand the actors in the organisation. information space. In particular, this will require greater 2 ‘A conspiracy theory is an effort to explain some event or understanding of social media and efforts to build practice by reference to the machinations of powerful audience and engagement, which is presently only a people, who have also managed to conceal their role’ fraction of that of, say, online anti-immigrant move- (Sunstein and Vermeule, 2008). ments. And perhaps also a break with the respectable but 3 Researchers have long challenged the dichotomy between staid ‘institutional voice’ with which humanitarians ‘pull’ and ‘push’ factors driving migration as simplistic, speak with the public. and yet it still dominates the policy discussion Secondly, humanitarians will need to prepare them- (Cusumano and Villa, 2019). selves practically to confront this threat, by building, 4 Indeed, even further back, similar accusations had been updating and improving systems, especially in commu- made in 2004, after the German ship the Cap Anamur nications. Boosting preparedness is one key area, perhaps run by the organisation Human Rights Without Borders, based on the key tools that humanitarians already use for rescued 37 people lost at sea. The ship’s captain and the security management, such as risk analyses, mitigation organisation’s director were charged with criminal and contingency planning and pre-designated crisis offences by Italian authorities, but were acquitted five cells.10 Further, humanitarians could consider years later (Sarobmed, undated). following the lead of human rights organisations and 5 Operation Triton was an EU operation on the Medi- media outlets, which have begun building their capacities terranean, coordinated by Frontex, which replaced Mare in digital verification, using open sources to confirm or Nostrum in November 2014. It was frequently criticised contradict accounts of events including atrocities. In by human rights groups and activists for being designed search and rescue, some of the most engaging work has more to block migrant boats from crossing than rescuing been done by outfits such as Forensic Oceanography, those vessels which foundered (Tazzioli, 2016). which used open source information-gathering 6 The video has since been taken down, for unknown techniques to reconstruct incidents at sea. reasons, but was at www.youtube.com/watch? Thirdly, humanitarians need to reflect upon the v=gQ9jMwgoTZA implications of disinformation campaigns for the 7 For a full list of legal actions against NGO search and interpretation of our principles and the sources of our rescue vessels as of mid 2019, see FRA (2019). legitimacy. Humanitarians are still widely seen as 8 As of June 2020, Infowars received 989,000 daily page legitimate actors for multiple reasons, including alliances views and Southern had 694,000 YouTube subscribers. with communities, roots in civil society, recognition by 9 Hahl et al. (2018: 4) explicitly links populist movements, peers, qualities and characters of members, principles, that is, an aggrieved constituency who come to see the ethics and commitments and so on (Calain, 2012). But at establishment as not representing them and instead its core, humanitarian legitimacy comes from acting in a serving an ulterior set of motives, to the appeal of humanitarian way – by doing good, by acting our values. demagoguery and lying. Specifically, during crises of Providing care to people in danger will not prevent us legitimacy, the ‘lying demagogue will seem more 36 from being attacked by authoritarian states or populist authentic in her claims to be champion of this

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access h rtclRs fDsnomto o Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The constituency if she is willing to burn her bridge to Cusumano, E. and Villa, M. (2019), ‘Sea Rescue NGOs: A Pull Factor ’ acceptability in the political establishment’. of Irregular Migration? , Policy Briefs, 2019/22, Migration Policy Centre: Florence. Retrieved from Cadmus, European University 10 The US humanitarian coalition InterAction has pro- Institute Research Repository, http://hdl.handle.net/1814/65024 duced a useful guidebook on disinformation which (accessed 7 October 2020). includes advice on approach and several tools (Oh and De Maio, G. (2019), ‘Matteo Salvini is Out but Not Down’, Brookings Adkins, 2018). Institution: Washington DC, 4 September, www.brookings.edu/ blog/order-from-chaos/2019/09/04/matteo-salvini-is-out-but-not-down/ (accessed 7 October 2020). Works Cited Di Giovanni, J. (2018), ‘Why Assad and Russia Target the White ’ Achenbach, J. (2018), ‘A Conspiracy Theory about George Soros and a Helmets , The New York Review of Books, 16 October, www.nybooks. Migrant Caravan Inspired Horror’, Washington Post, 29 October, www. com/daily/2018/10/16/why-assad-and-russia-target-the-white-helmets/ washingtonpost.com/national/a-conspiracy-theory-about-george-soros- (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ “ ”’ and-a-migrant-caravan-inspired-horror/2018/10/28/52df587e-dae6– Die Presse (2017), Kurz: Der NGO-Wahnsinn muss beendet warden , 11e8-b732–3c72cbf131f2_story.html (accessed 7 October 2020). 24 March, www.diepresse.com/5189256/kurz-der-ngo-wahnsinn- Anetzberger, M. (2014), ‘Das Mittelmeer wird wieder unsicherer’, muss-beendet-werden (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ “ ”’ Sueddeutsche Zeitung,31October,www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/ Donadel, L. (2017), The truth about MIGRANTS ,YouTube,6March, seenotrettung-fuer-fluechtlinge-das-mittelmeer-wird-wieder-unsi- www.youtube.com/watch?v=dP4rYgJKo_w (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ ’ cherer-1.2199997#redirectedFromLandingpage (accessed 7 Farrell, N. (2014), Italy is Killing Refugees with Kindness , Spectator,6 October 2020). September, www.spectator.co.uk/article/italy-is-killing-refugees-with- Arsenijevic, J., Manzi, M. and Zachariah, R. (2017), Defending kindness (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ Humanity at Sea: Are Dedicated and Proactive Search and Rescue Floris, F. and Bagnoli, L. (2017), Accusations against NGOs at Sea: ’ Operations at Sea a ‘Pull Factor’ for Migration and Do They Deteriorate What Is False or Misleading in That Smear Campaign , Open Maritime Safety in the Central Mediterranean? MSF Operational Migration, 19 May, https://openmigration.org/en/analyses/accusations- Research Unit: Luxembourg, http://searchandrescue.msf.org/assets/ against-ngos-at-sea-what-is-false-or-misleading-in-that-smear-campaign/ uploads/files/170831-%20Report_Analysis_SAR_Final.pdf (accessed (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ ’ 7 October 2020). Frontex (2016), JO EPN Triton 2016: Biweekly Analytical Report , – Baczynska, G. (2017), ‘Ferry Service or Humanitarian Rescue Boat: Biweekly No. 22, 21 November 4 December, Frontex: Warsaw, EU’s Mediterranean Dilemma’, Reuters, 12 May, https://uk.reuters. www.documentcloud.org/documents/3531244-Frontex-Triton-Ana- com/article/uk-europe-migrants-eu-libya-idUKKBN1881CQ lytical-Report-December-2016.html (accessed 7 October 2020). ‘ – (accessed 7 October 2020). FRA (2019), 2019 Update NGO Ships Involved in Search and ’ Boffey, D. and Tondo, L. (2019), ‘Captain of Migrant Rescue Ship says Rescue in the Mediterranean and Criminal Investigations , European Italy “Criminalising Solidarity”’, Guardian, 15 June, www.theguar- Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, https://fra.europa.eu/en/ dian.com/world/2019/jun/15/captain-of-migrant-rescue-ship-says- publication/2019/2019-update-ngo-ships-involved-search-and-rescue- italy-criminalising-solidarity (accessed 7 October 2020). mediterranean-and-criminal (accessed 7 October 2020). Bradshaw, S. and Howard, P. (2019), The Global Disinformation Order: Galli della Loggia, E. (2017), ‘Lo Stato Italiano, i Trafficanti di Migranti 2019 Global Inventory of Organised Social Media Manipulation. e la Neutralità delle Ong’, Corriere della Serra, 7 August, www. Computational Propaganda Research Project: Oxford Internet Insti- corriere.it/opinioni/17_agosto_06/ong-devono-scegliere-e677fa9a- tute, Oxford University, https://comprop.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/ 7a0d-11e7–9488-fb4c3ebc9cd4.shtml (accessed 7 October 2020). cybertroops2019/ (accessed 7 October 2020). Gefira (2016a), ‘Caught in the Act: NGOs Deal in Migrant Smuggling’, Broderick, R. (2017), ‘Everything That’s Happened Since a Bunch of 15 November, https://gefira.org/en/2016/11/15/caught-in-the-act- YouTubers Got a Ship to Stop Refugees Getting to Europe’, Buzzfeed ngos-deal-in-migrant-smuggling (accessed 7 October 2020). News, 26 July, www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanhatesthis/identi- Gefira (2016b), ‘NGOs are Smuggling Immigrants into Europe on an tarians-get-a-boat#.lxB3yQqdG (accessed 7 October 2020). Industrial Scale’, 4 December, https://gefira.org/en/2016/12/04/ Budge, K. (2018), ‘Gibraltar’s Decision to Strip Flag from Aquarius ngos-are-smuggling-immigrants-into-europe-on-an-industrial-scale/ Rescue Ship Undermines Ancient Seafaring Principle of Solidarity’, (accessed 7 October 2020). Conversation, 7 September, https://theconversation.com/gibraltars- Gefira (2016c), ‘Caught in the Act: NGO’s Smuggle Migrants From decision-to-strip-flag-from-aquarius-rescue-ship-undermines-ancient- Libya into Europe’, YouTube, 6 November, www.youtube.com/ seafaring-principle-of-solidarity-101928 (accessed 7 October 2020). watch?v=eDBNyEplPOk (accessed 7 October 2020). Butler, J. (2020), The Force of Nonviolence: The Ethical in the Political Gyárfášová, O., Krekó, P., Mesežnikov, G., Molnár, C. and Morris, M. (London: Verso). (2013), ‘Conspiratorial Mindset in the Age of Transition’, Institute Calain, P. (2012), ‘In Search of the “New Informal Legitimacy” of for Public Affairs: Bratislava, www.ivo.sk/7296/en/news/conspira- Médecins Sans Frontières’, Public Health Ethics, 5:1, 56–66, doi: torial-mindset-in-the-age-of-transition (accessed 7 October 2020). 10.1093/phe/phr036. Hahl, O., Kim, M. and Zuckerman Sivan, E. W. (2018), ‘The Campbell, Z. (2017), ‘New Evidence Undermines EU Report Tying Authentic Appeal of the Lying Demagogue: Proclaiming the Deeper Refugee Rescue Group to Smugglers’, Intercept, 2 April, https:// Truth about Political Illegitimacy’, American Sociological Review, theintercept.com/2017/04/02/new-evidence-undermines-eu-report- 83:1, 1–33, doi: 10.1177/0003122417749632. tying-refugee-rescue-group-to-smugglers/ (accessed 7 October 2020). Heffron, C. (2018), ‘Rescue Ship Aquarius Stripped of Its Registration’, CBC Radio (2017), ‘A Single Rescue Ship Saved Nearly 1,000 Refugees Euronews, 24 September, www.euronews.com/2018/09/24/rescue- from the Mediterranean This Weekend – Many of Them Children’, ship-aquarius-stripped-of-its-registration (accessed 7 October 2020). 20 March, www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-monday-edition- Heller, C. and Pezzani, L. (2016), Death by Rescue: The Lethal Effects of 1.4032729/a-single-rescue-ship-saved-nearly-1–000-refugees-from-the- the EU’s Policies of Non-assistance at Sea, Forensic Architecture, mediterranean-this-weekend-many-of-them-children-1.4032737 Goldsmiths College, University of London, www.deathbyrescue.org (accessed 7 October 2020). (accessed 7 October 2020). 37

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access Heller, C. and Pezzani, L. (2017), Blaming the Rescuers, Forensic Mulhall, J. (2017), ‘Failed Defend Europe Mission Comes to an End’, Architecture, Goldsmiths College, University of London, https:// HOPE not hate, 17 August, www.hopenothate.org.uk/2017/08/17/ blamingtherescuers.org/ (accessed 7 October 2020). failed-defend-europe-mission-comes-end/ (accessed 7 October 2020). (2021) 3/1 Heller, C. and Pezzani, L. (2018), The Iuventa Case, Forensic Nadeau, B., Vonberg, J. and Mezzofiore, G. (2018), ‘Spain Offers to Architecture, Goldsmiths College, University of London, https:// Take in Migrant ship after Italy’s Populists Turn It Away’, CNN,11 blamingtherescuers.org/iuventa (accessed 7 October 2020). June, https://edition.cnn.com/2018/06/11/europe/msf-migrant- Holthouse, D. (2017), ‘Full of Ship: Behind Generation Identity’s High boat-italy-malta/index.html (accessed 7 October 2020). Seas Publicity Stunt’, Southern Poverty Law Center, www.splcenter. Oh, S. and Adkins, T. (2018), Disinformation Toolkit (Washington DC: org/hatewatch/2017/11/13/full-ship-behind-generation-identitys-high- InterAction), www.interaction.org/documents/disinformation- seas-publicity-stunt (accessed 7 October 2020). toolkit/ (accessed 7 October 2020). Hopkins, K. (2017), ‘When Does a Rescue Mission Turn into a Ferry Oliveri, F. (2017), ‘The (Post-)Truth about Migrants: The Case of an ’ ’ Journal of Humanitarian Affairs Service? , Daily Mail, 22 April, www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article- Italian Viral Video on Search and Rescue Operations (Sciences for 4434182/When-does-rescue-mission-ferry-service.html (accessed 7 Peace Interdisciplinary Centre: University of Pisa), www.academia. October 2020). edu/36139853/The_post_truth_about_migrants_The_case_of_an_ Horowitz, J. (2019), ‘Italy’s Government Collapses, Turning Chaos into Italian_viral_video_on_search_and_rescue_operations (accessed 7 Crisis’, New York Times,20August,www.nytimes.com/2019/08/20/world/ October 2020). europe/italy-pm-giuseppe-conte-resign.html (accessed 7 October 2020). Open Arms (2017), ‘Now We Do Know Who Is Hacking Our Position House of Lords (2016), ‘Operation Sophia, the EU’s Naval Mission in and Their Reasons to Do It’, Twitter, 26 July, https://twitter.com/ the Mediterranean: An Impossible Challenge’, https://publications. openarms_fund/status/889971793230012419?lang=en (accessed 7 parliament.uk/pa/ld201516/ldselect/ldeucom/144/14402.htm (accessed October 2020). 7 October 2020). Pellegatta, A. (2018), ‘#ElectionWatch: Murky Metrics in Italian Human Rights Watch (2017), EU: Draft Code for Sea Rescues Threatens Migration Debate’, Digital Forensic Research Lab, https://medium. Lives, 12 July, HRW: Brussels, www.hrw.org/news/2017/07/12/eu- com/dfrlab/electionwatch-murky-metrics-in-italian-migration-debate- draft-code-sea-rescues-threatens-lives (accessed 7 October 2020). 198e80253644 (accessed 7 October 2020). Krekó, P. (2011), ‘Jobbik Needs Jews to Run the World’, Political Phillips, W. (2018), ‘The Oxygen of Amplification: Better Practices for Capital Institute: Budapest, 15 May, www.politicalcapital.hu/news. Reporting on Extremists, Antagonists, and Manipulators’, Data & php?article_read=1&article_id=144 (accessed 7 October 2020). Society, May 22, https://datasociety.net/library/oxygen-of-amplifi- Latza Nadeau, B. (2017), ‘The Italian Prosecutor What Wants to Sink cation/ (accessed 7 October 2020). Refugee Rescue Boats’, Daily Beast, 10 April, www.thedailybeast. Picardi, A. (2017), ‘Marco Travaglio sul Fatto Quotidiano Ribalta le com/the-italian-prosecutor-who-wants-to-sink-refugee-rescue-boats Ong Anarchiche e Difende Il Codice Minniti’, Formiche, 2 August, (accessed 7 October 2020). https://formiche.net/2017/08/travaglio-ong-minniti/ (accessed 7 Maritime Executive (2017a), ‘Italian Authorities Seize Migrant Rescue October 2020). Ship’, 2 August, www.maritime-executive.com/article/italian-autho- Ponthieu, A. (2016), ‘Bounties not Bodies: Smugglers Profit from Sea rities-seize-migrant-rescue-ship (accessed 7 October 2020). Rescues though No Clear Alternative Available’. MSF Analysis, Maritime Executive (2017b), ‘Save the Children Suspends Migrant Rescue https://msf-analysis.org/bounties-not-bodies-smugglers-profit-sea-res- Operations’, 23 October, www.maritime-executive.com/article/save-the- cues-though-no-clear-alternative-available/ (accessed 7 October children-suspends-migrant-rescue-operations (accessed 7 October 2020). 2020). McCarthy, J. (2015), ‘Update: The Sun didn’t delete Katie Hopkins Pullella, P. (2020), ‘Italy Senate Opens Way for Trial of Ex Minister ‘show me bodies floating in water’ tweet in midst of today’s front Salvini over Migrant Ship’, Reuters, 31 July, www.reuters.com/article/ page’, The Drum, 3 September, www.thedrum.com/news/2015/09/ us-italy-salvini-trial-idUSKCN24V30M (accessed 7 October 2020). 03/update-sun-didnt-delete-katie-hopkins-show-me-bodies-floating- Reitano, T. and Micallef, M. (2017), ‘The Anti-Human Smuggling water-tweet-midst (accessed 26 January 2021). Business and Libya’s Political End Game’, Institute for Security Médecins Sans Frontières (2017), ‘MSF Ends Mission of Search and Rescue Studies Africa, https://issafrica.org/research/north-africa-report/the- Boat Prudence’, 5 October, www.msf.org/mediterranean-msf-ends- anti-human-smuggling-business-and-libyas-political-end-game (accessed mission-search-and-rescue-boat-prudence (accessed 7 October 2020). 7 October 2020). Médecins Sans Frontières (2018), ‘Aquarius Forced to End Operations RFI (2018), ‘France to Take in Some Migrants from “Lifeline” Boat: as Europe Condemns People to Drown’, 6 December, www.msf.org/ Macron’, 27 June, www.rfi.fr/en/france/20180627-macron-says- aquarius-forced-end-operations-europe-condemns-people-drown france-take-some-lifeline-migrants (accessed 7 October 2020). (accessed 7 October 2020). Robinson, D. (2016), ‘EU Border Force Flags Concerns over Charities’ Médecins Sans Frontières (2020), ‘MSF and Sea-Watch Announce Interaction with Migrant Smugglers’, Financial Times, 15 December, Collaboration to Save Lives at Sea’, 6 August, www.msf.org/msf- www.ft.com/content/3e6b6450-c1f7–11e6–9bca-2b93a6856354 returns-mediterranean-search-and-rescue-operations-sea-watch (accessed (accessed 7 October 2020). 7 October 2020). Sarobmed (undated), ‘Borderline-Europe: The Case of Cap Anamur’, Médecins Sans Frontières (2021), ‘MSF Returns to Saving Lives at Sea https://sarobmed.org/borderline-europe-the-case-of-cap-anamur/ in Central Mediterranean’, 13 May, www.msf.org/msf-returns-saving- (accessed 26 January 2021). lives-sea-central-mediterranean (accessed 28 May 2021). Scherer, S. (2017), ‘Italy Prosecutor Investigating NGO Rescuers Says Moscovici, S. (1987), ‘The conspiracy mentality’, in Graumann, C. F. Has No Proof of Wrongdoing’, Reuters, 4 May, www.reuters.com/ and Moscovici, S. (eds) Changing Conceptions of Conspiracy. Springer article/us-europe-migrants-italy-ngo/italy-prosecutor-investigating-ngo- Series in Social Psychology (New York: Springer), doi: 10.1007/978– rescuers-says-has-no-proof-of-wrongdoing-idUSKBN17Z260 (accessed 1-4612–4618–3_9. 7 October 2020). Mozur, P. (2018), ‘A Genocide Incited on Facebook, with Posts from Sea-Watch (2017), ‘Update: Beweismaterial für unverantwortliches Myanmar’s Military’, New York Times, 15 October, www.nytimes. Verhalten der Libyschen Küstenwache’, 6 November, https://sea- com/2018/10/15/technology/myanmar-facebook-genocide.html (accessed watch.org/update-beweise-libysche-kuestenwache/ (accessed 7 Octo- 38 7 October 2020). ber 2020).

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access SOS Méditerranée (2018), ‘[Statement] SOS MEDITERRANEE Tazzioli, M. (2016), ‘Border Displacements: Challenging the Politics of Humanitarians for Disinformation of Risk Critical The Announces Lawsuits against Perpetrators of the Attack on its Rescue between Mare Nostrum and Triton’, Migration Studies, 4:1, Headquarters in France’, 18 October, https://sosmediterranee.com/ 1–19 March, doi: 10.1093/migration/mnv042. press/statement-sos-mediterranee-announces-lawsuits-against-perpe- Tondo, L. (2018), ‘Italy Orders Seizure of Migrant Rescue Ship over trators-of-the-attack-on-its-headquarter-in-france/ (accessed 7 Octo- “HIV-contaminated” Clothes’, Guardian, 20 November, www. ber 2020). theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/20/italy-orders-seizure-aquarius- Starbird, K., Arif, A., Wilson, T., Van Koevering, K., Yefimova, K. and migrant-rescue-ship-hiv-clothes (accessed 7 October 2020). Scarnecchia, D. (2018), ‘Ecosystem or Echo-System? Exploring Villa, M. (2020), ‘Operation Sophia: Migration and the Myth of the Content Sharing across Alternative Media Domains’,in12th Pull-Factor in the Mediterranean’, Italian Institute for International International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (ICWSM- Political Studies, www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/migration-and- 18), www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM18/paper/view/ myth-pull-factor-mediterranean-25207 (accessed 7 October 2020). 17836/0 (accessed 7 October 2020). Vosoughi, S., Roy, D. and Aral, S. (2018), ‘The Spread of True and Steinhilper, E. and Gruijters R. (2017), ‘Border Deaths in the False News Online’, Science 359:6380, 1146–51, https://science. Mediterranean: What We Can Learn from the Latest Data’, Border sciencemag.org/content/359/6380/1146 (accessed 7 October 2020). Criminologies, www.law.ox.ac.uk/research-subject-groups/centre- Welt (2017), ‘Binnen 24 Stunden machen wir den Brenner zu’, 18 July, criminology/centreborder-criminologies/blog/2017/03/border-deaths www.welt.de/politik/ausland/article166744719/Binnen-24-Stunden- (accessed 7 October 2020). machen-wir-den-Brenner-zu.html (accessed 7 October 2020). Sunstein, C. and Vermeule, A. (2008), ‘Conspiracy Theories’, Harvard Wemple, E. (2019), ‘Soros Foundation Seeks to Fight Conspiratorial Public Law Working Paper No. 08–03, University of Chicago, Public Chatter on Fox News. To Little Avail’, Washington Post, 22 May, Law Working Paper No. 199, University of Chicago Law & Economics, www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2019/05/21/soros-foundation- Olin Working Paper No. 387, doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1084585, https:// seeks-fight-conspiratorial-chatter-fox-news-little-avail/ (accessed 7 ssrn.com/abstract=1084585 (accessed 7 October 2020). October 2020).

39

Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 10/01/2021 10:56:26AM via free access