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'ABSOLUTE and LEGITIMATE NECESSITIES': FEMALE QUAKER READERS in YORK, C. 1885-1925 SARAH RUTH SHAW Phd the UNIVERSITY OF

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'ABSOLUTE and LEGITIMATE NECESSITIES': FEMALE QUAKER READERS in YORK, C. 1885-1925 SARAH RUTH SHAW Phd the UNIVERSITY OF ‘ABSOLUTE AND LEGITIMATE NECESSITIES’: FEMALE QUAKER READERS IN YORK, C. 1885-1925 SARAH RUTH SHAW PhD THE UNIVERSITY OF YORK DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND RELATED LITERATURE JULY 2013 ABSTRACT This thesis focuses on communities of female Quaker readers in York c.1885-c.1925, and makes three interrelated arguments. In a corrective to current historiography on late-Victorian and Edwardian Quakerism – which tends to concentrate on Friends’ entrepreneurial activities, politics, reform work, and social activism – the thesis reveals that engaging with artistic culture, and more specifically literature, was an important component of the belief, identity and practice of turn-of-the-century Quakers. In so doing, the thesis challenges Marxist accounts of the rise of literary studies by demonstrating that literature came to complement rather than replace religion in late- Victorian and Edwardian society. Focussing on the reading practices of female Friends, the thesis also contends that in an era prior to female enfranchisement reading was a significant means by which women cultivated a sense of citizenship. The introduction situates York’s female Quaker readers within the context of Quaker historiography, gender theory, and reader history, and shows how the assembled archival material can be used to develop, and problematise, these broader narratives. The subsequent chapters explore the relationship between reading, education and citizenship at the Mount School, with particular relation to the school diaries of Hannah Hodgkinson (1869-1958) and Gertrude Nicholson (1869-1955); reveal how the work of the neglected educationalist and literary critic Lucy Harrison (1844-1915) positions Quaker readers at the centre, rather than the margins, of the national cultural imagination; and details how the minute books of York Friends’ Sewing Meeting (1906- 1927) demonstrate the ways in which private reading practices feed into public philanthropic and political activities. The thesis maintains that the practice of reading what is termed ‘imaginative literature’ performed an important social function for York’s female Quaker community, enabling female Friends to develop collective forms of belief and identity through which Quaker women might become integrated and prominent members of society. 2 CONTENTS List of Figures p. 5 Acknowledgements p. 6 Declaration p. 9 Introduction: ‘Absolute and legitimate necessities’: Quakers and reading p. 10 Quakerism and literary culture at the turn of the twentieth century p. 12 Nineteenth-century Quakers and reading p. 17 Reading: history, theory, practice p. 29 Quakers, reading and religion p. 33 Quakers, reading and gender p. 35 Structuring the material p. 43 Chapter One: Reading, education and citizenship at the Mount School p. 45 Women’s education in the nineteenth century p. 47 Literary education and citizenship p. 59 Adolescent readers: self, community, citizenship p. 68 Reading and the school p. 73 Reading and Protestant national identity p. 79 Reading and femininity p. 86 Coda: Gertrude and Hannah after the Mount p. 95 Chapter Two: Lucy Harrison, Literary Pilgrim p. 97 A dissenting voice within mainstream literary criticism p. 99 The making of a liberal humanist p. 103 Establishing a women-of-letters tradition p. 115 Dissenting pilgrimages to a national literature p. 122 Women and the Protestant nation p. 130 Mysticism: securing an ecumenical Quakerism p. 135 3 Chapter Three: Reading and public activity at York Friends’ Sewing Meeting p. 145 Domestic settings: politicising the private p. 148 An international outlook p. 159 Entertaining forms of political engagement p. 164 Collusive uses of light-hearted fiction p. 169 Interdenominational faith and practice p. 180 Sewing, reading, and the poetics of minutes p. 184 Conclusion: Reading Jerusalem p. 187 Appendix I: The Mount School Library Catalogue 1885 p. 193 Appendix II: Lucy Harrison’s Essays and Lectures p. 195 Appendix III: List of titles read by York Friends’ Sewing Meeting, 1906-1927 p. 199 List of Abbreviations p. 201 Glossary p. 202 Bibliography p. 204 4 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 York Friends’ Sewing Meeting minute book p. 31 Figure 2 Lydia Rous p. 53 Figure 3 Susan Scott p. 55 Figure 4 Lucy Harrison p. 57 Figure 5 The Mount School, 1884 p. 59 Figure 6 Mount School pupils on a primrose excursion, 1897 p. 82 Figure 7 Mount pupils modelling Quaker ‘plain dress’ p. 93 Figure 8 The Mount School Library, 1903 p. 108 Figure 9 Cupples Field p. 112 Figure 10 Harrison reading in the grounds of the Mount School p. 114 Figure 11 Clifton Lodge p. 149 Figure 12 The Folk Hall, New Earswick p. 191 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Imaginative work […] is like a spider's web, attached ever so lightly perhaps, but still attached to life at all four corners. Often the attachment is scarcely perceptible; […] But when the web is pulled askew, hooked up at the edge, torn in the middle, one remembers that these webs are not spun in mid-air by incorporeal creatures, but are the work of suffering human beings, and are attached to grossly material things, like health and money and the houses we live in. Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own. I should like to thank my Ph.D supervisors, Trev Broughton and Emma Major, who have been so generous with their time, ideas, and expertise. Talking with them was always stimulating and often great fun, and their guidance has been instrumental in helping me to shape my thoughts and produce this thesis. Over the course of my research I have been fortunate enough to present at a number of conferences. I am grateful to the organisers and delegates of the Quaker Studies Research Association (2011), Leeds Centre for Victorian Studies (2012), and Friends’ Historical Society (2012) for providing useful comments on early ideas. My research has been ably assisted by the archivists and librarians of: the Bar Convent; the British Library; Bootham School; the Borthwick Institute for Archives; the Brotherton Library Special Collections; Hull History Centre; University of Nottingham’s Manuscripts and Special Collections; and the City of York Archives. The online resource archive.org proved invaluable. I am thankful to the Chapman Trust, the Crowther Fund, and the English Department at the University of York for financial awards that facilitated my research trips. Along the way many people have generously shared their knowledge, expertise and stories: Christine, Denise and Richard Edmondson, Hilary Evans, Rod Harper, Marion Maule, John Punshon, Tony Stoller, Barbara Windle, Sue Wright, and Sheila Wright. Collaborating with Naomi Carle on the Edwardian Culture Network project has been a pleasure. Hazel Shaw loaned books, rummaged around Ancestry.com, and generally took an interest. Warm thanks to all. Studying at York has been an exciting and fulfilling experience: I shall always be grateful to the marvellous Open University for enabling me to get here. 6 Dave Allen, Jasmine Allen, Rebecca Barnes, Mildrid Bjerke, Kate Compton, Emma Cooper, Kirstin Donaldson, Jason Edwards, Amy Harris, Tai-Chun Ho, Claire Jones, Philip Kerrigan, Eoin Martin, Stef Lambert, Lucy Pell-Walpole and Gabriel Williams made my post-graduate experience one of fun and fellowship. Simon Iley ensured my pretentiousness remained in check. Annie Milles kept me well. Jane Barlow, Helen Fitzhugh, Ben Rake, Sue Roberts: glad you’re still around. For Samuel Shaw – husband, colleague, pal, confidante, lover, cheerleader – there are not words. My biggest thanks are reserved for my parents, Jim and Ruth Iley, without whose practical assistance my Ph.D research would have been impossible. In an era that values demonstrable ‘impact’ and financial return, they’ve remained committed to supporting learning for learning’s sake. Their interest in and enthusiasm for this project has been unfailing, and deeply humbling. For never telling me to get a ‘proper job’ – and everything else besides – I am perennially grateful to them. 7 Reader, lover of books, lover of Heaven, And of that God from whom all books are given. William Blake, Jerusalem (1804-1818) English literature is full of pleasant places. Lucy Harrison, ‘Some Old Essayists’ (1903) 8 DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Where other sources of information have been used, they have been acknowledged. 9 INTRODUCTION ‘Absolute and legitimate necessities’: Quakers and reading Responding to a Friend who had characterised reading as ‘a luxury’, the influential Quaker educationalist and literary critic Lucy Harrison (1844-1915) declared: My notion is that you need not call anything a luxury that you can share – and reading, music, art in general, if they make you ready to share them and pass them on are not luxuries but absolute and legitimate necessities.1 Harrison’s defence reminds us that appreciating imaginative art and literature was a contentious pursuit within nineteenth-century Quakerism. For much of the century those Friends (as Quakers are also known) who chose to read imaginative literature could be charged with neglecting the Quaker commitment to plainness and self- preservation from the influences of wider society.2 Harrison’s statement encapsulates a turning point in these debates. As I argue in this thesis, towards the end of the nineteenth century a Quaker suspicion of imaginative literature gave way to newfound appreciation. This could be seen as symptomatic of a widespread current of secularisation, or simply as a loosening and liberalisation of Quaker belief and practice; yet Friends came to value imaginative literature, I argue, primarily for the important social function it could play within their religious community. In Harrison’s words, literature became celebrated precisely because it ‘make[s] you ready to share [it] and pass 1 Undated quotation; in Amy Greener, A Lover of Books: The Life and Literary Papers of Lucy Harrison, (London: J.M.Dent and Sons Ltd, 1916), p. 66. 2 I explain my use of the term ‘imaginative literature’ rather than ‘secular literature’ below.
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