JI einuniine chc]r&fr
in the Analysis of the foententiatesin Medieval Europe, 800-1200 C. E.
Giov&nni& palombo
supernatural
es
and Diana).
to hand,
society garment),
indicative
as
ceived
contemporary
reasons the
night
ance,
for tentials This
and
to
increasing
Middle
opposition the
and
traces
throughout
demonic
claim
domain
example,
unconventional
so-called
Germanic3
Germany)
study
I
rides
the
rituals
as
its
(for
will
The
compiled
Ages.
why
their
sexual
same
of
roots
or
will
such
instance,
number
identify
with
of
creatures
of
witches,
medieval
the
the
forces
as
were
Ages,
Poenüenliales,
the
the Instead
itchcraft
the
powers
social
focus
the
practices
from
back
caregivers worlds,
practices
bias
the
temptresses Church
penitentials
in
sphere
Church,
connected
and
feminine those
and
creature,
and
the
goddess
Anglo-Saxon
on
against context.
whose
about
to
(when
of
witch
and was
it
the
the
the
alleged pre-Christian
variety
abandoning
can
felt magic
became
repeatedly
of
or
(practitioners
their medieval
breaking
a
800 practices
Church
women
casting
was
Diana.
(they handbooks
witch,
a
and
love
reality
also
indicates
to
On
strong
nocturnal
rituals
the
to
of
skills
perceived
the
one an
be
magic,
and
occupied
1200
magic
roles
or
the
throughout
maintained
in
Specitic
and even
of
interpreted
were
Europeans
condemnation witchcraft
practices
need
hand,
times,
within
that
the medieval
singa.
Frankish
social
evil
of
of
C.E.
that
severely
weaving
greater
riding
utterly
Church’s
rituals,
were
as
penance.’
to
healing
eye
some
themselves
This
magic
to
women
a
boundaries.
a
In
persecute
listed
practices
both
strongly
or Europe
manipulative,
Europe
society: pertinent
a
on
must
as
analyzing
condemned
in
phenomenon
compelling
witchcraft hostile
essay
weaving
and
an
beasts practices
magic).
fear
its
of
in
were
the
Although
have
attempt
witchcraft
the
during
with
women
binding,
will
of
(England,
witches
male-dominated
due
position
Graeco-Roman2
only
and
assigned
medieval
non-Christian
engaged
books
a
On
look
practices
love
were
to
curse
especially
the
documents.
dangerous,
flying
by
the
to
during
witchcraft
the
were
the
and
practic
and
women,
into
women
towards
of
Church
magic),
Middle
France
strictly
into
strong
in
other
peni
in
with
pen
how
per
the
are the
the
the
an
in a it
of
For in
do
by
of are the
an
Eu for
was
and
lay con limit sixth
Eng uni
these
prac to C.E., those sum
cases
exten
For manu
first in
provide
was suitable
vs.
century
Most became Corrector
the
people.7
of not
will Thomas
and
necessary
compiled
Irish
had
used
guides
witchcraft Burchard, prominent
They
detailed
most
sources
law,
the and
sin
penitentials
Western
other
witchcraft, there and by
ministrations: by
or
Spain.
reminiscences
in
which
525-550 as
and
were The less penitentials
descriptions
some
Christianity uniquely to
important
all
eleventh
compiled
between
Priests penance
a
that
for
provided.
same
and
then
medieval
canon are
clergyman their
historian.
an
earlier
behaviors
The
and of
the particular,
pagan
included
in
which,
behavior reference.5 of
of while
the
France), “dangerous”
magic,
around
and
essay.
in
were minute which
the
of the
(i.e.,
compiled Italy,
Ireland.
throughout
written
C.E. of
books
for
Europe.
handbooks
to
with
to
of
offences
and
books penitentials
penitentials
this in pertaining
conclude
magic,
sinful most from which
in
constitutes
penitentials
latter,
to context
were 1200 of
sinner
of
middle
guidance century,
water
books provide
represented practiced
time
The
filled
earlier
were Usually mentality the
these
penalties
diffused
the
dates Germany,
non-Christian the models
The
those
and penance
the
possible
stilt
and
the the
form still that superstitions, the
religion PALOMBO ones problems identify in
practices
some tenth
condemned. Corrector of
that
compiled
Decretum,
of
the (Germany
time
By
the
their of
misuses
of
were 800 throughout
rituals.
only to
of
the
was
the
and
and bejustifled
and the
with
later
bread
France,
penitentials
some
rank
penance.4
some
and
convenient
and
short eleventh. official
assure some
needed between to
not degree
penitentials,
the penitential
the a la
the Finnzan,
Europeans
with became Since
territory popular.
to
possible
magical
the penitential the
between during
but
beliefs
beliefs
examine
to reference were
or
the
Europe
of
catalogues
they dealing
rejected
systematized
in
confession
testimony
present
is
England,
would very
crimes
as related
will
“correct”
practices canon
within
some centuries
it
fasting I
whereas
and main
Prtim,
in
period
surviving
GIOVANNA
wanted
of
only may medieval and
a Frankish
the
women’s
and
and of
or were literature.6
becoming
theologians, Worms attitudes,
during severely
systematic the
Wales,
forbidden
as
sins, according Penitential
penitentiats
literature
valuable
study,
not
the a
ePf confessors;
penitentials,
or descriptive
to penitentials
of
usually
early
with
of with
Poenitent?ales, sins
use and
the
indicates
in
ordered earliest
were
extensively, this
used
thirteenth Church
the
earlier
the
in Abbott
to
very collection dispersed
of Nonetheless,
XIX),
Ireland,
practices
of behaviors and
The
which among the
The
for the
Penitentials
been
sinner
so-called
source
analysis
scattered
been
instance,
conformed,
extremely
graduated
such
Oakley
wide
and the churchmen priests rope: scope an land my spreading
tices manuals as tained
these specifically penances- aids and
practices the als widely Angto-Saxon the had Regino, a Archbishop sive (Book mary has P.
reconstructing For form describing are sinful man).8 increase
4
penitentials
most
been
some
populations,
the
was
prayers
Tue
some performed
rituals
las
other accepted
be
one
cess
churchmen
too
condemned:
ed
and in
Although
been
tudes
tlot they
have
result
listed other
legal
their offences
entiation
of penalized
discipline
and
the
assimilated
two
Church.
jurisprudence
very
greatly
was
be
Penitentials
of
too the
Church for
penitentials, tile
were
Faced
of
been In
consulted
pagan
was
actual
were
codes.
because
books
sources
of
and
very
different
accommodation. which
-
the addition,
example,
tenth
dangerous
other
different
and
and
was
inertia
of
this sinful
shifting
of
included
in
by still
beliefs
with
represented
with
could
feminine replacement
whose
helpful
practices
practice
of
The
only
otfences
moral
felt
penalties.9
encouraged.
certain
necessary
or
study
it
had
into
the
they
of
widespread
penance.
in
and
the
and
is
described
eleventh
the
on
that
there
from
inclusion
fit
those
adaptation)0
order
tile the
pagan
created
to
saints.”
difficult
to belief
a
in
simply
survival were
in
relies deserved
tile
into
contradictory
principles
at
codes
do
Christian
and
accept
a
accreditation
books
time
establishing
the
I47itchcrafl was
although
those
to that
rituals
certain
to
part
with
Even
of
spells
actually
the
centuries
system
mostly
penalties
This
the
because
corroborate
ensure
traditional
at
a
to
As
becomes than
of
of
some
a
given
which
of
and
Christian
that
a
magic.’2
of
series
practices
clear
determine
oxymoronic
many
magical
that
certain
penance.
a
replaced
mechanism
Not
of
context
degree
penance
the
in
was
on
adapt,
“coated”
result,
performed,
pagan
specific
the
time,
Christianity
solutions: whether
the simply
were
could
others. of
-
effort
in of
all
penitentials,
pagan
compilers.
more
much
embedded
values
The
christianization
items
magical author
Medieval
tile
schema
that
practices,
various of
traditional
and
and
but
In
elements
the
by
too
present
whether
be
time,
on because
tolerance
witchcraft
witchcraft
with
detailed
like
of
category
this More
traditions,
particular
the
Christian
ePF not
without
therefore
in the
and
alien
one
accommodation
the
or
of
adaptation
was what
successes
case,
were or
penitentials
pre-Christian
Church
Certain
just
Christian
the if
result
with
practices
other the
of
pagan
Church’s
likely,
with
had
Europe
certain a
and
pagan
they
salvaged
in
greater
penitentials
utter
the
occurs
and
“Christian
tolerated,
corroboration
rejected.
same
practices
rituals
the
labeled magic
prayers
of
activities
become
diiTerentiating
of
which
Christian
sources
a
penitentials
were
felt
in
behaviors
to
had
acceptance
the
Church
practices
condemnation progress
detailed
practices
formulas
supported
limitations
part origin,
in
number
the
could
would
listed
after
rituals
two
Germanic
left
contrasted
the
as
of
practices,
What
described very
have
but
miracles
and
magic.” and
to
believed
sins.
formu
science
pagan forms:
adopt in
in
a
reflect
could
diLIèr
in
could
have
con
were
even
were
rare. from
were
pro
and
and
may
atti
as
the also
the
the
In
by
the
the
of
as
a 5 6
demn certain pre-Christian magic rituals, because the churchmen associ ated magic with demons and the Devil. They thought that such traditions were necessarily diabolical, because the witches and warlocks appealed to Satan, thus, such practices had to be evil and therefore anti-Christian.13 In fact, the Church claimed that if an individual engaged in magic rituals, the result was the destruction of the soul. Asking a sorcerer for help in case of illness or for any practical problem could also be considered dangerous. Spiritual comfort as well as physical healing could only come with God’s help through prayer.
Magical practices related to a variety of issues, both practical and spiritual in nature. These included physical healing, weather-making, divination, astrology, and love magic. In particular, some rituals were specifically identified with women practitioners who were labeled as witches. In many societies, women were associated with witchcraft more often than men because of their traditional social roles as cooks, nurses, midwives, and keepers of the home. In addition, some preternatural force was often attached to women’s childbearing power and menstruation.’4 In the Middle Ages, however, women did not perform just any witchcraft practices. In fact, there were distinct magical traditions that were exclu sively reserved for them. The magical rituals that women practiced and for which the penitentials reproached them can be divided into six major areas: love magic, contraception and abortion, weaving and cursing, night riding (connected to the cult of Diana), healing, and intentionally evil magic. The most attention will be given to the first four categories, since those areas include practices that only women performed, whereas war- locks also practiced rituals of healing along with those that were intended to hurt others.
Love charms have been used since antiquity and consistently fell within the province of women.° In general, through love potions women have played prominent roles in reciting magic formulas and incantations and influencing the powers of nature and particularly the emotions of human beings. Many penitentials were full of disdain for the manipulative activities of women in matters of love. Women were constantly blamed for love magic that included pronouncing particular spells, preparing magic potions or philters, and even mixing food with certain body fluids such as semen or menstrual blood for sexual purposes. The condemnation of love magic concerned two kinds of activities that used similar means to achieve opposite results. These were potions and spells prepared with the intent of exciting or quelling love.’6Ideally, they were magical aphrodisi acs that acted upon the emotions of the persons involved so that their will was made subject to the witch: either men were consumed by ardent love, or they were made sexually inhibited and even impotent. This was magic strictly performed by women at men’s expense, with the purpose of exer cising control over male actions. In some cases love magic was connected to the activities of adulteresses, who were blamed for charming men and GIOVANNA PALOMBO impediment ticularly Lotharli St. sacrament charms to tested magic their such tion fervently.2’ threatening potions strual desire fecting of desire, Most code men quetry Europe, the being render Thomas ritual that Church. Preoccupation as In In husbands.22 Examples of blood outside of of sexual was while went Regz.t men and and having general, his and those sexual them the comes women a men’s from turn is Have intercourse desire they they Have considered. stated If magical her of He man, diabolical C’orrector, a manipulation Aquinas their philters.24 into to and food feminine a idea et against the predators, woman marriage the Moreovei about rituals love also use find woman dealt daughter’s matrimony.2” bread you Tethergae purity” you goods?23 so of from fasts Burchard such her rest identified possessions: used penitentials. In philters, that preparations that some out to described believed love done with with the Burchard with or addition, who husband’s condemned male hatred, aimed that, the prepared and as they Hincmar women that works in forty sort Regrnae and minds magical both what Witchcraft the them. tenth-century order in practices through she women are husband could their was by endeavors or them of which to practice days, or could witchcraft male-dominated shall some some useless participated extremely rendering of evil could Burchard of extinguish by 20 Hincmar more lovers upon told that to food, was rituals as men, harm her certain Worms the the fast cause art practicing justify adulterous enabled very that “sexual to impotent the were strongly possess that extent bewitchments detailed in so wish effects their to for to either their and men attempted Confessional bizarre are as Medieval extinguish shameful spells story passionate a of was twelve in control involved mentioned it.’8 divorce.25 intended to man to naked enchantment wives of them Rheims this curses”: found of from women take highly by
induce CPE opposed clear An love in and her of societies, with months witchcraft infidclit); methods impotent, controlling and his lawful to women a example hatred wickedness backs incantations behaviors can the a to in magic in of mother developed love have to Europe do? in descriptions For unable some wife him impotence increase various men’s snatch indicating Egbert: to his increase or wives, As and and to the that such in mixing of some love to the through work that was invalidated diabolical soon of love to their who sexual their love food same away being (uses] there then in three have then the can penitentials. as magic, male skills power created or widely the De as the rituals her her partners, was of that prepara medieval first will given reason, Divortio a eyes sexual magic sexual of more men stern par able love love over type and the at an co af to of a
a
to
in
of
of
the
too and
clas the
con treat
con each
love
and
that
kill
Flint birth
with
if
since
so
attack magi
raising
sins.”27
to
magic
eyes to
because to
Europe,
women
abortion
physical guilty Halitgar ligaturas,
practices
embryos
gain
engaging have Burchard
help
utter of
magic
is
her
the
knots
of adultery,
magic
penitential: to
women.
of
according able to naming
the
of Valerie
terminating
strong thought contraception
in a
Those such
women
female
she
love
by
a
to
magic27
difference looms,
or
controlling
from
husbands
medieval women were
upon
tone was scholars
well-documented women.
reasonable
Similarly,
sinful; certain conceal with
hardship from condemned,
reasons
a
with
women
It the
to
wanted
love
committing
Again,
female of
that
to magic. great
are power historian
it
their
for
the
at a for
between
witch
that
was between
of destruction
to
directed
Some more
tying power
a
this
of power. in
resulting
connected
conception,
preventing
felt
if hands
by
the
worse,
way
women
part
extremely
work
regard, a
garment. by makes mention
great
magic caused or magical
does
seems employing
for charms, specifically which associated
for
the
as related
as
also a
it
binding-and-loosing
often
much it to
even
that
connected
this in
was
fornication.30 male-dominated
in denounced
because
and association that
standing their
prevents
pre-Christian acts
witchcraft.
curse
abortions It
that 810),
In
hut PALOMBO too
was come
in confer
of
destiny
as They fertility
and
and,
magic
as
to
to this
create this
potions
(d.
exercised
curse
power or
not such
magic
and
with
magic
to
extensively,
a
their
inheritance,
realm.
During guilty
woman
surprising
traditionally
birth does
indeed
of noteworthy
they
prostitute
women
potions,
a
weaving
Liege of
“Nevertheless
practices
does murder.
a
Cast
also
abortive abortion
birth, issue
not
also
she
intended
viewed
is common
separately, power
perceived
of of also
of
disapproval.
kind to
been
abortive
is gave cloth concern
mentioned
female
that
would is issue
“diabolic” the
and
a binding-and-loosing
magic
times.3”
and
she over
administered It
they
pagan love-arousal
also It
added,
were
as
has
able and
the
acts
GIOVANNA
preventing
that
whenever
forms as
moral
great
with dying he
possess
with
activity whether
the
to
who
be
made
Gerbold
practices bindings
bodies
as
were
sex.31
or
to
condemned
heir
control example
just
such
ancient to
of work Burchard “For
because
of by Churchmen
But, 32
persons
witches
dealt
The specifically
employed
ethics, poor
who
and
along well
an
in
or their
a
linked
perceived showed
remedies.28
had is
sum,
as women
case
contraceptive
in
types
be
considered
Many
both
more.
weaving abortion
believed In
over Textile was
contraceptive those
Church
also
child
Capitula
plaits weaving:
Cambrai knots, Worms
threads.
unmarried
particular
and
sified they healing these other trol
Christian pregnancy.
were this women of
demnation: homicide.” the woman He
the which of in could
presumptive danger was identifies the against and
them antiquity33
cal the practices in were while unfortunate the
and
8 women tice beasts Nonetheless, equally witch’s not The practice Burchard both to of mons. practice This evil in specific magic,” \‘Iiddle the believed series Penitential worth tributed ancient with because women the question. in of witches’ forces. compilers The Witches to As Weaving the indicates, and of reality. goddesses Many nocturnal noting were the night condemned magical Ages, of proof was Greece.35 it which that to practice outlawed pid profess and Those description of of counter-incantations gether when threads women that Have and fly recalled women Graeco-Roman women equipment.38 Silos On Worms, Feminine accused penitentials they considered crowd guided Burchard, were obey flying weaving a there with explained may was of illustrate you once they who, penitential practice, that Diana the that of rides practice of the her prescribed As magical the near flying also undoubtedly call incantations been the have begin those they with were are contrar by deceived binding-and-loosing of and again, unless found commands strong proof skills, tigaturas, and Herodias warp or accused the having Witchcraft Burgos, for present go numerous to mention that that in it received Regino their Diana in who widespread Hecate: did or gathering and from produce activities.37 German the instance, they that and in colored their of by belief that such ride monks a webs the not and plaits sexual Regina’s night believed at Germanic the or penance the shall of of a Spain supplenient just as Spain of in this woolen or these remnant condemnation unusual Diana mean special the devil, illusion partaking with hope examples the in the Prüm harm consented witch in do threads, and provided sky, were practice, was because intercourse woof the throughout In service penance Medieval and the the product weaving that with to penitential associated that riding work, bindings for his charms perceived of worlds. condemnation described eflicacy Hulda rides be also and become of whole beginning these
again, e]PF a De a the women the of and able in of to an the which demon, a countless in to on for famous her occurred Divortio, nocturnal long the the ritual’s women, of weave ancient in was and (or with their to and garments receive typical Church Bartholomew one beasts Western Europe of Hincmar’s weaving so whom turn vanities is bring as personal and was Holde).43 so-called explanation could of mingled believe strong cursing year.4° binding almost curses the wcbs, demonic will multitude for effectiveness these by Hincmar strictly condemned in belief of during the it by its and Devil rides fail? condemned which their about the other actually with Europe, were pagan and who stu power because churchmen, common the ideniical.41 to delusion.42 during Tue work. “monastic Burchard rituals company common confined with and because Iscanus, dreams, curses.39 a part for clearly whole magic prac from ride The evil was it the the de the the at of in is a 9 of
of to
In
fly
ill that
also
god who
one,
new
illicit
both very non- God
list
[who],
meth
certain
Chris
century bishops a
adding women the witches healing
demons, and
and
“forest,” woods.4’ women”
assigned
for
the mention
meetings one
pagans.”
and
developed moon
by of
of
elements.” witches
conventicles
literature
and for second with
upon
the sitvaticae
themselves
demonic.
the
and and
be cases,
eighth
healing convince
them;
women the combine Consequently,
“wild
night health the
unconventional
the
warned
to Jesus
idea
ride
night
to
and
to
domain
at
Latin diabolic in
the
Paganiarum,
called
charms
The described to reveal with
spells
these
witches
charms
is
sympathetic
et
would those
The
remedies)
had
the
their wicked physical
phantasms
of
having
Church.
affected lawyer,
folk
from
between
those
they
considered
sitva invoking
in
Diana;
command night,
hunting as
who
the according
pagan
female pagan
the
women
and
necessary
complementary
most
gathering magical.
some
of
was
into
(herbal
Burchard sphere. of
and
wish,
by Church
included
vanish.”7 which since
activities old
themselves
canon outside
dating
In
as
orgies with
the
men,
was
and
“wild
[...]
Super.ctitionum
goddess
exactly women
were
it
they
of
and hours
of and
The traditional
between
between
connection
illusions
recital
PALOMBO
century
the
amuse a prayers
physical
powers sexual
pagans.”16
replace
the
represented
by that
domestic accepted
sitvatzcae,
demonic
any
when
assess stepping practices converted.
much
of in to
identified
hearts creatures. worked,
the
Indicut1c and
women they
had
connected
holistic
the the
in to also make
therefore
by
were mentioned
modified and
and of
certain
century.”
themselves
continuity
the
to
have their remedies.5’
twelfth-century that
believe
connection away
easily was
was
pagan seduced
and was
case,
fourteenth
or process;
also
goddess perform
not
witches
be worshipping
say
hide
prayers)
the
illness;
lascivious
take
namely,
priests from difficult
and
to
the
themselves, first women
churchmen
the
indicated
herbal reciting
belief
eleventh “They modified perception
to is Devil, of Diana
be
Diana ancient and
Sabbath.” GIOVANNA that
and
corporeal, they
example,
they
for
to
could
it boundaries healing would the the
be
to oneness
medicine
reasonable
also the
the
night
the
the only
able
are
Burchard
a Often,
For
idea to
with and society,
that:
is
In during
profess
Diana,
Gratian,
to
the
flying
at disgrace as wish,
by
strong,
be
was
goddess
by
cases, which chants
that deities
they
to (charms
elements
had
seems
and
The it
superstitions
with
night
back
they
it
crossing
necessary
The lovers,
Diana
may finally,
Although
appeared the
Medieval
pre-Christian
period.
prayers.
at
that
assumed that
“foully
both
them
pagan
was
dates spirits. dess
the thirty they mentioned
Moreovei to
believe perverted beasts
say their when
ing were, and In behaviors.
they purposes to convening were referred
particularly methods
ods physical spiritual it This tian liturgical believers empowered of essence, ness
Io most and through done, disease of of Middle in penitentials, Women connotation, it?”55 ally with seven harshly magic,54 the the drink “They purpose, peculiar witches the venejicium power resuscitating IVIiddle worked Witches They Witches gruesome The herbs, In In once for years.”55 witch’s take or Ages, condemned: doors had addition, an practice, as other you health.”53 five watch of of Have fowl, whatever Have they silently women to carried up, even association the Have to was could again, to a love Satan additional Ages. the in Christians feminine “Have access were cast years have could pour dead that man’s can when equipment.55 or with chicks, kill, you the you rituals, Potions it than the the you knees, bring corpses: from and magic also cast poisoning spells are tvhich done with are there house on accused done the person ability and were believed the death kitchen also to done There you the skull, causing even hope accustomed the the “If wont and manipulate the of ajar water potentially witches and or intent the could and even what example boiling commit were Witchcraft they could evil although appointed mixed she meant or house the consented piglets to still of do thereby burn to of help what remove was of consented and curses, eye under curse some this to enter, an do, some kills witches water, of be lies other reached being were watch sometimes and eat and it, any of cauldron a certain individual; who prepared as hurting other to to actual in to anyone women of homicidal depicted footprints fine the days.6° and with and a to generic a Satan: destroy to enact, dead arid the take even the harm practices, lethal kind able turf watch that this, in witch to cause with bier, evil give offspring give women a line fantastic when house, poisons away Medieval those other do bodies-- word, charged of it you from to [who] by became goslings, deeds. food. and be husbands.57 potion be the healing: the in the means in filled between the sterility magic fly poisons, her with the should
their e]PF not vanities detail, run fatal, footprints wont which the human their as or of evil art while during ashes used dead with proportions It philters, raised -was the sound other the with health to of the A and Church’s one of is do eye: for to Europe footprints or in the is common healing?”52 chicks body body the the had which love to since common to believe: intent penance present matejicium- beings. infertility, unclear eating of higher the animals.9 killed which The and healing they or murder water their discipline corpse she the a is is magic life? of night they foolish traces certain raised claim view being of witch’s pea anyone than and dead that shall in husbands cliché and Among prerogative for case throughout in If of to causing tradition purposes, someone. to and the its and this namely, read fast bodies poison sexual it actual items skills later pass with was was the evil for in to a “ in
an to
the no
and
with
ritual or
child
of
in
born,
which
a
powers
particci
animal’s animal’s
that women
peniten
wax
of
of
of
health
re
connection
so
do
claimed that can the the
and of
of
and
flesh
of particularly being
and
during
corpse
in
Satan, fool
of
the sewn
wine,”
not drunk
eating
is and
Sisters
during without should
you
husband take
Eucharist to
wolf,
kind
wish, silence spaccs demonic because
their or again the on place
or anything
did do
died house a
immediately
paten anything
witches and them
with
the to
Moreovei
the form
they
the any your eat
a Fates)
back
Three
or
witches they
they
alive
from anything person
into
your in
of
many?65
baptized who had
judgement?7° unexpectedly secret eaten
effect
ajudgement judgment,
instigation
if
the
and error in to
wax,
in and making
that
either
or
cross
burying
an bodily any
hand
drinking
wood
or in
help
the what
them so
of
you
that
turning been died
like
bed to
some
baptism, injure addition, divine
in
it
annul
or table
at
God’s believe shape.”69
cook
to luck
cafled
for
to performed
accustomed a
in
women
to
In
have
the on
also anti-Christian, right the
stone mouth,
are
do
that
have
make it
able others
or
you “while sacrament life
and
saying
arc
“Have
in
would by
straw
attributed seeking
transformed
for included
his
gone other
good
women,
as
you without
your arc
order or
his
who the
PALOMBO
with annul
you, could knives
God.
be
prepare
stupidity eaten put place and for
in overturn
stake, “in in
chalice
women
any food:
people
of
have
Christ, were
true, died
a
women
and
a
many
to
while ritual
bring
are namely,
can oil
You
and
and wood
condemned in
three
could
of arise
than deceived
of considered about
be
them
you there.67
reserved hearts
to
it counsel some in into persons
had he
sins
with
that
[...J
this some
to
what
they
one holy life?0
doors
or year?
with putting
tied
or
determine held was
were
children
slay was
would other
of their
of blood power, amulets.
others
believe when
what
the
taken child
or repast bodies body
the
or
attempts
to
what posterity
condemned
little
hand a of wants,
when
mixing
affirm
profanation drink or
after
the of
bosom, did
words in,
closed believed
child the
with
believed
take little
the
done
night
in also
left
done by
numerous divination: drunk
then and power
witches
pagan
and and
by
interval
GIOVANNA
you
its practice
alleged
place weapons
after
of
your
a
times
clear ancient or
werewolf clothing When you made
little
that you
they
of his
were
person of
treatment witches’
you an
in
a
you
variations
quiet world in sort
unbaptized
out
in
or
that
believed
were
food
living.63
even
in
the
This
newborn
the
grass your
use
calls
of Church.
Have
the Fates’ believe
lies go the deemed visible the and
give
Finally, Have devil?
corpse transfix so
Have certain (which come, put
Fates
the
belief Have
God
in ishly trick in
trust
addition,
and
able
Some
similar the
the generally
the
purpose
of
showed
folly what
In
the
those
A
Women
The
of
are
host mentioned
future.
their
the
blood?”62 blood, with larly safety
unbaptized birth.63
the
which
eyes for
the put possess they matter
tials vulgar through
L12 philters, social in of outside methods not within potence. love were could es, social be enth- present, of the excluded and ing insightful.72 persecution, targets tial making making in the the pollution broken Burchard’s women around motive literature. to their magicians, A For It defined A anthropologist subvert and positions, penitentials, penitentials, the become certain of is the final the and and and The a from indeed members virgin river nakcd their maidens, with They where They young the they twelfth-century finger discrimination; they domestic Have was that general for the domestic represented Moore aforementioned was ritual that R. storm-rising so feminine female by the [sidcwaysj detailed persecution. degree some Christian sprinkle have year very to incantations, mothers- they while make highly I. you or dragging strip of virgin girls they related race quite social they thc Moore’s performed but not analyzes her creatures each understanding had were string 1000 strong. sphere done figure village and could Michelle space her the find performing or of could turning a river right contagious in only system description no danger; holding to complex walk the J47itchcrafl society. caste-—as nude put misogyny C.E.Jews, perceived and what other to were the by a Europe rain the was The must in This as control water as how hand they the plant example separate take one The capable henbanc of practicing their lead virgin and by mother that Christians, protection Rosaldo certain and Formation assigned generally little contemporary a a Moore small in thereby Europe anxiety have witches behind and the on ritual. single essential threat changing as crab, the hands.7’ the need was of well toward of asserting men’s as toe dig lepers, the to freedom then an category in women of virgin plant, the and rain-making alarmed anxiety a naked of founded up has branch they be it, emphasizes as virgin her particular hope which source extremely became abortion of was Medieuat It harming that attributed of her but motivations make the they emotions functions.74 wife. gender--who virtually and is witches a her commented into in called social lead Persecuting their girl also right projected are to is henbane also ©PF from charge to that clerical gather in was footsteps the homosexuals and of worth a her That on gain a engage wont outside her her nearby very foot. and beti.sa as persecuting roles boundaries, other real contamination victims rare was the the those tie created magic: to irresistible.”73 the threatened Europe and of hand, back males. rain. together women mentioning, with to In it writings unusual, a branches; and premise Sociqy using All power---as in manifested against case their to and fear river by regarding warlock’s the in do? individuals the boundaries occupied desires With German. from resemble the present lead the its nocturnal mechanisms for responsibilities of in village leader. were where When case contraceptive many is other roots could little society the and pollution as groups of particularly each the the the as the by with of well. The the their and weather- practice, peniten is the notjust healers, is inferior in writers decide witch omni group found could main start rides -they elev love thus role that fear im As of as in
in
of
the
the
the
of
had of but of and
and
the
ac
hut the
they mid
pre sta
Con
from
literati
sexual to
could
hand,
of
Church
without
the
practic on
with sort author
and
women
political
noted,
sense warlocks personal
the often high
tenth
dismissed
common
familiarity
compilers,
persecuted their of behind
a
reasons.8’ intellectual women objects the
they
people.79
for
practices
ideal because has other
witches,
ranks
the coming of
the
and part, that some
based
sleeps
their
and whose were
hierarchies
opposed
repositories
their
towards
were
some
their the
and
the
also see what
Churchmen
motive
was boundaries.76
of
witchcraft
gain the they
holding who most
political
terms
witches, to
male positions of struggle
traditional Moore
during
Medieval On
but beliefs
to
of and
in the witches
feminine
mothers,
women
clericus
themselves through of
by the that
As
fact,
the
uneducated beliefs the
witches to
were among
of hard
sexual
hence
degree.
the
the
In
in
strictly for
of
lives
aware
Mary
because is
woman
god.”77
and trying
diametrically
certain society, of contamination contamination wives, of make that
a
occupied
penitentials, It
and for they
control system were
disdain
society.
authority.
is
small and
rule;
to as her of
on their Ages.
of
magical
exclusively accusation
was
often
a
queens,
society
of
were
dominated Virgin
the
that
minds
gain
on the
to men.
social on
fear
in
magic
and
contributed
argued belief the
PALOMBO
symptoms
case hostility
persecution
that possible
to
the
to
down
unconventional
a
felt
were
and
of
a Middle instance,
almost political
marries strata
celebration only
and
tradition
of
“women
society the
that
the
traditionally became man
have
work witches
have simple
were
education,
a
tried had power impact
for
fear vis-d-uis
a
in
they
strong
the
who
early
of for amatory
of
looked
by a
male-dominated
an
who of ranks
defined
a who could
exception sense, popular the
breaking
was society,
movement
hostility
Peters’
worship women
although
was
perceived
witches
in
level
indicates
represented
a have
scholars
Eumpean are of
recognized
have
an political
the women, position
woman the
this in
poor
the
those
product
doctrine,
in
This
a
This
growth of
He
imposed highest involving
“enchant”
Therefore,
have there In they
GIOVANNA
is was
must
gain by
motivation
the
some
threat
the from
higher individuals royal
to
Edward the
ntslicae-women
witches,
medieval whores
a the
witches
to medieval
roles
witch
all,
believe
this
nun
sexualit)%
may
as
of
or
the
in
definitely
in
and Ages.8°
a
A
to
promote
position
rusticus.78 with
the values. society. came
Europe
from
on not centuries. Christian
because
subordinate
against
represented ability
a
stnlggle
witchcraft foolish,
to
trying
different
in a
and nuns
a
figure.77 They
and
could into as
of
society, those Moreover
the
as
A against illustrious
in
Although
only
women
witches,
Middle
Carolingian fit
constituted
in
drawn
of functions.
Devil; wives, to witches comitant started eleventh focusing witch
not es medieval generally
eratus only directed
persecution superiority truth. with the Christian although them
is the
willingness skills power,
ity. most cused
tus were reaching witch women’s desire achieve
I4 evil tical proportions.83 rituals they roundings, different nition and line viduals, natural the would sum, ment of such Similarly, the where tic, that magical possessed denied. their Diana, product that discarded the women’s that books them themselves women trolled power. a their relationship. Christians spirits. since witches witches l+ttanschauung- science between It were women churchmen of action, even of furthermore, implies charms marriage by were of nowadays of is witches society. dismissed powers certain Penances because women, events to in of connotations worth providing those behavior “irrational” penance he evil part churchmen, as which gain This performed fact, were women’s and and were Burchard feminine could prescribed having the magic or for powers Therefore, were AsJ. of used status, reiterating mixtures made pagan power their is other during they potions, condemned belief not but evil be were as not for human very - within were kill some -the in thought A. mere and absolutely referred love in foolishness. such of purposes. rituals must and considered as perfect not indicated than in often women with the and practices, not clear that Smith complete five the worldview I ¾ tchcraft men, churchmen, opposed could science the sort philters such a it beings’ as dreams. were that activities penitentials always have status social in women so-called Middle is years coexisted. highly to individualsperse. when name them to of sense. has not and later as the magical be no indeed able in as a control possessed was Such opposition rather was in foolish and of surprising effort possible. or punishment pointed to power intelligible - the churchmen For because this Burchard educated “magical” of times. -of were Ages could to the Long penance in lethal “rational” magical who not God, by spatial language other contain is obtain case On two love Medieval the to over case they very fantasies, marrying the and women well actually Rather, put, before tried some come for potions, one they and Middle the that different to potions
individuals, practices, e]PF wrote, case context.82 men, and of were were for or potions the strict, The of instance, were defined. poisonous all one hand, in harshness not to of believed love special witches to “irrational,” manipulating seven were the effect of explainable of together do medieval most who nor well Europe control simply the another, concerned terms some Ages, not suggesting the that the the magic. harm Enlightenment attitudes certain is though, defined texts years was for they and Burchard’s traditionally magical necessarily not common magical believed tried compilers night women could other substances. with certain of considered and with to many, their and keeping too is wanted Europe in of the rituals to whereas in other clearly that it that rides mainly footprints their regarding deities constrain penance. empower instances unrealis make the religion, skills. rational skills appears actually punish in efficacy way preter magic of belief skep those what such indi defi were with with such con had sur the For not the the for for or In of
in by ‘5 a
in
a
as
op
the evil
of
evil
the
The the
had
and
their pos that
wor
pos
forces Carlo
that
reality
the
for
figure,
super
natural crime;
Middle
witches
ancient
belief
and positive good.9°
arguing
the spirits.89
Christian
it than the
by
only idea
on
important
of a
surviving strong at of
to Christian
Witchcraft
that not the became possibility Figures Devil and
hence and you it, of
or and
as
is
a
as
the
evil
of
the
in
non-Christian
done
demons
it questioned
sin the on
secular the
the
the
instance,
dualistic
performed.
comes
based
signing a
aimed Churchmen on
Devil
demonic
a and
inclined
havc Christianity
one [during magic;
and
governed powers
Church. within and instead
For
the to
viewed
fantasies
with religion,
the
was witchcraft
of were
of
fit mentionedi cases
you less
was
portrayed persecution
incantations, inherent
it.”°
the
of defined
“No separated
spreading
water.65
of
evil
of with Satan If
-suspicious
Devil
magic
Devil
worldview is
evil the
that
for was
system
was
commented
longer
of
and
out, and
them magic, some necessarily
control. body that
of
effects influence.88 actions witch demonic
consequence, advent
consequence, of
the
dependence
the
that
responsibility
with
against no
a
formulae
connected
in to of follow
nzaleJkium
service
a
and
origins product
at not
the evil of
the
the tvitch and
of
bread
witches
served with
as
to actions Church
as
was the effects
As Church
with
power was
the
medieval the that
aspect herbs
on
was pointed
paternoster? the
prayer,
and
do PALOMBO some fear
between
the
existence soul
with harmful
in trying
the demonic,
as
of
the
world
to the
to the Christian
and
has service
supernatural
The
days
much idea
as
witch
the
the
choice tvitches
of
was
necessarily specific
a link Lord’s
women; existence
rituals
traced which
make
the
so were and
connection
ten
to
punishments It
the
acting
the
state
medicinal practices
to
in
of
negative the
to
source
that The pagan not
the
significant
the
worldview at for them has
a and
some
with this nothing
and
witchcraft
boundaries
and
of
and
demonizing
as Ultimately,
were
the
“prove”
Drum”
was part less
magical
danger
accept
understand
saw least had completely
deliberate
in men
label
By
[than sorcerers In
tended unable
collected
no
responsibility,
others, to
only a purpose creed strict at to occurred
penance was
women
the to
GIOVANNA
witchcraft
malevolent. Maxwell-Stuart perceived
decrees times admitted not
church
qualities.87
the
you
it blame.
of but and sins.
do
the witches
characteristics because
the
but
certain
actually
“credo
which
0.
tempt
dismissing
was
the as
and
the
order comes
Devil.86
Aquinas
P
that
it non-Christian
Have the among not
otherwise in with
shall
that least,
wicked
final,
with
toward drawing
assign
In
decided
reality
decision,
As rather,
was
at
the could
churchmen
could
Yet authorities
society, negative
them against perception
rituals, the
do
to
practices
It
The
benign
caused
choice
of
spirits
in were
of
Christianity to he
avoid
interest
Thomas
pre-Christian
from
sumption position attack
purposes, non-Christian
science.
to powers.
Ages]. possible that condemnations,
has actions; in Ginzburg, and
ship pagan shift both
ses.sing
no part stitions,
secular instead treated they Church St.
that that
With personal sibility schema pagan
L6 repressed deny feminine interpreted tacked as of women were witchcraft of but could breaking their of part unconventional tices Nonetheless, as Christian times relationship maker beliefs, ficium, as on.9’ trials, Christian toward evil nocturnal tangible troublemakers inatejicia the social also witches, Although of The part performed In supernatural rituals promoted step when in Church of categorizing a witchcraft the in sum, men’s social witch and the those complex of faith values medieval practices love keeping outside were as evidence healer, such with Feminine witches an riders thus books the the an sexual emotions. the provided philters, boundaries. was forces against effort ways by by expression considered against Church reasons Diana. women and creating provided of scenario forces, penitentials with with the of the throughout the witch women witches of boundaries. were and that their to penance. outsiders Inquisition, poisoner, witches the result Witchcraft the Diana, protection.92 construct Christian Such pagan Women often behind were but did attempting possessed their not traditional Male existence of that lascivious a particularly cannot as of foundation not that, social anxiety necessarily superimposed were the the breaking as was On own rituals. due involved fear fear Medieval and tile fit had and makers ideals. particularly servants penitentials. through the be in discontent. into blatant. various to not enemyt of of expressed to condemnation the woman, roles, is practiced codify Medieval their witches’ The reduced Satan witches affect evident dangerous the solely from gender for The woman of perceived witches
of CPE expressing a This persecution Christian characteristics: As magical later behavioral diabolic love and process not the the misogyny from the directed The in was part, in a witchcraft simply issues attitude potions, witch-hunts just who Europe consequence, a Devil domestic evil practitioner the were and phenomenon the tile society of as their powers, meaning of schema. condemnation against the and their had to fear fifteenth negative witchcraft expectations at were and often of and demonization, of or rituals environment, a women, since the that witches she that a area, sexuality struggle churchmen using as repression since utterly particular and which perceived on breaking of workers was witches did women century ancient agents. can of pagan hence male witch prac them with they was not the the tile for at be of of in ‘7 a to
an 5) of T
of the of of
her the The and Wost her
The is
origi was dead. Bengt those “The relics. note byJ. she with
Ancient Rise Speculum figure peniten
Canada:
and History the see Abuse Flint, and
She Ito Ghosts (see Hill, their
earned particularly of Hulda
,J.
on time Medieval exclusively examples (Philadelphia: and I. edited
laude Regarding and pagan In and various world,
Magic
She Italy. Saisti: Histon:” Early Use Penance 1991), spirits in Rome and the world. 26-27. Religion,”
in Thomas the
cum the of lie by saints Valerie to referring sin
640: condemned and in of 213-21. 2002). “f focusing
(l’eterborough, numerous see Folk of as ancient by Press, Witchcrafr
Rome. terrifying. 1938), “warlock,” Cult same the 1981). Greece be the Mediaeval
magna related translated Press, Germanic
Firenze, Reader followed (1977): study Handbooks Church the
History The with in jVunnerys shrines dfagic, sec A Press, the 6 also
di the
student formulas intended study. Finurane, for the Press, European
Ancient was and bring the University Ancient for in he never Penance,
in this of of could and that Medieval Brown,
Studi rides University of England
Ogden, of miracles in
Literatures Ronald must wttchcraft cult she Europe. University known assigned Chicago 1000-1500.’ Christian Sources is Peter
Rodriguez’s Penitentials graduatc of see Princeton PALOMBO comprehensive
degli the of as accused
and
interest scope David Oxford saintly practices as with 4-5. and “sorceress,” the 216. Witchcraft widely “witch” nocturnal Handbooks Lives: the 1008-12), Magic to Religion,
althouglt Anglo-Saxon were and saints, penances on well see Columbia her was with history 1-10, and magic (ca. as 2001), noun rituals and in University (Oxford: (Princeton:
a 1999) Ilimescio Penitentials magic beyond
Università Usei” Popular
particular the wlto Metheval York:
the fertility, Languages Sources,” witches is
is
documentation who different to
of Europe.
to
as (1975): of
the pagan
ProfessorJarbel 6’orrector Europe “The 1l’Stc/tcraji Reflections I’ress,
with and (New miracles figure 60 pagan
at Ordering of use
for a Metheval synonymous (Chicago: Publishing, Sourcebosk. witch, on Christian hagiography
foreign among is “christianized,” medieval A
GIOVANNA a the 210-23. it ed.,
Clark, from its Worms,
in Oakley, 9. subject Palombo NOTES to Medieval history Gamer
connected
Medieval Smith,
description and
studies, “Further
paper a P
PALOMBO 87-88. of introduction 1997).
“Penitentials Bertha), studies study Ashgate and
in Worlds M.
comprehensive German and of
1940): full
Arts hence Christianity Early
Stuart Ann Pennwtvania medieval or
a
this the instance, replacement
a H. this in Vt.:
on
of Shinners, rornparison
goddess of Press, many and the
and Horsley, large In for For Latin See tolerated Burcard Roman Thomas Oaldeg Miracles,” A
For For Charm and assimilated 5,6,8, (April in 19(1979): accreditation °
Giovanna the in A. (Holle, 0 Wrote too Magic ° sad in was R. is inJohn were of no.2 woman,
Mediterranean Bachelor emphasis
nally Supernatural University Greek a Ankarloo Hulda
benevolent self See Religion 15 McNeill (Burlington, Broadview and tials that Rise chapters shift Among cerbot Medieval miracles Function
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