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Fatigue Resistance of Steels

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Fatigue Resistance of Steels Copyright © 1990 ASM International® ASM Handbook, Volume 1: Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels, and High-Performance Alloys All rights reserved. ASM Handbook Committee, p 673-688 www.asminternational.org Fatigue Resistance of Steels Bruce Boardman, Deere and Company, Technical Center FATIGUE is the progressive, localized, generalization is not true, however, for high was commonly assumed that total fatigue and permanent structural change that oc- tensile strength values where toughness and life consisted mainly of crack initiation curs in a material subjected to repeated or critical flaw size may govern ultimate load (stage I of fatigue crack development) and fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that carrying ability. Processing, fabrication, that the time required for a minute fatigue have maximum values less than (and often heat treatment, surface treatments, finish- crack to grow and produce failure was a much less than) the tensile strength of the ing, and service environments significantly minor portion of the total life. However, as material. Fatigue may culminate into cracks influence the ultimate behavior of a metal better methods of crack detection became and cause fracture after a sufficient number subjected to cyclic stressing. available, it was discovered that cracks of fluctuations. The process of fatigue con- Predicting the fatigue life of a metal part often develop early in the fatigue life of the sists of three stages: is complicated because materials are sensi- material (after as little as 10% of total life- tive to small changes in loading conditions time) and grow continuously until cata- • Initial fatigue damage leading to crack and stress concentrations and to other fac- strophic failure occurs. This discovery has initiation tors. The resistance of a metal structural led to the use of crack growth rate, critical • Crack propagation to some critical size (a member to fatigue is also affected by man- crack size, and fracture mechanics for the size at which the remaining uncracked ufacturing procedures such as cold forming, prediction of total life in some applica- cross section of the part becomes too welding, brazing, and plating and by surface tions. Hertzberg's text (Ref 1) is a useful weak to carry the imposed loads) conditions such as surface roughness and primer for the use of fracture mechanics • Final, sudden fracture of the remaining residual stresses. Fatigue tests performed methods. cross section on small specimens are not sufficient for Fatigue damage is caused by the simulta- precisely establishing the fatigue life of a Prevention of Fatigue Failure neous action of cyclic stress, tensile stress, part. These tests are useful for rating the and plastic strain. If any one of these three is relative resistance of a material and the A thorough understanding of the factors not present, a fatigue crack will not initiate baseline properties of the material to cyclic that can cause a component to fail is essen- and propagate. The plastic strain resulting stressing. The baseline properties must be tial before designing a part. Reference 2 from cyclic stress initiates the crack; the combined with the load history of the part in provides numerous examples of these fac- tensile stress promotes crack growth (propa- a design analysis before a component life tors that cause fracture (including fatigue) gation). Careful measurement of strain shows prediction can be made. and includes high-quality optical and elec- that microscopic plastic strains can be present In addition to material properties and tron micrographs to help explain factors. at low levels of stress where the strain might loads, the design analysis must take into con- The incidence of fatigue failure can be otherwise appear to be totally elastic. Al- sideration the type of applied loading (uniax- considerably reduced by careful attention to though compressive stresses will not cause ial, bending, or torsional), loading pattern design details and manufacturing processes. fatigue, compressive loads may result in local (either periodic loading at a constant or vari- As long as the metal is sound and free from tensile stresses. able amplitude or random loading), magni- major flaws, a change in material composi- In the early literature, fatigue fractures tude of peak stresses, overall size of the part, tion is not as effective for achieving satis- were often attributed to crystallization be- fabrication method, surface roughness, pres- factory fatigue life as is care taken in design, cause of their crystalline appearance. Be- ence of fretting or corroded surface, operating fabrication, and maintenance during ser- cause metals are crystalline solids, the use temperature and environment, and occur- vice. The most effective and economical of the term crystallization in connection rence of service-induced imperfections. method of improving fatigue performance is with fatigue is incorrect and should be Traditionally, fatigue life has been ex- improvement in design to: avoided. pressed as the total number of stress cycles required for a fatigue crack to initiate and • Eliminate or reduce stress raisers by Fatigue Resistance grow large enough to produce catastrophic streamlining the part failure, that is, separation into two pieces. • Avoid sharp surface tears resulting from Variations in mechanical properties, In this article, fatigue data are expressed in punching, stamping, shearing, and so on composition, microstructure, and macro- terms of total life. For the small samples • Prevent the development of surface dis- structure, along with their subsequent ef- that are used in the laboratory to determine continuities or decarburizing during pro- fects on fatigue life, have been studied fatigue properties, this is generally the case; cessing or heat treatment extensively to aid in the appropriate selec- but, for real components, crack initiation • Reduce or eliminate tensile residual tion of steel to meet specific end-use re- may be as little as a few percent or the stresses caused by manufacturing, heat quirements. Studies have shown that the majority of the total component life. treating, and welding fatigue strength of steels is usually propor- Fatigue data can also be expressed in • Improve the details of fabrication and tional to hardness and tensile strength; this terms of crack growth rate. In the past, it fastening procedures 674 / Service Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels g ?- a) 207022,0 ~ssratio, T-R ~ 325300 t--- I F I I P I I I I ] P I • - 1.00 0) ._g 0 1900 ~ 0.05 P'~i,I I ~ .... I I I I o 0.20 ~2~0 E L/L/L/ 8 1725 i Time 1550 (a) 1380 CD :~ 1035 ~ 150 ~s. 860 ~ 125 Time (b) 520 103 104 105 10s 107 108 Fatigue life (transverse direction), cycles I:|, Best-fit S-A/curves for unnotched 300M alloy forging with an ultimate tensile strength of 1930 MPa (280 "'b ° 2 ksi). Stresses are based on net section. Testing was performed in the transverse direction with a theoretical stress concentration factor, Kt, of 1.0. Source: Ref 4 (I) sm either between a maximum and a minimum other combination is known as an alternat- tensile stress or between a maximum tensile ing stress, which may be an alternating Time stress and a specified level of compressive tensile stress (Fig. lc), an alternating com- stress. The latter of the two, considered a pressive stress, or a stress that alternates (c) negative tensile stress, is given an algebraic between a tensile and a compressive value minus sign and called the minimum stress. (Fig. ld). g Applied Stresses. The mean stress, Sin, is Nominal axial stresses can be calculated the algebraic average of the maximum on the net section of a part (S = force per 0) I- stress and the minimum stress in one cycle: unit area) without consideration of varia- tions in stress conditions caused by holes, g (Smax + Stain) Sm- (Eq I) grooves, fillets, and so on. Nominal stresses o~ 2 are frequently used in these calculations, E The range of stress, St, is the algebraic although a closer estimate of actual stresses 8 difference between the maximum stress and through the use of a stress concentration the minimum stress in one cycle: factor might be preferred. Time Stress ratio is the algebraic ratio of two Sr = Sma x - Smin (Eq 2) (d) specified stress values in a stress cycle. Two commonly used stress ratios are A, the The stress amplitude, S,, is one-half the ""~1:|° 1 Types of fatigue test stress. (a) Alternating ratio of the alternating stress amplitude to range of stress: stress in which S~ = 0 and /? = -1. (b) the mean stress (A = S,/Sm) and R, the ratio Pulsating tensile stress in which S~ = S,, the minimum Sr (Smax -- Smin) of the minimum stress to the maximum stress is zero, and/? = 0. (c) Fluctuating tensile stress Sa- - (Eq 3) in which both the minimum and maximum stresses 2 2 stress (R = Smin/Smax).The five conditions are tensile stresses and R = a/3. (d) Fluctuating tensile- that R can take range from +I to -1: to-compressive stress in which the minimum stress is During a fatigue test, the stress cycle is a compressive stress, the maximum stress is a tensile • Stresses are fully reversed: R = -1 stress, and R = -~/g usually maintained constant so that the ap- plied stress conditions can be written Sm -+ • Stresses are partially reversed: R is be- Sa, where Sm is the static or mean stress and tween - I and zero Control of or protection against corrosion, Sa is the alternating stress equal to one-half • Stress is cycled between a maximum erosion, chemical attack, or service- the stress range. The positive sign is used to stress and no load: The stress ratio R induced nicks and other gouges is an impor- denote a tensile stress, and the negative sign becomes zero tant part of proper maintenance of fatigue denotes a compressive stress.
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