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Prasad Mishra, Anand , POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY DEBATE Sociedade & Natureza, vol. 23, núm. 2, mayo-agosto, 2011, pp. 227-236 Universidade Federal de Uberlândia Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brasil

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GEOGRAPHY, POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY DEBATE

Geografi a, pobreza e desenvolvimento: um debate interdisciplinar

Anand Prasad Mishra Associate professor, department of geography, Faculty of . 221005 – – [email protected] [email protected]

Artigo recebido para publicação em 20/02/2011e aceito para publicação em 20/06/2011

ABSTRACT: An emerging feature of contemporary development studies in India is the deployment of an interdisci- plinary approach involving geographical location, level of poverty, nature of development and planning etc. The prevalence of poverty in a specifi c geographical location represents the evolving pattern of deprivation under a particular mode of production. The historicity of poverty in a geographical space needs an independent enquiry and identifi cation of different production systems which are responsible for the problem of deprivation through multiple routes. The present paper is an attempt to initiate a debate on the issue of poverty, especially in a tribal region, through a multi-dimensional perspective, i.e. interrelation between geography, poverty, development and planning. The paper identifi es one of the most poverty-stricken regions of India for a detailed discussion of the various casual factors which are apparently responsible for the poverty of that region. The paper also tries to explore the historical background of poverty in the study area (Babhani Block of Sonbhadra U. P.).

Keywords: Poverty. Deprivation. Geography of poverty. Historical routes of poverty.

RESUMO: Uma característica emergente dos estudos de desenvolvimento na Índia contemporânea é a implantação de uma abordagem interdisciplinar envolvendo localização geográfi ca, nível de pobreza, a natureza do desenvolvimento e planejamento, entre outros. A prevalência da pobreza em um local geográfi co espe- cífi co representa o padrão evolutivo de privação em um modo particular de produção. A historicidade da pobreza em um espaço geográfi co precisa de um inquérito independente e identifi cação de diferentes sistemas de produção que são responsáveis pelo problema de privação através de várias rotas. O pre- sente trabalho é uma tentativa de iniciar um debate sobre a questão da pobreza, especialmente em uma região tribal, através de uma perspectiva multi-dimensional, ou seja, de inter-relação entre a geografi a, a pobreza, desenvolvimento e planejamento. O documento identifi ca uma das regiões mais atingidas pela pobreza da Índia para uma discussão detalhada dos diversos fatores casuais que são aparentemente responsáveis pela pobreza da região. O documento também tenta explorar o fundo histórico da pobreza na área de estudo (Babhani Bloco da UP Sonbhadra).

Palavras-chave: Pobreza. Privação. Geografi a da pobreza. Rotas históricas da pobreza.

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INTRODUCTION the individual or the group due to demerits in their process of development. It called the vicious circle The interdisciplinary approaches to geogra- of poverty. But this approach in many ways hides the phy, poverty and development are now becoming facts responsible for the origin of poverty in particular major issues in the discourses of development studies. historical periods. In view of such faulty and lap-sided Geographical regions combined with development approach, a rational methodology is required to formu- policies refl ect the nature of prosperity and poverty. late systematic guide lines for discourses on poverty, The complexity of geography and developmental development and its relation to geographical space. strategies creates the nature of poverty. On this ac- count, poverty is multidimensional and it should be GEOGRAPHY OF POVERTY analysed on the basis of multi-disciplinary approaches i.e. geographical, economic, political, etc. Considering The spatial pattern of poverty in its historical the various aspects of poverty there is a need for a sequence requires the geographical interpretation with multidimensional poverty index (MDPI) which may the dialectical awareness of a researcher. “The pheno- be helpful in scientifi c studies. Recently, the geo- menon associated in a particular place is unsystema- graphy of region, especially tribal and hilly regions, tically related because they are produced by different has induced policy makers to incorporate the ground processes, [the geographer’s] particular mission is to reality of space while framing suitable development study each process as it operates in particular places, strategies. Also the geography of a particular society and as it is actually modifi ed in its action by the pre- and an individual’s location in that geography plays a sence of other unsystematically related phenomenon major role in their level of development. The experien- grouped naturally together on the face of earth” ces of Indian Naxal movement highlight the reality of (JAMES, 1952).The nature and distribution pattern deprivation and its relation to space and development of poverty includes many facets of the geographical policy. Although various theses on the problem of component and in a way explains the linkages between poverty have been discussed and debated by academia the terrain of a region and the magnitude of poverty. and policy makers, i.e. decision making, structural, It reveals the complexity of poverty generated in a vicious circle of poverty, market, cultural aspects of specifi c area. To explain this material condition of poverty, etc., and these have produced new and rich pauperization, geographical explanation to some insights pertaining to the phenomenon of poverty, extent is necessary. In this context the geographical the geographical space in its historical context reve- knowledge incorporated by Hartshorne may prove its als an entirely different scenario on the interrelation utility in understanding the problem. He observed, between poverty and development. This has initiated “geography seeks to acquire a complex knowledge a search for new paradigms for social and of the areal differentiation of the world….Phenomena development studies. Poverty is not a simple problem signifi cant to areal differentiation have a real expres- of arithmetic but it originates from multiple causes. sion…..Consequently, in studying the interrelation Geography alone cannot account for the phenomenon of these phenomenon, geography depends fi rst and of deprivation in a particular region; its interactive fundamentally on the comparison..[Geographically impact on development has vital interest for studies. complex element] is signifi cant, is studied in terms The evolutionary processes of geographical of its relation to the total differentiation of areas.” space represent various accumulative knowledges, (HARTSHORNE, 1939). Geographers study the developments and deprivations in its socio-economic geo-phenomenon in its different historical stages and imprints. These are valuable components for studying also demarcate its extent and magnitude in affecting the nature of poverty-stricken regions. The extent and human ecology. On this account, geographical tools nature of poverty cannot be understood only in terms for poverty analysis are better suited to estimate and of the present be unless its historical routes are analyti- evaluate the situation of hunger and deprivation spread cally identifi ed. Many believe that poverty starts with over various regions.

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Poverty in India has many dimensions in of literacy (23.56) and high level of infant mortality its structure and nature of severeness. Broadly, the (137 ).This southern part of Orissa is very much pro- poverty landscape in various geographical areas has minent in the poverty (34.08 per cent severely poor) originated from the process of interaction between atlas of India. Northern too reveals high level people, social formation and the nature of political of poverty. Kishanganj is one of the most deprived . To conceptualize these aspects in a scien- parts of India, which has more than 58 per cent of tifi c framework is diffi cult and complex. However, population living in severe poverty condition. The the prevalence of acute poverty in 7 districts of India female literacy rate in Kishanganj is only 10 per cent needs a detailed analysis in order to explain the pro- and infant mortality is the highest in state, i.e.at 113. blems of deprivation and marginalization. Dutta and The South West regions of (geogra- Sharma (2000) tried to demarcate the 7 most deprived phically the Vindhya plateau) have the proportion of and severe poverty stricken regions of India. These rural poor more than 68 per cent. Geographically it regions lay in backward, underdeveloped states of covers some parts of Uttar Pradesh also. The eastern Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. part of Uttar Pradesh, due to its geographical location, Geographically, most of the regions are characterized reveals severe condition of deprivation (48.6 per cent by a homogenous pattern of landscape i.e. land, soil, poor and 23.2 per cent severely poor) in the district of forest and water. The poverty in these regions has the Bahraich. In the same way the western part of Uttar same mechanism and dynamics to its surroundings. Pradesh also has a poverty stricken region in Budaun Table 1 reveals the spatial pattern of poverty in India, district where more than 40 per cent of the rural popu- its severeness in most of the plateau areas with rough lation led a life of misery and deprivation. Rajasthan terrains and brings out its magnitudes in statistical is another geographical part of India where large form, thus explaining the problems of deprivation in proportion of rural population is under the category a scientifi c way. of poverty. More than 30 per cent of this population The Kalahandi region of Orissa is characteri- suffers from severe poverty condition. zed by extreme poverty (69.02 per cent) with low level

Table 1: Poverty Level in 7 Most Deprived Districts of India

Urban % Rural Rural % Urban % population STATE Region Districts population population population severely poor (%) severely poor poor poor

Orissa Southern Kalahandi 69.02 34.08 45.64 33.53

Bihar Northern Kishanganj 58.68 27.62 49.37 21.68

Madhya Pradesh Central Damoh 50.13 21.78 53.68 32.93

Madhya Pradesh Vindhya Shahdol 36.71 13.8 50.45 24.32 Uttar Pradesh Eastern Bahraich 48.6 23.2 38.6 18.48 Uttar Pradesh Western Budaun 29.59 10.24 31.03 14.37 Rajsthan Western Barmer 25.48 5.84 23.68 7.43 Source: Based on Datta, K.L. and Sharma Savita, Level of Living in India, Planning Commission, 2000

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The above discussion underlines the role of author will try to analyse the nature of poverty in the geographical location in perpetuating the problems plateau and tribal dominated area. As a case study, of poverty. All the regions of the 7 most deprived Babhani Block of of Uttar Pradesh districts have more or less similar geographical fea- has been selected (Figure 1). The area is spread over tures in terms of location, soil quality, water reserves, approximately 6,788 sq. Km. It has 1078 sq. Km. economic activities and their cumulative effects on the dense forest and 1369 sq. Km. open forest. The forest quality of human life. The spatial pattern of poverty covers is 36.05 per cent of the total geographical area. needs conceptual interpretation. Writing about the During of 1981-91 and 1991-2001, a high decadal deprived masses, Gramsci observes: “the phenomenon population growth was registered and it was 38.18 of the masses…is nothing but the form taken by this per cent and 36.13 per cent respectively for the two ‘rationalized’ society in which the structure dominates decades. The increasing pattern of population to some the superstructures more immediately and in which extent occurred due to industrial development and the latter are also rationalized‘’ (GRAMSCI, 1971). diversifi cation in employment structure. The local Santos says, “modes of production write in resources i.e. forest, minerals, stone, timber, red sand time; social formations write it in space ‘’. (SANTOS etc. attracted the people from outside to settle there. 1977). Thus the geographical location of a region is The study area with distinct geographical the result of interaction of built forms from the past, features became a zone of tribal/ scheduled caste social relations and natural factors and all of them population. Previously, most of the tribal population signifi cantly contribute to and determine the resource was listed as scheduled caste categories and they were building capacity of that region. deprived of the benefi ts of state sponsored tribal wel- The poverty landscape of different geographi- fare schemes. In 2003, about 1,00,000 persons were cal areas can be elaborated on the basis of location, declared as tribal through Uttar Pradesh government process of historical materialism, and natural and notifi cation. The tribal people of the region traditio- social resources endowment. The poverty of the se- nally secure their employment, livelihood, and habitat ven most deprived districts can be countered through from the local forest, water, land and other available comprehensive developmental activities of various resources of nature. The genesis of poverty in this geographic components which prevail in these regions. specifi c region can be explained in terms of different Moreover, each element for poverty requires in-depth parameters based on its history, socio-cultural organi- analysis in light of its space and development. The zation, pattern of economic development and the level present paper is an effort to apply these parameters in of participation of the local population in decision conceptualizing and analyzing the problem of poverty making processes. For this purpose 10 sample villages in the selected regions. of Babhani block were selected and studied. The table 2 reveals the nature and magnitude CASE STUDY: of poverty on the basis of sample survey of 10 villa- ges. The tables present the different levels of poverty The plateau regions of Madhya Pradesh, among the segment of population below poverty line. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, , and The average BPL (Below Poverty Line) population for other parts of central India betray similar reasons Babhani block is about 74.00 per cent. But the exact for the predominance of poverty among the masses. level of poverty varies from severe destitute (12.65 per Though the occurrence of poverty is an outcome of cent) to just below poverty line (9.98 per cent). This the combined effect of geography and faulty strate- emerging socio- economic dimension of the study area gies of planning and development, its more multiple turns into a space of contradiction. The micro level reasons may be ignored by a scholar of development study shows the pattern of poverty for specifi c regions studies. However, the manifestation of poverty in which requires explanation pertaining to its location, specifi c regions explains the geographical space as a development goal and strategies for planning. causal factor for deprivation. In the present paper the

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Figure 1: Location of Babhani Block

GEOGRAPHY, DEVELOPMENT AND In this context, the poverty of a particular PLANNING space is an outcome of the productive process which depends on the material condition of the area. The- The nature of poverty and its structure follows refore, poverty should be investigated in terms of the pattern of geography, development and planning, the historical and material background prevailing in which hinges on the interaction of national policies spatio-temporal forms in developing world. with local space. Soja considers that, Kurien (1982) chose the Marxist approach to explain poverty. According to him it demonstrates that the structure of organized space is not a sepa- historical forces result in the use of resources being rate structure with its own autonomous divided almost exclusively by the ownership of resour- of construction and transformation, nor is it ces, and that some stages of history are characterized simply an expression of the class structure by society being divided into those who own and use emerging from the social (i.e. aspatial) re- resources on the one hand, and those who do not own lations of production. It represents, instead, resources and hence are used by former. In this con- a dialectically defi ned component of general text Marxist analysis comes closer to the problem of relations of production, relations which are poverty than does liberal analysis (KURIEN, 1982). simultaneously social and spatial (SOJA, However, social scientists have expressed their disa- 1980, p. 208). greement on the issue. They have explored the com-

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231 Geografi a, pobreza e desenvolvimento: um debate interdisciplinar Anand Prasad Mishra ponent of poverty as follows: institutions (Durkheim), of production the residing population of all sections individuals (Radeliffe-Brown) roles (Talcott Parsons) experienced the same nature and extent of absolute classes (MARX). (DESHPANDE, V.N. 1992, p. 123). poverty. However, this homogeneous character of Poverty in an integrated way may be considered as a poverty became a territorial identity of tribals in the phenomenon which occurs through individuals, insti- specifi c region. In this context geographical location tutions and classes. The process of interaction between played a signifi cant role in the manifestations and individuals, institutions and classes to a very large perpetuation of mass deprivation and poverty. extent determines prosperity or poverty. And in any Geographical location is responsible for the discussion of a phenomenon which has its roots in this prevalence of poverty and its severeness among diffe- complex relationship has of necessity, to be alive to the rent sections of people. The severe poverty conditions social, economic and cultural practices obtaining in a of the overwhelming number of tribals (73.72 per particular geographical space. Developmental strate- cent) owes to multiple factors but the geographical gies cannot succeed by separating these components, factors have played the most signifi cant role in this especially when targeting the phenomenon of poverty regard and have impacted the efforts of moderniza- which is as much geographical and economic as it tion developmental plans and projects. The isolation is social and cultural. This is signifi cantly borne out of tribals and other deprived sections is the outcome by the conditions prevailing in the area under study of the geography of the region. The concentration of where whatever developmental programmes were destitute categories of poverty (more than 50 per cent) set in motion have not produced the desired results in certain localities and pockets of social groups is chiefl y because these programmes were conceived closely associated with the history of settlement on the and implemented without necessary assessment of specifi c area and the emerging pattern of development the complex nature of poverty and focusing almost strategies. The 10 villages selected for the present exclusively on its economic aspect. study constitute the most deprived and poverty-stri- Geographical space represents the real output cken geographical segment of the block. The spatial of production of nature in a specifi c region. The spatial location of these villages is as much responsible for production has an impact on social, economic and cul- their abject poverty as the faulty development plans tural spheres of life and this impact may be understood initiated in the area. in terms of the historical articulation of several mode The development in an area and its people of production in different periods of history. Certainly, is based on, the availability of scientifi c knowledge poverty is a product of space through various modes accumulating over a long period of time in society and of production under the dynamics of development community and this cumulative knowledge to a large process. The spatial context of poverty in Babhani extent infl uences the nature and level of development. block should be considered as an important factor The nature of economic activity depends on the availa- and it should be linked with the production process bility and effectiveness of this knowledge. This is also of this area. responsible for the prosperity or poverty of a region The history and the material condition (histori- before the outset of modern development strategies. cal- materialism) of study area have actual derivational Further, the success of modern development strategies information as regards the trajectory of the changing depends on the level of participations of the target pattern of mode of production which has close relation social groups in the decision-making process. The with the poverty of the deprived section and prosperity lower the participation in decision-making, the greater of the masters of productive assets. The chronological is the likelihood that negative externalities arise; state sequences starts with the rough terrain, non–availabi- action can thus become the source of real or potential lity of good soil and plane area, and the dense forest confl ict and any developmental action plans must be leading to the total dependency of the tribal population devised to resolve or avoid confl icts (COX; REYNOL- and their un–documented rights and claims on forest DS, 1974). The neo-colonial impacts on planning and and other cognate resources. In the primitive mode development always tend to keep the people from the

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232 Geografi a, pobreza e desenvolvimento: um debate interdisciplinar Anand Prasad Mishra process of planning and decision-making and thereby whole. The anarchy of production is accompanied by lose sight of the people’s initiative for innovation of competition between commodity producers. Under scientifi c methodology for development. Reade (1983) the capitalist mode of production, anarchy combined aptly says that the “planner’s ideology is a major factor with competition spontaneously stimulates the growth in pursuing the path of development” and goes on to of production irrespective of the effective demand of observe that “to promote planning is indeed to take an the population. During the transition from the simple ideological stand because doing so implies a preferen- commodity economy to the capitalist economy, whose ce over such methods of determining resource alloca- features are a large scale commodity production, a tion and other component of development.” In most highly developed social division of labour, the gro- of the agrarian economy neo colonial and capitalist wth of labour productivity, establishment of a single intervention was occurred and it diverted the genuine domestic market and as a result, the development path of development. The above mentioned debate on of social character of production, anarchy assumes the issues of development is very much signifi cant in enormous dimensions, its destructive force greatly in- order to explain the poverty of study area. creases, causing economic cataclysms and disruption The area is a part of the region which is called in the very course of social production” ( VOLKOV, ‘the power capital of India’. The heavy investment in M.L. 1985). recent decades in the sectors of thermal power gene- The prevalence of poverty in the study area ration, coal mines, aluminum plants ,cement industry, has its history in the context of changes in the modes sand and stone crushing, etc. has made possible the of production and consequential process of depriva- optimum exploitation the resources of the region. tion. The area in its primitive stage is characterized Prior to such modern industrial activities, the region by primitive agrarian mode of production which was was primarily a tribal belt with little or no develop- unable to exploit the existing resource potential of the ment. The induction of modern inputs like capital, region. After independence the area was considered and skilled labour has led to development a suitable geographical location for industrialisation induced displacement and inequality. The local peo- with the availability of minerals and other resources ple with the predominance of Human Poverty Index which favored the establishment of modern indus- (low life expectancy, knowledge and comfort level) trial projects. This has consequential impact on local and low status of skilled labour have been rendered people and their socio- cultural fabrics and due to unfi t to participate in modern productive system and this substantial proportion of unskilled population of consequently deprived of the traditional resources region has become victims of deprivation. The area such as sources of their livelihood and their traditional is abuzz in the process of transformation from the resource base. Thus the introduction of technology and agrarian to industrial, leaving in its trail acute poverty investment capital has to only aggravate the poverty and misery. of the local populace of (table 2&3). Mishra (2008) The sequence of poverty in different periods extensively analyzed the impact of development confi rms its association with the level of participation, induced displacement and its impacts on traditional practices in resource utilization and development stra- agrarian economy leading to multiple structures of tegies. Prior to independence the area was untouched deprivation and poverty. by industrialization and modernization; it was only in In a capitalist productive system any chan- the post-independent period that its resource potential ges in the process of up gradation ultimately create attracted policy makers and industrialists to develop anarchy in societies and its organizations. In this the region as an industrial hub. At the beginning of 12th system, “manufacturing process is carried out by century, tribals of this region had attained adequate isolated private commodity producers who work adjustment with natural resources and developed col- for an unorganized market and have little idea as to lective responsibility and incipient cultivation through society’s actual need for their goods and the scope the Dahiya system of agriculture. During the British of production of each commodity in the country as a period these systems was stopped and settled agricul-

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233 Geografi a, pobreza e desenvolvimento: um debate interdisciplinar Anand Prasad Mishra ture was developed (District Gazetters, Mirzapur Dis- M3 wood per hectare per year (Sagreiya, 1979). But trict, v. 21). After independence, the came due to development of industries and construction of into existence through state sponsored heavy capital dams a sizeable proportion of forest has disappeared investment. Other developmental projects were also and accentuated the problem of eco- degradation and started and thus began the process of modernisation marginalization. The fi rst cement factory was establi- and industrialization of the area. A series of public shed in 1951 at north of river Sone. Later on a and private industrial projects such as Hindalco and new one came up at Dala in 1972.The production of Kanoria Chemicals at , Cement industry of aluminium was started in 1962 with the formation of Dala, Power plants at Obra, , and Hindustan Aluminium Corporation (HINDALCO) by Shaktinagar and hydro–thermal power plant at the Birla Group (India) and the Kaiser (U.S.A.). To came into existence. However, this development has meet the requirements of HINDALCO, the Kanoria brought in the associated ills of environmental pollu- chemicals were constructed in 1964, and started ma- tion, resource degradation, hazards, loss of wild nufacture caustic soda, liquid chlorine, hydrochloric life and natural vegetations especially forest and often acid, stable bleaching powder (SBP) and benzene aesthetic blight (Chandra Shekhar Kumar, 1998) hexa-chloride (BHC), which has changed the spatial The presence of modern industrial activities dynamics of the area. The increasing demand of power the consequent and diversifi cation in the local eco- to boost the industrialization, policy makers tried to nomy have had an adverse impact on the tribal popu- build new dams and reservoirs for utilizing prevailing lation because the tribal have been deprived of their resource potential in power generation. The river nature-dependent lives and their traditional skills have Rihand which has a total catchment area of 13,328 sq. gave a begging in the face of the new skills and work km with annual average rainfall precipitation of142 styles required by modern industries. The changes in cm was used for reservoir and dam. Due to this, the mode of production at every step have displaced peo- good fertile land of Singrauli basin was submerged ple from their traditional livelihood and this economic into 469 sq. km. of reservoir. dynamics has generated poverty and deprivation in Consequently, large proportions of population region. On this account, the study of poverty in this were displaced from their native land, livelihood and area is no longer a matter of statistical calculation but environment and were marginalized in the process of demands a new socio-economic paradigm in which industrialization and modernization. The Obra-Rihand poverty is focused upon in terms of its historical, Power complex is another industrial project which social, cultural and economic dimensions and which consists of both thermal and hydro power generation takes into account. The new modes of production and plants. It generates about 50 per cent of electricity re- their impact on old modes of production, the nature quirements of Uttar Pradesh. This complex comprises of shifting of the control of resources, the degree of three units i.e. Obra Thermal Power Plants (in 1964), participation of the local in modern development and Obra Hydro-Power Plant (construction started in1964) industrial productivity and their representation in the and Rihand –Hydro Power Plant (construction started industrial work force are some important aspects, whi- in 1954 and completed in 1962). Since 1959 Obra has ch needs fresh attention. This will certainly reveal the been ‘Nachiragi’ (zero population land) and lies in complex nature of poverty and deprivation in region Tahsil in south Mirzapur district (now and also the need to tackle it through a multi-pronged District of Sonbhdra) of Uttar Pradesh. approach. This Obra-Rihand Power Complex provi- Poverty as a complex and multidimensional des electricity to Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and problems have close association with the geography of Madhya Pradesh. Besides this, several other power region, strategies of industrial development at global projects have been established in the area and this has and national levels and how it has impacted the local changed the natural physiographic and social character people. The study area (Vindhayan region) comes in of the landscape. The Anpara Thermal Power plant the category of high productivity (forestry), having 6-9 was constructed in 1979-88 under the joint collabora-

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234 Geografi a, pobreza e desenvolvimento: um debate interdisciplinar Anand Prasad Mishra tion of Government of India and Government of Japan CONCLUSION with a total cost of Rs 3 billion with a projected capa- city of 3130MW.The Renusagar Thermal Power Plant In view of the above discussion on various with the capacity of 270 MW was launched by HIN- aspects of geography, poverty and development the DALCO. The National Thermal Power Corporation author came to conclusion that the uneven patterns of (NTPC) selected the area of bank nearer development in different geographical locations have to reservoir for the establishment of Super Thermal multiple effects on society, economy and individual. Power. It has capacity of 2000 MW. Besides this, the The prevalence of poverty in a region is the outcome NTPC has constructed another thermal power plant of an interrelated phenomenon of identity of geogra- at . The Singrauli Power Complex has emerged phical space, dynamics of development strategies and as a signifi cant power generation centre in India. cumulative effects of the history of changes in the The above mentioned industrial projects mode of production and its overall impact on land, have adversely affected major impact on the social livelihood and society. Regarding poverty in the Vin- environment of the local tribal population. After in- dhyan region (study area) the following points have dependence, the geographical location and resource emerged in the course of the present study: base of the area have attracted policy-makers and The uneven pattern (in terms of terrain, clima- industrialists to modernize and industrialize the te, soil condition and other geographical components, region but they were not driven by any altruistic economic and social development, level of human or egalitarian motives. Their sole purpose was to development etc.) of a geographical location play a exploit the available resources of the area for opti- major role in shaping the economic development of mizing their profi ts and satisfy their greed. The En- individual and society. Development, with its goal and vironmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the region strategies, is a powerful agency in the transformation reveals various evils which have emerged as fallout of a backward society and space into vibrant, dyna- of modernization and development and among these mic and diversifi ed fast moving living objects and the general poverty of the reason is the most obvious. also promotes new spatial dynamics. The emergence Any impartial inquiry would bring this out. Initially of new spatial dynamics challenges before primitive study area was characterized by a remote geogra- and unskilled inhabitants of the region and leads to phical identity with rough terrain. But the input for the process of alienation from ongoing development development-capital, skilled labour, and technology- and industrialization they fi nd it diffi cult to adjust have changed the social and economic organization to the changed mode of production. Development of area. This has led to spatial confl ict, problems of induced displacement occurs, depriving the people of development induced displacement and deprivation their land, livelihood and other resources. And these from land, livelihood and nature. Industrialization processes have accentuated the extent and magnitude of the area has ironically enough, has taken away of poverty. so much from the local and given precious little in return. Poverty was a phenomenon earlier also but REFERENCES the bounty of nature was there to obviate it to some extent. Industrialization should have been a boon to KUMAR, C. S. Environmental problems and develo- the people but it has only accentuated their misery by pment: a geographical study. Ganga kaveri publishing pushing them out of its bounds and depriving them of house. Varanasi. 1998, p. 91-124. their traditional sources of sustenance and livelihood. True industrial development should not be wished COX, K.; REYNOLDS D. R. Locational approach to away but what needs to be remembered is that the power and confl ict, In: COX, K; REYNOLDS, D. R. local people should be the fi rst benefi ciaries of its (Eds.). Locational approach to power and confl ict. dividends. What has happened is the exact-opposite. New York. 1974. p. 19-42.

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