DOCSLIB.ORG

Colony Size, Rather Than Geographic Origin of Stocks

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Colony Size, Rather Than Geographic Origin of Stocks Copyedited by: OUP Journal of Economic Entomology, XX(X), 2018, 1–9 doi: 10.1093/jee/toy377 Apiculture & Social Insects Research Colony Size, Rather Than Geographic Origin of Stocks, Predicts Overwintering Success in Honey Bees Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jee/toy377/5251959 by guest on 11 January 2019 (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in the Northeastern United States Mehmet Ali Döke,1,2,4 Carley M. McGrady,1 Mark Otieno,3 Christina M. Grozinger,1 and Maryann Frazier1 1Department of Entomology, Center for Pollinator Research, Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, PA 16801, 2Current Address: Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, Phone: 814-441-2144, 3Agricultural Resource Management, Embu University College, Nairobi, Embu, Kenya, and 4Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected] Subject Editor: James Strange Received 4 February 2018; Editorial decision 10 November 2018 Abstract Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) are key pollinators of agricultural crops. However, approximately 30% of managed colonies die each winter in the United States. There has been great interest in breeding for ‘locally adapted stocks’ which survive winter conditions in a particular region. Here, we evaluate the impact of geographic origin of stock on colony weight, population size, and overwintering survival. Comparing four different U.S. honey bee stocks (two bred in southern and two bred in northern regions) under standard beekeeping practices in three different apiary locations in central Pennsylvania, we examined possible adaptation of these stocks to temperate conditions. We confirmed the genotypic difference among the stocks from different geographic origins via microsatellite analysis. We found that stock or region of origin was not correlated with weight, population size, or overwintering success. However, overwintering success was influenced by the weight and population size the colonies reached prior to winter where higher colony weight is a strong predictor of overwintering survival. Although the number of locations used in this study was limited, the difference in average colony sizes from different locations may be attributable to the abundance and diversity of floral resources near the honey bee colonies. Our results suggest that 1) honey bees may use similar strategies to cope with environmental conditions in both southern and northern regions, 2) colonies must reach a population size threshold to survive adverse conditions (an example of the Allee effect), and 3) landscape nutrition is a key component to colony survival. Key words: overwintering, diapause, nutrition, landscape, behavior In temperate climates, the winter season constitutes a great challenge adaptations can influence the long-term survival and success of for animals due to shortened photoperiod, dwindling resources, and local populations in their habitat (Reznick and Ghalambor 2001). extreme cold. Species inhabiting temperate regions have evolved In the case of honey bees, breeding for ‘locally adapted stocks’ strategies to survive the winter via molecular, physiological, and may significantly improve the survival and productivity of man- behavioral adaptations (van der Werf et al. 2009, Chen et al. 2014). aged honey bee colonies. Previous proteomic analyses of honey bee As a social insect, honey bees have evolved a variety of mechanisms stocks collected from around the world demonstrated significant to survive the winter, including distinct behavioral (decreased indi- differences in expression patterns of metabolic proteins accord- vidual activity, cessation of brood rearing, and formation of a ther- ing to geographic origin, though survival of these populations in moregulatory cluster) and physiological (altered endocrine profiles, a common, temperate environment was not assessed (Parker et al. increased nutrient stores, and longevity) features [reviewed in Döke 2010). Furthermore, a study spanning multiple regions in Europe et al. (2015)]. However, despite these adaptations, winter is still a demonstrated improved overwintering survival of colonies gener- very stressful period for honey bee colonies in temperate regions, ated from local stocks (Büchler et al. 2014, Hatjina et al. 2014). with ~30% average winter colony losses reported by beekeepers in In this 2-yr study, researchers followed colonies from 16 differ- the United States in the last decade (Kulhanek et al. 2017). ent genotypes that were placed in areas from six climatic regions Populations within a species can exhibit local adaptations to around Europe. Adult bee population and overwintering survival biotic and abiotic elements in their environment and these local was greatest when the genotypes were maintained in their home © The Author(s) 2018. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. 1 All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: [email protected]. Copyedited by: OUP 2 Journal of Economic Entomology, 2018, Vol. XX, No. XX range. These results demonstrate the existence of locally adapted into non-Russian colonies (Tarpy and Lee 2005), which is why we stocks in Europe. chose to use nucleus colonies for this group; this approach is consist- However, although European honey bees exhibit the clear, ent with standard beekeeping practices. However, since honey bee genetically distinct population structure necessary to create locally workers mature from egg to adult in 3 wk, and adult workers have adapted stocks (Estoup et al. 1995), U.S. honey bee populations a maximum lifespan of 6 wk in the summer (Winston 1987), all are not comparably structured. U.S. honey bee populations exhibit colonies should have consisted of worker offspring of their respec- genetic differences between vastly separated populations of east and tive queens by mid-July. Queens from different sources were marked west coasts (Delaney et al. 2009), but this has not been demonstrated with different colors. Each genetic stock was represented by 14–16 at a smaller geographic scale, or between Northern and Southern colonies that were equally distributed among three apiary sites (60 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jee/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/jee/toy377/5251959 by guest on 11 January 2019 United States. Honey bee colonies and queens are shipped across colonies in total). the United States by migratory beekeepers and commercial breeding We interviewed the queen bee breeders to obtain information operations, which would serve to move alleles between distant loca- on their breeding practices. Breeder South1 (FL) has been using Pol- tions. Although genetic diversity of honey bees in North America line hygienic Italian (a name given to this stock by the commercial was thought to be limited due to bottleneck events created by intro- provider) queens bred for Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH) behavior duction of bees to this continent (Cobey et al. 2012), heavy selection (Danka et al. 2016) with an outcrossing mating system since 2011. by parasitic mites (Kraus and Page 1995), and consolidation of bee Breeder North1 (VT) has been selecting their own stock for local suc- breeders (Schiff and Sheppard 1995; 1996), an analysis of genetic cess (i.e., survival and productivity) which started from VSH queens diversity in managed honey bee colonies in Europe and United States purchased in 2004 with limited and sparse introductions from other demonstrated that managed populations actually have higher levels regional beekeepers’ stocks. Breeder North2 (WV) is a member of of genetic diversity than their progenitor populations, likely due to the Russian Honeybee Breeders Association (RHBA) and has been increased admixture during breeding practices (Harpur et al. 2012). strictly using queens from the Russian stock since 2003. Both the Pol- In the United States, there is only one study in partial support of line and ARS Russian Bee stocks were developed through selective locally adapted stocks (MacGregor-Forbes 2014), but the research- breeding programs at USDA-ARS Honey Bee Breeding, Genetics and ers only used northern bred queens for requeening while maintain- Physiology Laboratory in Baton Rouge, LA (Rinderer et al. 2000; ing other colonies with their original southern bred queens (which Danka et al. 2016). We could not obtain information on breeding were generated from commercial producers of ‘package’ bees rather practices of breeder South2 (TX). We investigated the genetic differ- than queen breeders) as a control. Under these circumstances, the entiation of the honey bee stocks used in this study through micros- observed increase in overwintering survival of the requeened versus atellite analysis (see Microsatellite Genotyping below). nonrequeened colonies can be due to the act of requeening itself, quality differences between the locally bred and package queens, Apiary Sites local adaptations of northern bred queens, or a combination of these Apiaries A (N40° 46′ 11.98″, W77° 40′ 41.84″) and B (N40° 47′ factors. 21.32″, W77° 40′ 49.36″) are located in a nonagricultural area of Here we test the hypothesis that honey bee breeding efforts in ~10 miles away from Pennsylvania State, University Park campus United States have produced locally adapted honey bee stocks with and within 1 mile of each other. Apiary C (N40° 45′ 32.84″, W77° higher overwintering success in climates where they were bred or 54′ 53.72″) is ~15 miles away from the first two, located in a more reduced overwintering
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Colony Growth and Seasonal Management of Honey Bees
    Colony Growth and Seasonal Management of Honey Bees Management of honey bees varies based on whether Although honey is essential food for bees, colonies pollination or honey production is the primary objective. cannot grow without sufficient amounts of incoming A simple scheme for those interested in maximizing honey pollen. Pollen contains the essential amino acids, sterols, production can be a template for any beginning beekeeper. minerals, and vitamins that bee larvae need to grow into Managing honey bees involves seasonal manipulations adult honey bees. Bee colonies cannot grow without brood of hive space to provide room when necessary for the production, and brood production hinges on good-quality expanding brood-rearing area and for storage of surplus nutrition that comes from pollen. Hence, bee colonies grow honey. Good management includes reducing colony space largest during or just after periods of maximum numbers during periods of dearth of incoming food, preventing of blooming plants in the spring and autumn (Figure 1). swarming of bees, feeding food supplements to offset any These periods are called honey flows. shortcomings in winter stores or to help stimulate brood Blooming of food plants can be predicted by a crude production during critical periods of colony development, geographic rule of adding a 1-week delay in bloom for keeping young and good-quality queens in colonies, and every 200 miles or so northward in latitude. For example, if managing diseases and parasites. sumac is blooming heavily in southern Mississippi during the first week of May, a person living near the Mississippi- Basic Growth Cycle Tennessee border might expect sumac to bloom from the Good seasonal management begins with understand- third week of May into the beginning of June.
    [Show full text]
  • Bee Calendar
    The Kentucky Bbekeeper's Calendar prepared by Thomas C. Webster Ap iculture Extens ion Sp e c ialist he honey bee hive is as closely tuned to spring will accelerate bee colony development by the seasons and the weather as any living several weeks or even a month. If the winter drags plant or animal. An early spring, adry summer, on into a cold, rainy spring the bees will lag behind or a long winter greatly affects the life of the in their development and activities. It's interesting bee hive. For these reasons, the good beekeeper that the times of year that the plants bloom are is always scrutinizing ttie calendar, speculating not affected as much by weather. They may vary about rainfall, awaiting the arrival of warm by a week but not much more. weather, orpreparingforwinter. This is a guide Southern and far western Kentucky generally for beginning beekeepers who are learning to get spring weather a week or two earlier than think about the seasonal cvcle. central Kentucky. The eastern mountains and the The times given for beekeeping activities northern part of Kentucky are later in getting will vary, according to weather and location. spring weather. Similarly, fall comes late to the This calendar is for a year with average weather southern and western parts of the state, and early in cenfal Kentucky. A mild winter and early to the east and north., E January and February What's Happening Inside The Hive? Beekeeper Chores The bees keep their winter cluster intact, This is the time for constructing, painting, except on the occasional sunny days in the 50's and repairing equipment.
    [Show full text]
  • Module 1 Honeybee Management Introduction
    Module 1 Honeybee Management Introduction This document is an updated reference used as part of Mid Bucks Beekeepers Association study group preparation for the BBKA Module 1 examination. When studying please do not use this document as the only reference source as the intention is that the contents be used as an aide memoir. As we all know if you ask 6 Beekeepers the same question you will get 6 differing answers all of which will be right so do not blindly trust what written here. The information included in the document has been drawn from a multitude of sources. The sources include: Guide to Bees and Honey Ted Hooper The Honeybee Around and About Celia F Davies BBKA News Beecraft MidBucks Beekeepers Association Study Group Internet britishbee.org.uk dave-cushman.net thorne.co.uk en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beekeeping google The contents of the document follow the syllabus of Module 1 as defined by BBKA. 13/1/2013 Page 1 Module 1 Honeybee Management Contents The Candidate shall be able to give a detailed account of:- Contents .............................................................................................................................. 2 1.1 the types of hives and frames used by beekeepers in the United Kingdom,including comparative knowledge of the following hives, National, WBC, Smith, National Deep, Commercial, Langstroth and Dadant. (exact frame sizes are NOT required); ..................... 4 1.2 the principles which govern the design of hives and frames, including the concept of bee space, and the main features of their construction; ...................................................... 8 1.3 the use of wax foundation; ........................................................................................... 10 1.4 Methods of fitting frames with wired and unwired wax foundation; .............................
    [Show full text]
  • January March April February the Beekeeping Year
    The beekeeping year What will the Beehaus look like inside? This is the month by month guide to what your bees are doing, what you should be doing, and what the Beehaus should look like. The exact timing of some of the bees behaviours and the actions you take, vary according to size of colony, weather and the temperament of your bees. It starts in January and assumes that the colony has over-wintered in the hive. If you are starting with a nucleus, just go to the month that you received your bees. January What are the bees doing? The bees are still in their winter cluster. Sometime in January, the bees will raise the temperature of the cluster from the winter norm Open Closed of 15-17oC up to 33-35oC in order to stimulate the queen bee to start laying. On a clear day you should see some bees flying. These Bees clustering on 9 frames. are “cleansing” flights (bees don’t like to relieve themselves in There is also a block of fondant in case the bees need it. their own home). They may also be collecting water to dilute the stored honey. What should you be doing? March You can remove the wasp guard and clear any dead bees from the entrance using the curved end of the hive tool. You shouldn’t open the Beehaus, What are the bees doing? Unless it’s still very cold, there should be regular activity now with this will chill the bees. If there is snow on the ground, this can confuse the foragers eagerly collecting pollen and any early nectar.
    [Show full text]
  • Honey Bee Facts
    Pollination Agriculture depends greatly on the honeybee for pollination. Honeybees account for 80% of all insect pollination. Without such pollination, we would see a significant decrease in the yield of fruits and vegetables Pollen Bees collect 66 lbs of pollen per year, per hive. Pollen is the male germ cells produced by all flowering plants for fertilization and plant embryo formation. The Honeybee uses pollen as a food. Pollen is one of the richest and purest natural foods, consisting of up to 35% protein, 10% sugars, carbohydrates, enzymes, minerals, and vitamins A (carotenes), B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (nicotinic acid), B5 (panothenic acid), C (ascorbic acid), H (biotin), and R(rutine). OTHER BITS OF INFORMATION honey bee Brecknock Orchard Honey Honeybees are not native to the USA. They are European in facts Honey is used by the bees for food all year round. There are origin, and were brought to North America by the early settlers. many types, colors and flavors of honey, depending upon its nectar source. The bees make honey from the nectar Honeybees are not aggressive by nature, and will not sting they collect from flowering trees and plants. Honey is an unless protecting their hive from an intruder or are unduly easily digestible, pure food. Honey is hydroscopic and has provoked. antibacterial qualities. Eating local honey can fend off allergies. Honeybees represent a highly organized society, with various Beeswax bees having very specific roles during their lifetime: e.g., nurses, Secreted from glands, beeswax is used by the honeybee to guards, grocers, housekeepers, construction workers, royal build honey comb.
    [Show full text]
  • Beehive from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia
    Beehive From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia A beehive is an enclosed structure in which some honey bee species of the subgenus Apis live and raise their young. Though the word beehive is commonly used to describe the nest of any bee colony, scientific and professional literature distinguishes nest from hive. Nest is used to discuss colonies which house themselves in natural or artificial cavities or are hanging and exposed. Hive is used to describe structures used by humans to house a honey bee nest. Several species of Apis live in colonies, but only the western honey bee (Apis mellifera) and the eastern honey bee (Apis cerana) are kept in hives by humans. A bees Painted wooden beehives with active nest is comparable to a bird's nest built with a purpose to protect the honey bees dweller. The beehive's internal structure is a densely packed group of hexagonal prismatic cells made of beeswax, called a honeycomb. The bees use the cells to store food (honey and pollen) and to house the brood (eggs, larvae, and pupae). Beehives serve several purposes: production of honey, pollination of nearby crops, housing supply bees for apitherapy treatment, and to try to mitigate the effects of colony collapse disorder. In America, hives are commonly transported so that bees can pollinate crops in other areas.[1] A number of patents have been issued for beehive designs. Contents 1 Honey bee nests 2 Ancient hives 3 Traditional hives 3.1 Mud and clay hives 3.2 Skeps 3.3 Bee gums 4 Modern hives 4.1 Hives optimized for Apis mellifera, Apis cerana 4.1.1 Langstroth hives 4.1.2 Commercial hives 4.1.3 WBC hives 4.1.4 CDB hives 4.1.5 Dartington Long Deep hives 4.1.6 Beehaus 4.1.7 Long Box Hive 4.1.8 Top-bar hives 4.1.9 Warré hives 4.1.10 Perone hives 4.1.11 Flow Hive 4.2 Hives optimized for meliponines 4.3 Hives optimized for bumblebees 5 Symbolism 6 Relocation 7 Destruction 7.1 By other natural organisms 7.2 By humans 7.3 Method of destruction 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Honey bee nests Honey bees use caves, rock cavities and hollow trees as natural nesting sites.
    [Show full text]
  • Kentucky Beekeeping : a Guide for Beginners
    Kentucky Beekeeping : A Guide for Beginners Thomas C. Webster College of Agriculture, Food Science and Sustainable Systems Kentucky State University CONTENTS Introduction 1 Part 1: Understanding the Bees 1 A year in the life of a honey bee colony 3 The life of a queen bee 4 The life of a worker bee 8 The life of a drone bee 10 Communication in the Hive 10 The waggle dance 11 The sense of smell 12 Pheromones 12 Trophallaxis 14 Varieties and Breeds of Honey bees 14 The African bees 16 Breeds of bees 17 What is the best type of bee for a beginner? 18 Part 2: The Hive 18 Hive parts 19 Considerations about hive materials 20 Special Equipment 22 Queen excluders 22 Screened bottom boards 22 Pollen traps 23 Part 3: Establ ishing and Examining the Hives 23 Choosing a location for the bee hives 23 Basic equipment 25 Getting Your Bees 25 Acquiring an established hive 26 Making a split from an existing hive 27 Buying a package of bees 27 Catching and installing a swarm of bees 29 How many hives? 32 Getting Ready to Work the Bees 32 How the bees sense the world around them 32 Other factors which influence bee behavior 34 Stings 34 Examining the Hive 35 Opening the hive 36 What to observe 37 Closing the hive 38 How thoroughly should a hive be examined? 38 Part 4: Hive Management 41 Feeding Bees 41 Feeding sugar syrup 41 Feeding pollen supplements or substitutes 44 Water for Bees 44 Mites, Diseases, Pests and Predators 45 Colony collapse disorder (CCD) 45 Varroa mites 46 Tracheal mites 47 American foulbrood (AFB) 48 Chalkbrood 49 Nosema 49 Viruses 50
    [Show full text]
  • Popular Hives in the UK
    Popular Hives in the UK By Mike Alsop www.fdbka.co.uk Nov/Dec 2009 Contents • Intro • Hive Parts • Hive summary • National - 1920's • Deep National – 1946 revised 1960 • Top Bar Hive – (circa 2650 BC) • Dartington - 1975 • WBC – 1890 • Smith – post 1920 • Commercial – 1960's • Modified Dadant (MD) - 1917 • Langstroth – 1850 • Langstroth Jumbo - 1905 • Warré hive - (? - 1951) • Rose Hive – post 2000 • Which hive is the right one for me? Intro Modern Beehives Hives are a convenient way of containing a colony of bees while protecting them from the elements and predators, they enable the colony to build up and maximise honey production without in any way being detrimental to the bees. Hives are made to precise measurements so all the parts within the outer shell fit properly and give a suitable space for the bees to suit the local weather conditions and climate. I have listed a lot of info here about the most common types of hives, but from a bee's perspective it really doesn't matter. Which then leaves the bee keeper with a few choices of which hive would suit them best. All the hives listed apart from the Warré and Top Bar use frames and foundation. They are managed roughly the same over the course of a season so it really doesn't matter which hive type a new bee keeper starts with but I would recommend they use the same as other bee keepers within their association and if possible start with two colonies in case one colony has a problem. To some bee keepers its not the amount of honey or the size of the colony that matters, they believe there are many problems with the conventional methods and its better to allow the bees to act as if they were in the wild creating their own brood nest instead of being given a sheet of embossed wax held in a frame.
    [Show full text]
  • The Bee Book
    TABLE OF CONTENTS THE HONEY BEE .................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 1 Scientific Classification ........................................................................................................... 1 Anatomy ................................................................................................................................. 2 The Colony ............................................................................................................................. 4 Seasons ................................................................................................................................. 8 Communications ..................................................................................................................... 8 Production .............................................................................................................................. 9 Quick Review – Chapter 1 .....................................................................................................10 SELECTING HONEY BEES ....................................................................................11 Honey Bee Species ...............................................................................................................11 Popular Subspecies for Beekeepers ......................................................................................11
    [Show full text]
  • University 0}"' Minnesota Habits and Activities of Bees'
    Special Bulletin No. 73 UNIVERSITY 0}"' MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DIVISION HABITS AND ACTIVITIES OF BEES' By Francis Jager, Divi ion f B e ulture Agricultural • xperiment Station BEE COLONY Bees are social insects. From 10 to 8o thousand of them constitute a colony . A colony is composed of one queen b -e, thousand s o[ worker bees, and during the breeding season in pring, fr 111 on to 5 thou and dron s. Fig. 1. Hive and Bees The Home of the Colony Bee colonies make their abode in dark cavities, hollow trees, and tree branches, and man-made hives. Their dwelling is filled with wax comb produced and built by th mselves. The comb is th sphere of their home activities. It consists of thousands of six-cornered (hexagonal) wax cells adjoining each other and built in both directions from a cen­ tral, vertical mid-rib. The combs are attached firmly to the ceiling and walls, but unattached at the bottom. Ea h omb is separated f rom the adjoining comb by a bee space of about thr e-eighths of an inch. The 1 Some of the cut s for this bu ll et in were furnish d by J)adaut and Sons. H amilton. Ill . Published by the University of Minnesota, College of Agriculture, Extension Division, F. W . Peck, Director, and distributed in furtherance of the purposes of the co-operative agri­ cultural extension work provided for in the Act of Congress of May 8, 191~ . 2 PE JAL BULLETIN 0. 73 b e space are ·dl ys of travel and communication and extend into the mo t remote corner .
    [Show full text]
  • Bee Calendar.P65
    The Kentucky Beekeeper’s CALENDAR KENTUCKY STATE UNIVESITY - COOPERATIVE EXTENSION PROGRAM The Kentucky Beekeeper’s Calendar prepared by Thomas C. Webster Apiculture Extension Specialist he honey bee hive is as closely tuned to spring will accelerate bee colony development by Tthe seasons and the weather as any living several weeks or even a month. If the winter drags plant or animal. An early spring, a dry summer, on into a cold, rainy spring the bees will lag behind or a long winter greatly affects the life of the in their development and activities. It’s interesting bee hive. For these reasons, the good beekeeper that the times of year that the plants bloom are is always scrutinizing the calendar, speculating not affected as much by weather. They may vary about rainfall, awaiting the arrival of warm by a week but not much more. weather, or preparing for winter. This is a guide Southern and far western Kentucky generally for beginning beekeepers who are learning to get spring weather a week or two earlier than think about the seasonal cycle. central Kentucky. The eastern mountains and the The times given for beekeeping activities northern part of Kentucky are later in getting will vary, according to weather and location. spring weather. Similarly, fall comes late to the This calendar is for a year with average weather southern and western parts of the state, and early in central Kentucky. A mild winter and early to the east and north. ❏ January and February What’s Happening Inside The Hive? Beekeeper Chores The bees keep their winter cluster intact, This is the time for constructing, painting, except on the occasional sunny days in the 50’s and repairing equipment.
    [Show full text]
  • Beekeeping Basicsbasics MAAREC: Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and the USDA Cooperating
    BeekeepingBeekeeping BasicsBasics MAAREC: Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and the USDA cooperating College of Agricultural Sciences Cooperative Extension Beekeeping Basics .................................................................................................................................................................. 1 Contents Introduction ......................................................................2 Diseases of Adult Bees ................................................. 46 The Colony and Its Organization .................................3 Parasitic Mites .............................................................. 48 Queen ............................................................................... 3 Pests................................................................................ 54 Drones .............................................................................. 4 Protecting Honey Bees from Pesticides .................... 61 Workers ............................................................................ 5 Honey Production and Processing ........................... 62 Laying Workers .............................................................. 5 Forms of Honey ............................................................ 62 Bee Development .......................................................... 5 Honey Removal and Processing ................................ 66 Brood ................................................................................ 6 Marketing
    [Show full text]