The 1809 International Research Society Newsletter May, 2019
Einleitung In this issue 1809 – L’occupation Introduction française de Vienne
Niemals hätte ich gedacht, daß sich 1809 – L’occupation française Robert Ouvrard so viele mit einem Artikel für den de Vienne 01 Membre du Souvenir Napoléonien Newsletter melden würden. Das be- Robert Ouvrard weist, daß die Idee einer Veröffentli- chung von hart erarbeiteten A tentative assessment of the military effectiveness of the For schungsergebnissen für die L'installation Freunde der Napoleonischen Ge- Italic Army in 1808-09 04 schichte wünschenswert war und Ciro Paoletti Dès la reddition de la ville, les choses vorteilhaft für die, welche an Konfe- s’organisent et le 13 mai, Napoléon, renzen nicht teilnehmen konnten. Ich Talking Point: Jacques-Louis dans un ordre du jour à l’armée, werde versuchen, Eure Artikel soweit David’s Propaganda 06 recommande les habitants de Vienne wie möglich unterzubringen, doch Peter Hicks à la bonté de ses soldats, et les prend schon jetzt zeichnet sich ab, daß zwei "sous sa protection". Ce jour là, les oder drei Ausgaben für heuer not- Italians in Raab 06 troupes françaises entrent dans wendig werden. Ich würde mich Ferdi Irmfried Wöber Vienne. freuen, wenn Vorschläge und Wün- Les officiers et civils sont logés dans sche von Euch kommen, um sie, The rare Austrian gun carriages la ville, les soldats dans les faubourgs. wenn es geht, zu berücksichtigen. Auf and limber in Styria/Austria 08 Le 15 mai, le général de brigade, eine weitere gute Zusammenarbeit ! Michael Wenzel Baron de l’Empire, Razout, qui a été Never would I have thought that so nommé commandant de la place, fait many would response with an article The Field Officer Corps of the placarder l’ordre réglementant devant in this Newsletter. This proves that Imperial-Royal Hussars in the Age être attribués aux occupants. the idea of publication of hard-won of the French Revolutionary and Les maréchaux et personnages research results was for the friends of Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815) 09 importants (qui pourrait en douter ?) Réfi Attila Napoleonic history desirable and also sont les mieux lotis: Masséna au those can have the opportunity to palais Schwarzenberg, Davout au study, who could not attend confe- Contact Details 09 palais Lobkowitz, Andréossy, Daru et rences. I will try to accommodate Bernadotte (plus tard Champagny et your articles as much as possible, but Wagramer Historientage 10 Maret) à la Hofburg, Rapp au palais already now it is clear that two or Kaunitz, Mériage au palais Fries three issues will be necessary for this Die französischen (aujourd’hui le Pallavicini), Lefebvre year. I would be glad if suggestions Kriegs gefangenen in Ungarn au palais Collalto (Am Hof 13), and wishes come from you to consi- im Jahre 1809 11 Bessières et Berthier au palais Ferenc Lenkefi der them, if possible. Another good Esterhazy. cooperation wishes Pour ce qui est de la nourriture, un Eagle over the Periphery: ordre de Napoléon en fixe les grandes Ferdi Irmfried Wöber Napoleon and Scandinavia 13 lignes: Fellow and Membre d'Honneur of the Morten Nordhagen Ottosen Les Officiers seront nourris à la table International Napoleonic Society de leurs hôtes (!), comme cela était le Napoleon in Vienna 18 cas lors des précédentes campagnes. Fellow of the Napoleonic Historical Klaralinda Ma-Kircher Les sous-officiers et les soldats Society recevront, indépendamment de leur Fellow and Secretary of The 1809 ration de pain (7,5 hectogrammes soit International Research Society 24 onces):
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 1 Revue au château de Schönbrunn
paille se font rares, et les réquisitions en monnaie et en nature se font durement sentir. Les boulangeries sont prisent d'assaut par des centaines de personnes. Les meuneries et les boucheries n'ouvrent que sous une protection armée. Napoléon a imposé à la ville une contribution de 50 millions. D'où une taxe, exigible dans les 48 heures, sur les locations d'immeubles, ce qui n'arrange pas la situation. Durant tout ce temps, l’armée française n’est pas laissée à l’inaction : les revues, les manœuvre se succèdent à un rythme presque quotidien. Par exemple, le 7 juin Napoléon passe en revue l’armée d’Italie, à Wiener Neustadt, le 9 juin il y a une autre revue, à Schönbrunn. Le 13 juin, vers quatre heures du – au petit déjeuner: soupe et 1/16 de déchanter et sont les spectateurs des matin, Napoléon revient pour la pinte d'eau de vie, malheurs de la guerre. première fois dans la ville. Il la – pour le déjeuner: soupe, 10 onces Ce même 26 mai meurt à Vienne contourne par l'enceinte puis en de viande, légumes et un demi-pot de Jean-Baptiste (Fidèle) Clery, dernier traverse le centre à cheval. Quatre bière ou de vin serviteur de Louis XVI au Temple, jours plus tard, le 17, au matin, les – au souper: légumes et un demi-pot qui a suivi Madame Royale (la canons du bastion ouvrent le feu. de bière ou de vin. duchesse d'Angoulême) dans son exil C'est une salve de joie, consécutive à Les rapports de l'armée d'occupation à Vienne. l'issue de la bataille de Raab, où les avec les Viennois, sont distants mais Le Xe Bulletin de l’armée deux archiducs, Jean et Joseph, ont malgré tout amicaux. Ce sont d’Allemagne présente la version été vaincus par Eugène de d'ailleurs les alliés de Napoléon, officielle des évènements. Beauharnais. Le lendemain 18, un Bavarois, Saxons, Wurtembergeois officier français est dégradé en public, qui s'attirent le plus de reproches: D'Essling à Wagram sur les remparts entre les faubourgs On doit donc continuer de d’Alserstadt et Josefstadt: il a essayé Essling s’accommoder de l’occupation. Non "d’éponger" ses pertes de jeu en Le 16 mai, Napoléon passe en revue sans quelques ennuis, par exemple puisant dans la caisse du régiment. son armée, sur la Schmelz (hauteur pour les buveurs, qui voient les Le 15 juin, les autorités organisent un dominant Schönbrunn, située de nos établissements publiques être obligés grand service solennel en l’honneur jours dans le XVe arrondissement de de fermer le soir à dix heures de Haydn, dans l’église des Écossais Vienne) précises. (Schottenkirche). Les badauds se Les journaux reparaissent, mais sous Bientôt, les Français, lorsqu’ils en ont pressent dès dix-heures du matin le contrôle de la censure française. le temps, vont prendre plaisir à visiter pour assister au cortège. Parmi les Les 21 et 22 mai ont eu lieu les la ville, se rendant à la crypte des invités, le prince Eugène et Vivant- combats d’Aspern et Essling. Les toits Capucins, sur la Stephansplatz, pour y Denon (alors que le jour de des tours de la ville sont interdits admirer le Stock im Eisen, au Graben, l’enterrement, le 1er juin il n’y eu pas d’accès et gardées par les français. Un à l’Arsenal impérial (ce n’était pas un seul musicien de tout Vienne) ainsi poste d’observation est installé au encore l’endroit où nous nous que Henry Beyle, alors commissaire à sommet de la cathédrale Saint trouvons aujourd’hui), l’hôpital de la la Guerre: Étienne. Mais il reste suffisamment de Alserstrasse, ou rendant visite aux Les Viennois, tristes et distraits, toits et autres points d’observation deux célébrités musicales de la écoutent à demi. qui vont permettre aux viennois capitale, Joseph Haydn (qui décèdera Le 25 juin, le maître sellier Jakob curieux d’observer le déroulement de le 31 mai) et Beethoven. Eschenbacher est fusillé, pour avoir, la bataille. Le 5 juin, Napoléon revient s'établir à malgré l'interdiction, dissimulé trois Le peintre Höchle se rend au Schönbrunn. canons. Kahlenberg, armé de jumelles, pour La vie des Viennois n’est pas tous les Les habitants sont en fait prisonniers faire des dessins de la bataille. Il est jours rose. Très rapidement, les vivres dans leur ville, dans sa ceinture de arrêté, pris pour un espion, et n'est se font rares, les prix montent. La remparts et de bastions, toutes libéré que sur l'intervention de son monnaie papier perd rapidement de relations avec l’extérieur étant père, lui aussi peintre à la Cour (les sa valeur. En fait, laissée à elle-même, complètement suspendues et la poste aquarelles de Höchle sont conservées la ville doit avec ses maigres réserves, ne fonctionnant plus. à l'Albertina). subvenir aux besoins de ses 300.000 Mais, lorsque le 21 juin, le Français Pourtant, ayant un instant cru à la habitants, auxquels s'ajoutent près de Chrétien ouvre son restaurant victoire, les Viennois doivent bientôt 80.000 occupants. Même le bois et la français "Traiteur à la suite de la
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 2 Grande Armée", c’est aussitôt le la Toison d’Or. L’après-midi, se Les officiers français, dont certains succès, malgré des prix élevés: un déroule dans la cathédrale Saint- logent dans les palais, comme Château Laffitte se vend six francs la Étienne une messe solennelle, en Masséna, qui occupe le palais bouteille. présence du vice-roi Eugène, qui Lobkowitz, sont reçus dans les salons représente son beau-père. aristocratiques et bourgeois et Wagram. A 17 heures, le gouverneur Andréossy dansent la valse avec les jeunes filles, donne un banquet de deux cent et, de nouveau, s'adonnent au Durant les deux jours de la bataille de couverts, auquel assistent, en tourisme. Le Prater recueille tous Wagram, les Viennois oscillent entre particulier les négociateurs leurs suffrages. l’espoir et la crainte. Beaucoup autrichiens, le président du Le 31 juillet, le théâtre de Schönbrunn suivent les combats des toits des gouvernement de Basse-Autriche et reprend ses représentations: maisons. le maire de Vienne, Wohlleben. A 20 Napoléon assiste à Phèdre, dans une Après la bataille, de nombreux heures, illumination de la ville et feu traduction de Schiller. Ce même soir, blessés sont ramenés dans Vienne. Le d’artifice. il apprend que l’archiduc Charles a 27 juillet, un employé municipal est Ne nous faisons pas trop d’illusions, remis son commandement à chargé d’aller, "avec un tonneau de toutefois: les Viennois, fidèles à leur l’empereur François. vin, dans la Lobau, pour en ramener esprit frondeur, attachent des Le 5 octobre, l’empereur visite la 18 blessés autrichiens, qui gisaient là- banderoles aux fenêtres: "Vive crypte des Capucins, où il s'attarde bas depuis la bataille" l'Empereur...parce qu'on ne peut faire devant les cercueils de Marie- autrement (weil's sein muß)" - "Les Thérèse et Joseph II. Le 8, il est au La fin Semmering. Ce n’est qu’à la fin du mois de juillet Le 12 octobre, pendant qu’on permet aux bourgeois de une revue, le jeune respirer, en leur ouvrant l’accès des allemand Staps est arrêté, jardins publics et des promenades porteur d’un couteau. extra muros. On est le 23 juillet: ce Interrogé par la police, il jour là, la ville est déserte, mais reconnaît être venu à 23000 personnes se pressent dans les Vienne dans l’espoir de allées du Prater. Napoléon était mettre fin à la vie de revenu à Schönbrunn dès le 13 juillet. Napoléon, et "délivrer Le 11 août, on joue Molinara au l’Autriche de la présence théâtre de Schönbrunn. Napoléon est française". Questionné par présent dans la loge de gauche. Des Napoléon lui-même, qui gendarmes occupent les jardins. Au lui offre la vie sauve contre parterre ont pris place d'élégantes des regrets de son acte, femmes, derrière lesquelles se Bombardement sur Vienne Staps répond "qu’il saisira toutes les trouvent des officiers. Dans les occasions pour l’assassiner". Il sera galeries, les maréchaux et les Français se réjouissent de ta fusillé le 27, à l'aube. généraux. L'empereur observe de sa naissance, les Allemands encore plus Le 14 octobre, le traité de paix de lorgnette les spectateurs, lit quand tu mourras" (là, la police Vienne est signé. attentivement dans un livre, prend interviendra). Sur l’une des maisons Le 15 octobre, commence le retrait des prises, mais ne semble pas très de la ville on peut lire "Viennois, des troupes françaises. Les marins de intéressé par ce qui se passe sur la n’illuminez pas, vous voyez votre la Garde, qui avaient leur camp à scène ! infortune aussi bien sans lumière". Leopolstadt, et avaient attiré, par leur Une autre fois, il assistera à une Sur une autre, on voit ces lettres : discipline, la sympathie des habitants, représentation de "Phèdre" (traduit ZWANG. Ce qui en fait veut dire : organisent bals et fêtes pour leur par Schiller) par les acteurs du "Zur Weihe an Napoleons départ. Napoléon, après avoir présidé Burgtheater (la première avait eu lieu Geburtsfest", c’est-à-dire "En un repas de gala pour ses maréchaux un an auparavant...). Napoléon est hommage à la fête de naissance de et officiers généraux, ne s’attarde plus très impressionné par le jeu de Napoléon". En réalité, ce mot et quitte Vienne le 16 octobre. Madame Weißthurn, qui joue le rôle ZWANG signifiait CONTRAINTE." Cependant, la plupart des soldats de titre, et le lui dit après la Le soir, accompagné de Duroc et l’armée française resteront plus représentation. Il lui fera parvenir Berthier, Napoléon visite incognito la longtemps. une cassette avec 3.000 francs. ville. Entre autres tâches, ils auront pour L’anniversaire de Napoléon, le 15 Le lendemain, le journal Wiener mission de détruire les bastions des août, est célébré avec le même Zeitung (il est vrai sous contrôle de la fortifications de la ville, malgré les cérémonial et les mêmes censure française) rapporte que, prières du maire Wohlleben. Le réjouissances que la fête de depuis le temps de l’empereur Joseph, travail durera trois semaines. l’empereur François. A 9 heures du aucune fête n’avait réuni autant de Les 22 et 23 octobre, de nombreux matin, parade à Schönbrunn. Au monde. Ce même jour, Napoléon bals sont organisés, notamment en même moment salve tirée par 60 visite le champ de bataille de Wagram l’honneur du gouverneur Andréossy canons installés sur les remparts, Les Viennois continuent, et du commandant de la place, le pendant que les cloches de la ville régulièrement, d’aller voir les revues baron Dentzel. sonnent à volée. de l’armée française. En fait, ils Le 25 octobre, le Wiener Zeitung Ce jour-là, Napoléon déjeune avec regardent Napoléon avec un semblant reparaît avec l’Aigle impérial et royal. Marie Walewska et discute ensuite d’admiration: pour ses ennemis ou ses Le 20 novembre, Davout informe avec Maret la création d’un Ordre de admirateurs, il est le militaire type. Berthier que "d'un coté, M. de la
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 3 Bouillerie a déjà reçu 26 millions, qui des français auraient été malmenés. Il officers, as well as the 43% of the sont en route pour Linz, où la neigeait fortement." privates were veterans who fought in vérification des valeurs sera faite, et il at least one campaign. One man out m'assure que demain on lui remettra Résumé of four was serving since more than les 4 millions qui compètent les 30 ten years. and another 25% since at Après la campagne de Bavière, durant que l'Autriche doit payer. Il a aussi least five, whilst the remaining 50% laquelle Napoléon a mis en déroute reçu les lettres de change." had been enrolled after 1801.1) l’armée autrichienne de l’archiduc Les conditions auxquelles But 1805 was the top. Since the next Charles, Napoléon se dirige tout droit l'évacuation de Vienne était year, the standard lowered. As sur Vienne, où il parvient le 10 mai. subordonnée étant remplies, les general Bertin wrote, when speaking Après un semblant de résistance, et derniers soldats quittent la capitale de of the drilling in the following years: un bombardement de la ville, dans la l’Autriche, après 158 jours “the Imperial Army will no more find nuit du 11 au 12, Napoléon prend une d’occupation. Les intransportables the opportunity to work in such an nouvelle fois possession de la capitale sont transférés dans des hôpitaux effective way. Its casualties will be des Habsbourg, retrouvant même, à préparés spécialement à leur filled, of course, but the more the Schönbrunn, la chambre qu’il avait intention. arrival and the ratio of the occupé en 1805. L’occupation, plus L’empereur François peut reprendre reinforcements, the lower the level of dure que la précédente et surtout plus possession de sa capitale. Le 26, infantry, starting from 1806.” 2) longue et marquée par les deux l’armée autrichienne rentre dans This was the situation of the French batailles d’Aspern-Essling et de Vienne. L’empereur en fait de même Army: the conscripts had to be Wagram, durera 158 jours, que le lendemain 27. Le soir, la trained on the ground, and, perhaps, beaucoup de témoins ont décrits dans municipalité offre un bal, dans la salle they could survive also, but what leurs Mémoires. Apollo à Schönbrunn. about the Italian Army? It could not Le 29, Stendhal, qui se trouve à Saint- be better and in fact was far worse. Summary Pölten, se rend à Vienne: "Nous In 1800 the Cisalpine Army listed avions bien sûr enlevé nos uniformes, After the campaign of Bavaria, during 10,000 foots, 2,500 cavalry and 6,000 mais nous avions gardé, mon which Napoleon put in rout the Poles, composing four divisions only camarade son gilet, et moi mon Austrian army of the Charles 4,000 strong each: in fact each was a chapeau, de sorte qu'il était archduke, Napoleon moves straight brigade. In the following years the impossible de ne pas reconnaître que on Vienna, where he arrives on May Army increased till the maximum of nous étions français.(..) On nous fît 10. After a short resistance, and a 90,000 men in 1813-14: an astonishing quelques difficultés, mais on nous bombardment of the city, during the 560% increase in 12 years. How was laissa finalement passer. Il night of the 11 to the 12, Napoleon this figure reached and maintained? (l'Empereur) est arrivé hier, dans une takes once again possession of the By conscription, of course. mauvaise chaise de poste tirée par six capital of Hapsburg, finding even, in After a plan prepared in Spring 1801, chevaux blancs. On l'a reconnu, et les Schönbrunn, the room which he had two different laws about conscription vivats ont éclaté. Il répondait par des occupied in 1805. This occupation, were issued in the following
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 4 According to many experts, a recruit easily, for the soldiers are not drilled lot of French units – was committed in these times needed two years and the disorder is feared.” 9) to battle, and the Dragoni Regina drilling before being considered If this was the situation of the French Regiment were awarded with 12 combat-ready.6) On the paper, the army in 1809, how could the Italian Legion d’Honneur at Wagram. But Italians had that time; in fact they had Army be better? The French were can the result of one regiment be not. Napoleon wanted the Italic Army fighting since 1792, whilst only the used as an example of a whole army, to increase quickly, but there were a 2,000 men composing the core of the or an example of one ethnical portion very few veterans who could be used Italic Army officially fought since of a bi-national army, as the Armée as instructors, surely less than 1797, and actually did not really fight d’Italie was? needed. before 1799. Moreover that core later It is thus quite difficult to understand Napoleon’s armies were generally composed mostly the Royal Guard, whether the Italian Army was involved in war every year. The and had no great influence on the effective or not. It is reasonable to Italians were no exception. They other units. Last: prior to 1801, assume their effectiveness improved were involved in war in autumn 1803, Italians had no conscription. Old over time. when only numbering 10,000 men – armies were mostly professional, and Thus, also if the debate about the those in the Italian army since the the most of their personnel did not Italic Army effectiveness is still open beginning – and no more than 22,000 pass into the Italic one. Thus, the (and neglected), I’d say that the Italian could be considered ready by 1805. Italic Army started from zero, also Army in its early days had simply no Moreover, as soon as units were because the only real veterans time to drill, and this affected its considered ready they were existing in Italy – the Piedmontese – performances. But its effectiveness committed to Spain, Germany, were inserted in the French Army improved with its combat experience. Dalmatia, or Austria, and faced huge when Piedmont became part of the If they did not perform well in 1805, casualties. Gaps were filled by the Empire. On the other hand the Italic their participation in Germany, “Reggimenti di Marcia”, the Army gathered troopers from poorly- Poland and Spain was better, and occasional units organized simply for armed former Italian States with no Italian troops were at their best the travel from Italy to the operating fighting experience. Thus the Italic during the tragic Russian and German army. They were composed of new standard was affected – heavily – by Campaigns in 1812 and 1813. v conscripts, who got only a basic the same problems affecting the training.. Once at destiny, these French. But facing the same problems unexperienced conscripts could be affecting the French by a lower initial 1) BERTIN, Pierre, Le Fantassin de France, taught by the veterans, but often their standard, which kind of result one Vincennes, 1986, p. 126. first clash came sooner than the could expect? What about the 2) BERTIN, cit. p. 130. lessons, and many of them died, due Italians’ effectiveness? 3) Law issued on October 30th, 1801 calling to their poor drilling, lack of According to some sources it was not recruits not younger than 20 and not older than experience, and to the massive good. For instance, the Italians at 25. That law was suspended by the one issued massacres of the Napoleonic wars. Colberg were considered to have not on the next November 19th, 1801. Recruits This is not an exaggeration. acted at their best, and in Spain were in theory 400,000 out of a population of According to the rules issued in 1808, Napoleon used Italians to guard his 6,703,200, that is to say 3%. an Italic Infantry Regiment had to be communications. This meant they 4) According to Zanoli (cfr ultra), who quoted composed of four battalions, each acted as a constabulary force. They official documents, by the end of 1812, including six companies (a grenadier were eventually employed on the not including the still (in 1845!) unknown company a voltigeurs company and field, and anyway their performances casualties in Russia and Spain, the deserters four fusileers companies, 140 strong don’t seem to differ from the French ratio was 10%. each), and in that year the Italic Army ones in Spain. 5) ZANOLI, baron Alessandro, Sulla milizia was 44,000 strong, including 6,000 The same could be said when looking cisalpino-italiana – cenni storico statistici dal horses and 20 field guns.7) In 1809 a at the casualties. Out of 30,000 1796 al 1814, 2 vols. (Milan: 1845) vol. 1, p. 18 further 12,000 men were drafted, to Italians sent to Spain, only 8,958 and p. 20 fill the gaps caused by the war in returned: 14,000 were killed in action 6) Discussion with doctor Greg Urwin, Spain and in Austria, but by the end and 7,000 died in captivity. (Temple University) in Knoxville, May 2003. of that year the Italic Army totaled If casualties can be used as a 7) ZANOLI, op. cit,, p. 22 only 37,000 men and 5,100 horses, reference, and a useful tool to assess 8) Ibidem. thus suffered a total casualties of how an army performs, we can add 9) BERTIN, op. cit., p. 130. 19,000 men in one year, or 33.94%: that the total number of Italians who 10) Reliable figures in Italian can be found in more than one man out of three, served under Italian colors exceeded CAPPELLO, Girolamo, Gli Italiani in Russia nel 8) including the recruits. And what 200,000, but more than a half of 1812, (Città di Castello: 1912). CROCIANi, Piero about the French? Bertin says: “in them never returned back home.10) – ILARI, Virgilio - PAOLETTI, Ciro, Storia 1809 the ratio of badly drilled Between 1804 and 1809 the Italian militare del Regno Italico (1802-1814), (Rome: conscripts increases so much that Army was employed as an auxiliary 2004); FERRARI, G. – RIACCHI, N., Gli many units must remain standing in force in Italy and Austria in Italiani in Germania nel 1813, (Città di Castello: the Spanish peninsula. Equally, the secondary operations against Austrian 1914); and ZANOLI, op. cit.. In English the main mixed order is definitely left aside troops. In 1809, the Italian Army sources are the two books by F.C. Schneid: during the campaign against Austria, marched in four divisions and a Soldiers of Napoleon Kingdom of Italy, (Boulder: 1995) and Napoleon’s Italian for it needs manoeuvres a fresh- detached corps including 24,000 campaign 1805-1815, (Westport: 2002). infantryman can not do. In Essling men, 3,600 horses and 32 guns. In under the Austrian shelling the order early July 1809 the entire Army of remains deep because it is no longer Italy – composing the IV Army Corps possible to group and deploy the units of the Grande Armée and including a
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 5 Talking Point with Italians in Raab Peter Hicks: Jacques-Louis David’s Ferdi Irmfried Wöber Propaganda The italian Royal Guard left Gönyü Peter Hicks on 16 June 1809. On the 17th they rea- Professor Historien et chargé ched the surroundings of Raab and d'affaires internationales, Fondation were involved in the fighting with the Napoléon defenders of the city as well as in ar- tillery shootings. They had pursued We all know David’s portrayal of the the Austrian army after the battle on workhorse Emperor starting up from 14 June, where they were stationed his desk at four in the morning. How on the right wing, until Komorn pur- should we interpret it? Is it political sued, then marched over Győr, back propaganda from the regime itself? to Raab, on June 24, and the com- Yes and no – it’s complicated… mand came to retreat. On July 1, they The work was a commission from a reached their destination Kaiser- mega-rich Scottish noble. Though a Ebersdorf near Vienna. The infantry Member of Parliament from, and (Fanteria di linea) under the com- briefly diplomat for, a country at war mand of General Teodoro Lechi had (to the death) with France, that noble, a strength of 2243 men and consisted of the battalion Grenadiers under Alexander, 10th Duke of Hamilton, The Emperor Napoleon in His Study Pietro Luigi Dubois with 486 men and was a left-winger (Whig) and admirer at the Tuileries (Google Art Project) of Napoleon. a battalion Carabinieri under Floriano Rossi with 531 men. The regiment of questing a copy (which was to remain Royal Hunters (Veliti Reali) under He was also vain and proud, who in his family’s hands until this day). thought himself (not unreasonably, Major Carlo Vandoni with a battalion Carabinieri had a strength of 811 men. given the antiquity of the Hamilton And David was to exhibit the painting The Dragoon Regiment with two family and its links to Mary Queen of in his studio to great public acclaim squadrons under General Pietro Luigi Scots) the rightful heir to the Scottish before dispatching the original to Viani and Colonel Giovanni Narboni throne. Hamilton wrote to David in Scotland. 1811 requesting an image of Napoleon had 386 men with 364 horses, in ad- dition came the gendarmerie under “in one of the historic moments that This work is thus the most perfect Lieutenant Pietro Durant with 29 have made him immortal”. He presu- form of propaganda, coming as it men and 30 horses. The artillery on mably wanted a battle scene. What does not from the Emperor but from horseback under Captain Antonio David gave him was something enti- the artist himself. David gave Napo- Mussi consisted of 83 men and 82 rely different. The French painter leon what David thought Napoleon horses. An artillery company under was going through a period of doubt, might like. The Parisian public saw Lieutenant Antonio Champigny had when he felt estranged from the Em- the painting in numbers, and the les- 100 men with 171 horses. The artillery peror. So, his composition for a fo- son was learned. Napoleon did not had a total of eight guns. The Infantry reign collector, which he showed to even have to dictate the message (as Division of General Filippo Severoli Napoleon, was part of his desire to he had had to do with other works, (8265 men, with eight guns and a furt- get back into the Emperor’s good notably, Gros’s “Napoleon on the her eight guns in reserve), who had books. Battlefield at Eylau”). v participated in the Battle of Raab, was In this painting, David, the regicide still around Raab on 1 July. Two bat- (that is, he had voted for the execu- talions (the 2nd and 4th with 1109 tion of Louis XVI), appears to present men) of the 3rd Line Infantry Regi- a contemporary, 1812 vision of Napo- ment remained in the city. This group leon. But what we get, subtly, is the was commanded by General Bara- Emperor transported back in time to guey d'Hilliers. The rest reached Un- 1804. We are given a more republican garisch-Altenburg on the 2nd, where Emperor who had just promulgated they joined on the same day in Kitt- the Code Civil (visible in the pain- see. A battalion under the captain of ting), we are given a ‘hero from Plu- the artillery Antonio Ferru reached tarch’ of the Corsican’s early years Ungarisch-Altenburg on July 2, cap- (the Parallel Lives lies under the tain Luigi Porro with a battalion stood table). So in 1812, when the absolute in Hainburg. Three companies of the hereditary monarch of the Fourth 7th Line Infantry Regiment marched Race of France viewed this represen- towards Thebes. A battalion under tation of a Revolutionary monarch ‘working nights’, he was delighted, re- Raab 1809
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 6 Captain Angelo Barbieri stayed bet- goons under General Guerin attacked ween the small Schütt island and the the farm. In the course of the engage- city of Raab. General Severoli rea- ment, a French ammunition wagon ched Bruck an der Leitha on 3 July. exploded. The farm caught light in On July 4, they arrived at their desti- several places; as all the outbuildings nation, the bridges at Kaiser-Ebers- began to burn, Hummel gathered his dorf. The French marched through troops and led them to the stone gra- the Weißenburger Tor into the city. nary, to continue to defend at least Under the command of General Nar- that position. The standard-bearer bonne and General Frederic-François ripped the flag from its pole and tied Guillaume de Vaudoncourt, an adju- it round his body, in order to save it. tant of General Fontanelli, accompa- In the following bayonet attack, he nied by Major Henin, the garrison of was attacked and the flag was lost two battalions of the 3rd Italian Line with him. Ammunition was running Infantry Regiment (about 280 men) short and had to be taken from dead under Colonel Joseph Levié of Gene- and wounded soldiers. During the ral Antonio Bonfanti, a train of the ar- pauses in the fighting, soldiers clim- tillery regiment on foot of the Italian bed the walls and ammunition was Guard Cavalry under Colonel Anto- retrieved from the dead outside the nio Champigny (100 men, 171 horses, Meiereihof. An ammunition wagon, eight guns), infantry divisions, a batta- 1808, Italian Royal Guard which had been requested from the lion sappers and miners (about 120 reserve, could no longer reach the men). farm and was captured, as the farm was now entirely surrounded.
22nd Bulletin of the Imperial General Lechi's Italian Guards Corps Royal French Army officers Cavalloni, Pagani, Villata, Bi- Nyúl Vienna, June 24, 1809 anchini, Narboni, Frangipone, Maz- The town of Nyúl was occupied by The fortress Raab has capitulated. zoli and Zanelli represented the the Italian Guard Infantry Division, This city has a splendid position in Italian army. From the French side, which consisted of 2362 men (368 of- the center of Hungary. Their fortres- Barre, Lamarque and Montrey appea- ficers, and with 250 horses). While ses are supported by entrenchments, red. It was a pleasant surprise that His the 1st Brigade under Fontanelli had their ditches filled with water, and a Excellency Governor Narbonne sent to guard the prisoners in the wine flood covers part of them. It lies at his factotum, Baron Sternegg, with his cellars, the 2nd Brigade under Guerin the confluence of three streams, and congratulations. stayed around the village in about is, as it were, the center of the great two km distance. In the moonlight, camp, upon which the enemy hoped The Granary of Kismegyer the soldiers walked up and down, and to unite all the Hungarian insur- Around 4 p.m., supported by heavy from time to time their „Sentinelle rection, and where they had invested artillery fire, the battle was becoming prenez garg“ sounded through the immense works. Their only 1800 men ever more ferocious, particularly night. With midnight an Italian grena- strong garrison was inadequate. The around the key point in the centre, dier captain appeared, accompanied enemy expected to leave 5,000 men the farm in Kismegyer. Up to this by several soldiers. On the call "Qui there, but by the Battle of Raab his point, the defenders had been able to vive? Napoleon et Marengo" the slo- army (of General Mesko) was separa- repel all the attacks. A counterstroke gan of the day was the answer, and ted from the fortress. And forgotten by 2,500 men of IR19 Alvinczy, 740 the posts presented the rifle. The for eight days, the city suffered from a men from IR62 F. Jellacic and 2. Ho- door to the wine cellar was opened bombing that destroyed the most henlohe Dragoons under Oberst so the prisoners could hear the trans- beautiful buildings. Count Metternich Beczan was successful. Durutte’s Di- later. They delivered the order of returned to Vienna after a three-days vision fled and carried off part of Se- Beauharnais from the headquarters in stay at the outposts. Secretary of veroli’ Division with it. The Szabadhegy, which said that they ex- State Dodun, and persons of the Al- Hungarian troops were able to drive pected death by shooting in the early lied embassies, who had not left be- the French out of Szabadhegy village morning. The officers discussed how fore the capture of Vienna, were led and across the Pandzsa stream. Only they could communicate the to the frontiers of Hungary when they Severoli’s second line (112e Ligne and judgment to Archduke John, although learned of the loss of the Battle of 1st Italian Line Regiment) halted the they were strictly guarded. Ertsi (Eli- Raab. Austrian advance and with the sup- sabeth) Hatvan asked if she could do port of fresh troops from Pacthod’s it, because she knew every stone and Festivities Division, Colloredo’s troops were path and she would be able to pass all During the peace negotiations, the driven back again, as they were un- the guards in the darkness. She again soldiers also understood how to cele- supported by other units. However, dressed in her maid's clothes and brate. On August 1, a birthday party heavy losses had to be sustained. The could easily pass the guard, they among the Italian troops reported: A cavalry brigades under Pajol and thought she is a resident of a wine- big friendly dinner was held at Pietro Jacquinot together with 14 squadrons house. Terzi. The birth of his son was cele- of the Italian Royal Guard under Ge- The Graz Volunteers had to line up in brated. The longed-for news from fa- neral Grouchy attacked in two co- front of both wine cellars, guarded by raway Italy arrived with a delay of lumns operating alongside each other; an italian escort. They passed the four weeks. The Severoli Division, in the centre, the Italian Guard Dra- nearby crossroad and after
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 7 500 meters they reached the place ments. The large number of priso- the city were „captured“ by the for execution on the left side of the ners, alltogether about 500 men, was French and probably sold for scrap road. Without their weapons, they divided into two groups. One group and so were lost for he city. When in marched gloomily and inwardly to- marched under a Bavarian escort to 1814 Emperor Francis visited the city, ward the plain in direction to Szabad- Chalon-sur-Marne in France, the se- the „town fathers“ approached the hegy. Two Grenadier Regiments cond group, with the commanders of Emperor and in the end the city re- expected already the Volunteers. In the Graz Volunteers and Ertsi Hatvan ally got 6 guns that had been captured front of the battalions of these regi- should be brought to Vienna for furt- in 1814. ments and on each wing stand of- her surveys. They became freed near The Hofkriegsrath was informed by ficers. Opposite to them, their backs the village Kiszell through an attack the Emperor and the latter ordered against a freshly raised earth-bank, by Hungarian troops under General the Artillerie Hauptzeugamt in De- the prisoners had to stop to await Mesko. Major Hummel could write cember 1814 to „take 6 of the French their execution. The captured officers his report already on June 19 what newly captured 4-pounder guns to were now separated, they had to die happened to the Graz Volunteers and hand them over to the city“. The first. In the early morning two Italian mentioned the brave story of the Hauptzeugamt replied that they battalions (the Grenadier battalion „Girl of Kismegyer“, although he had would like to follow the order but the and the Carabinier battalion) had al- forgotten her name. guns were only gun barrels and could ready taken their position. The cap- Two years later, a young pair, Ste- not be moved easily nor used as guns. tain succeeded in getting an phan and Ertsi, could start her new The Hofkriegsrath was not impressed additional postponement of the exe- life in a rebuild house near the gra- by these arguments and ordered them cutive committee waiting for the nary of Kismegyer. Every year festivi- to fit them out with carriages. 1 These message from Beauharnais, the com- ties were held at the granary and their were not specified but the gun carria- mander of the French Army. Beau- three children could listen proudly to ges are easily identified as typicall harnais took his command back. Ertsi her parents. In 2003 a memorial Austrian gun carriages that were used Hatvan immediately hurried back to placque placed on the edge of a little during the Napoleonic wars. If the Nyúl to report the joyful decision. square in the center of the wine cel- carriages are standard 3 pounder car- After a while, the pelotons swung, lars remember visitors what happe- riages or specially built could not be and entered the ranks of the regi- ned in 1809. v entirely solved up to date. French 4-pounder gun barrels still exists in a rather large number all over Europe and even in North Ame- rica. Original gun carriages are rare in any country but at least some original french gun carriages exist.2 hütte“, which would be translated as For Austrian gun carriages we have The rare Austrian „gun hut“. the „expertise“ 3 of he Army Museum gun carriages and Visitors at the Schloßberg at Graz or Vienna – the Heeresgeschichtliche limber in Bruck always got to know that these Museum, from summer 1909, when „pieces“ were French guns. As always they tried to get one gun complete Styria/Austria – if we are speaking of old cannons, with one limber, from the city of one means normally the barrel. Even Bruck. The Museum experts praised in contemporary documents of hat Michael Wenzel the carriage as rare and special and time the „gun“ was rescued if the bar- the limber as unique and admitted rel was saved. So the carriage, as a that they had no original gun carria- piece of would and iron did not really ges from that time and especially no „count“. The same is applied when piece of limber. Finally the city of these cannons (barrels with carriages) Bruck handed one gun with its car- The small city Bruck an der Mur is a are styled as “french.” riage and one limber over to the city of much tradition in Styria in How the city came into possession of Museum as a present. Sadly the 2 Austria. In there possession are 5 6 guns an 2 limber-pieces in 1815 is a items of interest were destroyed after guns complete with carriages an one story of ist own. To make it short the the 1st WW, when the Museum was piece of limber, all dating back to the city of Bruck always had guns on the almost abolished. Ironically that the Revolutionary & Napoleonic wars. To „castle“ – mainly for signal purposes. gun-barrel, which was of less interest be more precise 2 guns and the piece But in 1809 the 11 iron gun pieces of is still in the Museum and even on of limber had been more well known display in the „1792 to 1866 gallery“. In the earlier mentioned expertise a as they were on display at the famous One of the 3 french 4 pounders with complete list of the gun barrels with Schloßberg at Graz at the so called austrian carriages in Bruck „Kanonenbastei“. It was part of a detailed specifications has been in- small „garrison-museum” that closed cluded, so the identification as a for- years ago, and meanwhile this „gun mer „Bruck-gun-barrel“ was made 4 gallery“ has been closed and the lim- possible. ber disappeared into storage el- As the 3 guns in the canon hut have sewhere. The other 3 guns remained not much changed, although not well in Bruck at the cities „Schlossberg“, taken care, there are at least saved. which are the ruins of an old city The 2 guns at Graz and the limber- castle. They still can be seen in their the probably only known existing own building, a hut called the „Stück- „standard limber“ for light Austrian
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 8 batteries are in high dan- ger to be damaged or being lost for ever. The Author tried for years to The Field Officer get access to the limber Corps of the Imperial- to get it measured but the Graz city museum Royal Hussars in the was not willing to react Age of the French for years. If the 2 guns will remain at the Revolutionary and Schlossberg gallery is in Napoleonic Wars question, as new mu- seum plans appear to plan without One of two guns at the gun gallery (1792–1815) these guns. So it will be a task to save in Graz. the 2 guns and their carriage and lim- Attila Réfi ber in future, in Graz or in other Mu- Historiker und Archivar seum that will preserve the guns and (VERITAS Institut für v JOIGNY L‘ ANIV DE LA LIBERTE; Ohne Qua- Geschichtsforschung, Budapest) carriages for future generations. drantenhülse Standort Bruck-Stückhütte (Mitte) 3.) Auf dem hinteren Visierreif die Giserin- 1 ÖSTA-KA-MBeh-AHZA 1815 2/42: The ori- schrift HEBAN LE JEUNE; Auf dem Hinter- he hussars are particularly ginal wording was : „in Ermangelung derley zu- stück: PARIS 1793 T gehörigen Lafetten … andere passende Auf dem Langfelde: A N und LIBERTE EGA- important for the Hungarian nation, Geschützmontierung herzurichten“ LITE (im Bogen); Die Quadrantenhülle ist aus- because it is the only arms of 2 Chartrand; Napoleon’s Guns 1792–1815 (1): gefüllt. Hungarian origin. A value, which the Field Artillery; eg in the Musee d‘ Armee in Standort: Graz-Kanonenbastei (rechts) Hungarians has not adopted from Paris 4.) Auf dem Stossboden: Périer Frères Paris others, rather given to Europe and 3 StLA Stadtarchiv Bruck 171/790 (Wagner: 7bre 1793; Auf dem Langfelde: A N und (im the world. When it was in its glory, 158/911 ) Expertise des k. u. k. Heeresmuseums Bogen) hussars were established all together 171/790 LIBERTE EGALITE; Kaliber 9 ,2 mm (bei allen in 34 countries in Europe, of course 1909 – 29. 10. 1909 Heeresmuseum an Stadt- anderen Rohren fast 9cm); Mit Quadranten- under the conduct of officers and amt Bruck ad C No 821 - Nr 3090/9099 an den hülse. instructors of Hungarian origin, who Gemeinderat der Standort: HGM- Saal der Revolutionen“ (– Stadt Bruck an der Mur ohne Lafette) introduced their habits, the 5.) Am hinteren Visierreif die Gieserinschrift: Hungarian-style uniforms, hair and 4 For specialists I include the list which is as OLINET 2.ANNE.REPUB (Also 1792 auf 1793) moustache style. following and with my identification where the Auf dem Hinterstück: AN; Auf dem Langfelde: In Hungary this type of soldier gun is now located: LIBERTE EGALITE; In die Quadrantenhülse outgrew himself and became the 1.) Auf dem Stossboden: Périer Frères Paris ist ein Keil mit einem Knopf als Griff einge- spectacular evidence, and even the Nivôse an 2; Auf dem Langfelde: A(rmée) schoben. symbol of the military valour of the N(ationale) und LIBERTE EGALITE. - Der Ni- Standort Bruck-Stückhütte (von außen gese- Hungarian nation and as such, has vose des 2. Jahres der Republik fällt in den De- hen links) become an essential part of zember 1793 und Jänner 1794. 6.) Am hinteren Visierreif die Gieserinschrift Hungarian folklore and Hungarian Mit Quadrantenhülse (Dieses Geschütz war in HEBAN LE JEUNE; Auf dem Hinterstück: der Erzherzog Karl-Ausstellung exponiert.) PARIS 1793; Auf dem Langfelde: A N und (im culture. It is safe to say that Standort: Graz-Kanonenbastei (links) Bogen) LIBERTE EGALITE; Die Quadranten- cavalrymen (hussars) have had and 2.) Auf dem Stossboden: Périer Frères Paris hülse fehlt. probably still have a privileged, 1792; Auf dem Langfelde: (2 Zeilen in Bogen) Standort Bruck-Stückhütte (rechts) distinguished role in the historical awareness of Hungarian people. Another evidence of it is the fact that hussars are frequently presented together with the most important national symbols – the national coat- of-arms, the national flag or the national colours. It is no surprise that hussar parades and hussar shows are Contact Details essential and inevitable parts of every national holiday program, even in our time. Organizing Committee: Despite of this, the works published Ferdi Irmfried Wöber up to now on hussars have not dealt [email protected] with the field officer corps of the arm (International Communication in the period of the French wars. The „General Staff“ Honorary Secretary present work based on a Please send articles to the above mentioned mail adress! comprehensive research in various archives and literature lasted one and The next issue will be published in autumn 2019 half decade is intended to fill in this Layout and technical support: H. Koukol gap. © Die Autoren sind für ihre Artikel und Bilder inhaltlich selbst verantwortlich. The research focused first of all – The authors are responsible for the contents of their articles and pictures. within the general topic of hussars –
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 9 on the field officer corps constituting the ranks and the places the higher command of the regular of service are indicated; imperial-royal hussar regiments – date and way of existing for longer or shorter terms in ending the career in the that era, in the army of the Habsburg army; Empire. While performing the – other remarks about research, every person was studied possible regiment who had served in the rank of field ownership, captivity, officer in any imperial-royal hussar awards; in the sequence regiment between 1792 and 1815, of the medals the Maria regardless of the term of service. Theresa Military Order The goal was, in connection with the is mentioned in the first group specified above – due to its place with the date of relatively minor size – to present a Cover of „The Field Officer Corps“ attaining, possibly with full picture, rather than using the the circumstances of method of sampling, often applied in earning the decoration; similar research schemes. Biographical data, in which the brief – other awards of non-military In the study the imperial-royal hussar biographies are provided of the 282 nature, promotion in rank, regiments of the French wars era persons who are documented to have nationalization; with their organizational structures served in the imperial-royal hussar – family status, and if known, names and military personnel will be regiments in the era in question, on of wife (wives) and children and presented after introducing the the basis of their highest hussar ranks number of the latter. research methodology and a short in the period of the French wars, historical overview about the hussars. grouped in sub-chapters of majors, Summarily, the work provides a After that the historiographic- titular lieutenant colonels, lieutenant comprehensive view of the field statistical and sociological analyses colonels, titular colonels and officer corps of a specially Hungarian made on the basis of the elaborated colonels. arm, the hussars, a field officer corps biographical data containing new The biographies are structured as that was far from being composed of research findings about the field follows, when possible, with smaller Hungarians only and their excellent officer corps of hussars will be come. variations due to lack of data: performance during the era of the In the analyses, through mapping the – name; French Revolutionary and most significant indices, the author – in brackets the highest rank Napoleonic Wars which were endeavoured to form an exact picture attained in the person’s career, if it is important events in the world history. on the hussar staff corps, in which he not the same as the highest rank The publication of the biographies attempted to correct the general attained as a hussar during the period; makes opportunity to carry out statements in the existing literature – date and place of birth – date and further comparative analyses from lacking detailed studies, at least place of death; other aspects, even comparing where such literature was available at – social, ethnic, religious affiliation; the hussars to other arms and to all. – a mostly factual description of the make other genealogical-type The description of the basic career in the army, in which the date researches. v characteristics of the field officer and place of the start of the military corps is followed by the longest career, then the significant stages of chapter of the book with the title the career, i. e. the date of attaining
Wagramer Historientage
Zum 210. Jubiläum der Schlacht von Wagram Die k. k. Husaren in der Schlacht bei Wagram Die S 8 Ausgrabungen 05.- 07. Juli 2019 Attila Réfi „am Wagram“ 2017 – 2018 Wagramer historische Gespräche, Die kk Generalität in der Schlacht von Wagram Slavomir Konik/Alexander Stagl Erzhg. Carl Saal im Napoleon-Museum István Nagy-Luttenberger Leben und Tod in den Kriegen Napoleons - Deutsch Wagram Der Krieg 1809 im Herzogtum Warschau Bioarchäologische Untersuchungen an den Slavomir Konik Gefallenen der Schlacht von Wagram Kongress – Vorträge - Diskussionen Michaela Binder 14.00 – 17.00 Schlachtfeldarchäologie Freitag, 05.07.2019 Reservetag Diskussion – Was können wir von der Kunersdorf – Erfahrungen über die Schlachtfeldarchäologie lernen? Samstag, 06.07.2019 Ausgrabungen auf einem Schlachtfeld 9.30 – 12.30 des 7-jährigen Krieges Sonntag 07.07.2019 Die Armee des Kaisers 1792 – 1815 Grzegorz Podruzny 9.30 – 12.30 Die Artillerie des Kaisers Ilya Berkovich Das Massengrab von Znaim 9.30 – 10.20 Des Kaisers Artillerie und die „Die Armee und Ihre Bewaffnung“ Jaromir Kovarnik Welt des Joseph Sechterberger MW Tobias Röder
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 10 10.30 – 11.00 Buchpräsentation zwei Hauptkampfstätten: also aus den innerösterreichische Schanzarbeit mit Isolde Moser: Gebieten des Rheins angemessenem Tageslohn angestellt „Bruder komm zum Militär“ – Die Memoiren beziehungsweise Deutschlands, sowie worden.6) Der französische Adjutant des kk Artilleristen Josef Sechterberger aus den Gebieten von Italien und Boussi beanstandete, dass die Im Anschluss Vorführung der „Waitzer Österreich im größten Teil nach Ergebungsbedingungen (die Artillerie“ im Museumshof ca. 11.15 – 11.30 Ungarn, beziehungsweise nach Offizieren dürfen ihre Waffen, 11.40 – 12.20 Fuhrwesen Slawonien, Banat und Siebenbürgen Pferden und Gepäcke behalten, sie Pawel Zatonsky übermittelt. Mit dem Beginn der sind auf Parola entlaßbar) von 1600 14.00 – 17.00 Die Folgen der Schlacht Kampfhandlungen wurde erstmal die Franzosen – als sie vor Innsbruck Frage der Unterbringung von den kapitulierten – nicht eingehalten 14.00 – 14.50 Von Wagram bis Znaim 7) Jack Gill französischen Gefangenen am 20. worden seien. Die Franzosen April 1809 dokumentiert.1) missbilligten, dass die Koalitionsseite (Ersatz ev. Erzherzog Johann der Sündenbock Feldmarschallleutnant Chasteler auf die Aufnahme von Deserteuren in der Schlacht von Wagram MW oder meldete am 16. April aus Tirol, dass Generalmajor Carneville’s emigranten Das Militär Sanitätswesen in Frankreich und ungefähr 6000 französische und Freikorps rechnete, aber höchstens Österreich (angefragt) bayrische Soldaten gefangen mit 15 Gulden Handgeld. Ingleichen Nebiha Guiga / MW genommen worden seien und diese wurde die Annahme von bayerischen, 15.00 – 15.40 Von Znaim bis zum Frieden von Soldaten durch Salzburg und baden-württembergischen, Schönbrunn Klagenfurt vorzüglich nach Ungarn schwäbischen, hessisch-kasseler Die Friedensverhandlungen von weiterbefördert würden. Mannschaften angestrebt, die zu den (ungarisch) Altenburg Der Grazer Schlossberg kam als neu aufstellenden Jägerbataillone und Ferdi Wöber Internierungsort, wegen Freikorps gehören sollten.8) 16.00 – 17.00 Diskussion 210 Jahre Schlacht Befestigungsarbeiten, nicht in Frage, Am 29. April meldete das von Wagram deshalb bat Generalissimus Erzherzog Generalkommando in Karl das Ofner Generalkommando Niederösterreich – als Fortsetzung um Informationen, in welche der Beförderungen – die Ankunft von ungarischen Städte und Burgen oder 93 französischen gefangen leeren Kasernen – auf dem kürzesten genommenen Offizieren nach Weg – Gefangene geliefert werden Inzersdorf mit dem folgenden Zweck: könnten.2) Nach der Antwort vom sie würden nach Pressburg kommandierenden General, weiterbefördert. Noch weitere Feldmarschall Alvinczy, hätten am 27. Soldaten kamen mit dem Reiseziel Die französischen April gegen 8000 Personen in Pressburg an: am zweiten Mai Szegedin, Arad, Kaschau, 3 Offiziere und 779 Gemeine, am Kriegsgefangenen Großwardein, daraus 1144 in der dritten Mai 39 Offiziere.9) Nach den in Ungarn Raaber Kaserne, abgestellt werden Meldungen des Generalkommandos können. Temeschwar (liegt im Banat), der Italienischen Armee wurde ein im Jahre 1809 Peterwardein, Esseg Brod und Teil der zahlreichen Gefangenen, die Gradisca (liegen in Slawonien) hätten auf der südlichen Kampfstätte 3) Ferenc Lenkefi insgesamt 16.000 Franzosen gefangen genommen wurden, bei Oberarchivar, Institut und Museum empfangen können. Die Antwort von Laibach für Schanzenbau angestellt, für Militärgeschichte in Budapest Siebenbürgen ist nicht bekannt, aber die anderen wurden nach ungarische wir wissen aus den späteren Gebiete weitergeleitet.10) Schriftwechseln, dass Gefangene Das neunte Armeekorps von Im allgemeinen Bewusstsein ist es auch in bedeutendem Maße Feldmarschallleutnant Ignác Gyulai weniger bekannt, dass - zu der Zeit zugekommen sind. (Banus von Kroatien) meldete aus der sieben Koalitionen gegen Die Maßnahmen wurden dringend, Treviso schon am 26. April den Frankreich zwischen 1792 und 1815 – weil zwischen 18. und 22. April das Rückzug gemeinsam mit den in die ungarischen Gebiete mehrere Linzer Militärkommando 3100 Kriegsgefangenen, das wies auf die Zehntausende von Unteroffizieren Franzosen aus den deutschen Atemlosigkeit der österreichischen und Gemeinen sowie mehrere Gebieten auf der Donau in vier Offensive hin.11) All dieses lässt trotz Tausende von Offizieren als Kolonnen weitersenden wollte.4) Der der Anfangserfolge und Aspern- Kriegsgefangene interniert wurden. Befehl des Wiener Hofkriegrates Essling (21-22. Mai) den stufenweisen Ich muss darauf hinweisen, dass man, lautete: die Offiziere und die Zerfall ahnen, und der in der oben genannten Zeit, wegen Mannschaft sollten voneinander dokumentierbare Schriftwechsel der großen Anzahl der Soldaten, die getrennt durch Schwechat und wurde bis Ende November dieses zur polnischen Legion, Marchfeld – bis zur ungarischen Jahres abgebrochen. Nach der beziehungsweise zu der Napoleons Grenze mit der Zuziehung der Besetzung von Wien am 13. Mai Suprematie gehörige italienische und österreichischen Landwehr – nach pfändete die französische Armee deutsche alliierte Armee gehörten, Pressburg, als Verteilzentrum, später jenen Teil des - bis dahin evakuierten über eine reine französische nach Ofen geliefert werden. Die - Hofkriegsratsarchivs, der nach Nationalarmee nicht sprechen kann, genaue Evidenzführung und Peterwardein nicht gerettet werden aber ich habe der Einfachheit halber Versorgung, die strenge Aufsicht, aber konnte.12) diesen Titel gewählt. die humane Behandlung wurden Der Mangel wird durch die auch Die Gefangenen der 5. Koalition im vorgeschrieben.5) Nach den Absichten mangelhaften Jahre 1809 wurden, genauso wie von Erzherzog Johann wären die sich Feldmanipulationsprotokolle des früher, anhand der Waffengängen der freiwillig meldenden Gefangenen für Ofner Generalkommandos von 1809
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 11 und Protokollreihe des Wiener ihre Kräfte zugezogen. Nach János Gewaltzwang durfte nicht angestellt Hofkriegsrates von 1810, die mit Zsoldos – Primararzt von Komitat werden, die schwerste Strafe war der nachherigen Gesamtergebnissen Veszprém – sei die Liste der mehr als Arrest, die Entziehung der Bezüge dient, einigermaßen antagonisiert. 2000 französischen Verletzten, die und die Verlagerung. In Disziplin und Zuungunsten der kaiserlichen- nach der Raaber Schlacht nach Pápa Strafsachen wurde nach den königlichen Gefangenen zogen sich geliefert wurden, dem Adjutant von heimischen Kriegsanweisungen die Auswechslungen in die Länge, General Narbonne übergeben gehandelt. und als Abschluss dieser worden, die er nach Raab Die Gefangenen hatten die Gefangenenauswechslungen wurde mitgebracht hat.17) Möglichkeit zu ständiger ärztlicher am Anfang November 1810 eine Narbonne als Befehlshaber der Stadt Versorgung nur in den endgültigen Inventur mit den folgenden Angaben und der besetzten ungarischen Orten, beziehungsweise in den für zusammengeschrieben: aus Gebiete, die den Raaber Besuch von dieses Ziel aufgestellten Feldspitälern. österreichischer Seite gerieten Napoleon am 31. August vorbereitete. Wegen des Mangels an insgesamt 100.872 Menschen in Es ist weniger gemeinkundig, dass er Pflegepersonal wurden gefangene französische Gefangenschaft; daraus in Begleitung seines Intendanten Chirurgen und gesunde Gefangene 22 Generäle, 1509 Stabs- und Broglie vor dem Auszug der bezogen, ebenso wohl, als zivile Oberoffiziere, 6281 Unteroffizieren, französischen Truppen, am Ende Wundärzte und später Zivilisten. Die 93.060 Personen aus der Mannschaft. Oktober unter diskreter Beobachtung Mortalität war trotzdem hoch. 21.652 Personen gerieten aus die Stadt Pest-Ofen besuchte.18) Die Gefangenenauswechslungen französischer Seite und mit ihnen im Nachdem die Franzosen in den begannen mit dem Abschluss der Bund stehenden Truppen in Internierungsorten angekommen Kriegsoperationen, nach dem Gefangenschaft: 10 Generäle, 632 waren, sorgten die örtlichen Schönbrunner Frieden - 14. Oktober Stabs- und Oberoffiziere. 14.942 Kommanden für die Unterbringung, - (vermutlich auch nach dem Personen wurden nach Hause Bewachung und Versorgung. Zur Waffenstillstand in Znaim - 12. Juli -), befördert, 6379 starben in Institutionalarbeit, also zur aber diese sind wegen der oben Krankenhäusern, 4 rekonvaleszierte Fortifikations- und öffentlichen genannten Gründe nur seit Ende noch, 142 trat in österreichischen Arbeiten, konnten sie nur freiwillig, November 1809 dokumentierbar. Bei Dienst, 155 ließ sich nieder. (Der gegen Taglohn angehalten werden. den Offizieren kamen in den zeitgenössischen Verschreibung ist zu Sobald sie privat gegen Lohn, aber Kampfhandlungen - auf Parola gegen danken, dass 30 Personen fehlen.)13) unter Aufsicht, Industrie- und schriftliches Revers - wenige Es ist aus den lückenhaften Handwerkarbeit leisteten, hörte ihre Entlassungen vor. Die Gefangenen, Hinweisen der Gefangenenakten aus Ärarversorgung auf. die zu der Kategorie „non 1813 zu wissen, dass das Der Vollständigkeit halber muss ich Kombattant“ gehörten, wurden am Siebenbürgische Generalkommando die Lebensumstände der Anfang des Krieges der früheren in Kronstadt und Klausenburg Kriegsgefangenen erörtern. Bei der Praxis angemessen freigelassen, aber bestimmt; und der Praxis der Versorgung war das ein das Verfahren wegen Mangel an früheren Kriege angemessen in unwidersprochenes Prinzip, dass der französischer Gegengefälligkeit hörte Karlsburg und Hermannstadt, in Offizierbestand seinem Rang auf, weil die Franzosen nach der Fogarasch und Mediasch 3930 angemessene Gebühr bekam, aber Meinung der kaiserlichen- Gefangenen in Quartier verlegt der ungarischen Infanterie- königlichen Militärbehörden sie nicht wurden.14) In dem Banat wurden in Friedensgebühr der kaiserlichen und einhielten.19) Temeschwar, Tschakowa, Lugosch, königlichen Armee angemessen Die Harmonisierung des formalen Klein-Sanktniklas und Werschetz 174 waren. Die Offiziere mussten für alles Tauschvorganges erledigten die Offiziere und 5109 Personen aus der bezahlen, die in Natura Vergütungen miteinander in offizieller Verbindung Mannschaft verlegt.15) Slawonien hat sind auch inbegriffen. Die Löhnung stehenden in Esseg, Karlstadt, Virowititz, des Mannschaftsstandes wäre für ihre Auswechslungskommissionen, nach Djakowar, Poschegg und in den Lebensunterhalte nicht ausreichend Bedarf mit anderen Übergabeorten. Kasernen von Syrmien 4700 gewesen. Sowohl die Versorgung- Die Gefangenen aus den ungarischen Franzosen gehalten.16) Insgesamt und Heilbehandlungskosten, als auch Gebieten wurden mit der 13.913 Personen, und wir können uns die Bewohnbar- und Koordinierung von nur auf Schätzungen einlassen, wie Bewachtbarmachung ihrer Feldmarschallleutnant Bianchi, der viele aus den restierenden 7739 Aufenthaltsorte belasteten das Ärar. eine kurze Zeit in Dotis (Tata) Gefangenen in ungarische Gebiete Der genaue Nachweis enthielt die stationierte, durch die sogenannte gelangten. Der Großteil dieser Todtenscheine und die eventuell in alte Fleischhackerstraße (Ofen, Gefangenen bestimmt, weil das als ihrer Begleitung stehenden Bicske, Raab, Wien), durch Hainburg, durch die Invasion nicht berührte Angehörigen auch. Diese Aufnahmen Fischamend und Schwechat um Wien Hinterland geeigneter war, als die gingen großteils verloren, bestimmte ausgebogen bis Hütteldorf und auch eingeplanten böhmisch- Ergänzung leisten aber die einige Pischdorf, später Sieghartskirchen mährischen Gebiete. Personen betreffenden Ansuchen der begleitet.20) Die Beförderung der Obwohl das Schicksal der Ranzionierungskomissionen. Der Gefangenen aus Böhmen erledigte hinterlassenen Verletzten der Briefwechsel der Gefangenen war mit eine in Budweis aufgestellte französischen Armee zu einer dem Einsichtsrecht des Kommission.21) Die Auswechslungen anderen Forschung gehört, müssen Hofkriegsrates und des betroffenen leitete aus französischer Seite die Feldspitäler von Fünfkirchen, Generalkommandos zulässig. Alle General Mathieu Dumas – er ist nicht Arad, Kecskemét, Klein-Sanktniklas Schreiben, Sendungen, identisch mit dem Vater von erwähnt werden. Die in der Nähe von Geldüberweisungen mussten Alexandre Dumas d. Ä., der 1807 starb Raab liegende Stadt Pápa wurde über ausnahmslos genehmigt werden. – mit der Mitarbeit von Adjutant
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 12 Romeuf.22) Sein Partner war führte, aber als potenter Kriegsfüh- navian soil and probably spent very Generalmajor Neipperg, der für die render, in ungünstigem Maße, den- few moments contemplating Scandi- Zurückbringung der kaiserlichen- noch einen großen Teil des navian affairs. There was an irony at königlichen Gefangenen aus Menschenmaterials des Gegners un- the heart of Napoleon’s impact on deutschen Gebieten verantwortlich wirksam machte. Die Provinzen der Scandinavia, insofar as it owed less to war, mit Standort München sowie mit ungarischen Krone trugen zu his deliberate policies than to how Annahmestelle Braunau und dem Gefangenen-Krisismanagement, Scandinavian monarchs and states- Lambach.23) Die im Süden gewesenen gleich zu der früheren und den men adapted their own policies to Kriegsgefangenen, vorwiegend folgen den Zeitperioden, die his, or, on occasion, what they Italienern, wurden auch stufenweise Humanität mitverstanden thought were Napoleon’s policies. über Dalmatien zurückgeliefert. anerkennenswert bei. v Such was indeed the Emperor’s mag- Die Heimlieferungen erlitten wegen nitude. eines interessanten logistischen 1) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2310. Zwischenfalls Verspätung, da der 2) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2310. Scandinavia’s Way into the Hochzeitszug von Marieluise für eine 3) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2555. Napoleonic Wars Woche in Mitte März mehr als 4) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2361. Now, none of this is to suggest that tausend Pferde benötigte.24) Die 5) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2361. Scandinavia was no concern to Napo- Entlassung der polnischen, und H.K.R. 1809. G. 2385. leon at all. The League of Armed beziehungsweise mit 6) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2372. Neutrality in early 1801, in which the zeitgenössischem Wortgebrauch 7) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2496. Scandinavian countries joined Russia 8) warschaueren, Gefangenen war H.K.R. 1809. G. 2386. and Prussia in what in all but name 9) nahtlos, sie durften zumeist in das H.K.R. 1809. G. 2588. was a war against Britain, was cer- 10) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2406. Heimatland abtreten. Die tainly beneficial to the young Consu- 11) H.K.R. 1809. G. 2638. Heimschaffung der französischen 12) H.K.R. Präsidiale 1809-10-15 late, short-lived though the league Gefangenen endete letztlich bis Ende beziehen sich auf das Ereignis. was. Sweden’s joining the Third Coa- April 1810, ein paar Dutzende 13) H.K.R. 1810. L. 1117. lition in 1805 was probably less bene- unlieferbare Rekonvaleszenten sind 14) H.K.R. 1813. L. 3350. ficial, but the Franco-Swedish Ausnahmen. Die ehemaligen 15) H.K.R. 1813. L. 3739. fighting in Northern Germany was kaiserlichen-königlichen Gefangenen 16) H.K.R. 1813. L. 3907. hardly more than a nuisance to Napo- wurden von ihren alten Truppen 17) H.K.R. 1810. G. 4304. leon. “Have I been war with Swe- 18) noch im November empfangen.25) H.K.R. Präsidiale 1809-10-11 den?”, Frederick II of Prussia had 19) Als Summation kann festgestellt wer- H.K.R. 1810. G. 6181. allegedly remarked when the Swedes 20) H.K.R. 1810. G. 462. und 5514. den, dass der Feldzug von 1809 mit had sued for peace in 1762, upon the 21) H.K.R. 1809. G. 5538. seinem Vorbild von 1805 für die kai- 22) H.K.R. 1809. G. 5563. conclusion of the Seven Years’ War. serliche-königliche Kriegsmacht, also 23) H.K.R. 1810. L. 268. und G. 1566. Napoleon may well have asked him- für die Habsburgermonarchie aller- 24) H.K.R. 1810. G. 2265. self the same question when the Swe- dings zu katastrophalem Erfolg 25) H.K.R. 1810. L. 1221. dish army left Pomerania in September 1807, although the Swe- dish King Gustav’s vehement protests against the execution of the Duc d’Enghien and Napoleon’s German policy had at least been cause for acknowledgement in Le Moniteur, if of a rather scornful kind.
Eagle over the this incident was nevertheless quite Scandinavia’s strategic significance peculiar, insofar as it sprung up out of increased in the wake of Tilsit. Swe- Periphery: Napoleon an argument over which was the den, still allied to Britain, and the and Scandinavia more powerful: Emperor Napoleon neutral united kingdoms of Denmark or Emperor Alexander. Apparently and Norway were holes in the Conti- Morten Nordhagen Ottosen this was so important to these two nental Blockade, whereas Britain fea- Associate Professor of History and peasants that they were prepared to red being shut out from the Baltic in Strategy make it a matter of life and death. the event that Denmark-Norway Norwegian Defence University would side with Napoleon. The sub- College/Norwegian Military Academy Soon enough Napoleon and Alexan- stantial Danish-Norwegian fleet could der became a matter of life and death easily block the entrance to the Baltic for many more Scandinavians than Sea. Moreover, after Trafalgar it the two Finnish peasants. The Peace could well become a valuable asset to Introduction of Tilsit brought the Napoleonic wars Napoleon. Although perhaps not a to Scandinavia; and, much like el- primary concern in London, there Around 9pm on 5 July 1807, a light sewhere in Europe, the impact of was also a possibility that the Danish- Nordic summer eve, two peasants got war, in geographical, political, social Norwegian fleet could provide Napo- into a knife fight in a tavern so- and demographical terms, can hardly leon with the means to mount an mewhere in remote northwestern be underestimated. The Napoleonic expedition to Ireland, which, if any- Finland. Alcohol-induced fighting Wars changed Scandinavia forever. In thing, gave the British government was nothing uncommon in this parti- this, Napoleon played a crucial part, yet another reason to keep a close cular part of the Nordic region, but although he never set foot on Scandi- eye on Copenhagen.
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 13 Napoleon was also looking toward poleon himself, at least on St. Helena, soon had the Swedish army ejected Scandinavia. The plan after Tilsit was where he remarked that he regretted from Finland and, though there was to bring Sweden and Denmark-Nor- not having done more to help Frede- no invasion of Sweden from the west, way, alongside Portugal, into the rick, for whom the Napoleonic alli- the Swedes was forced to sue for Franco-Russian fold and the Conti- ance came at a very high cost. peace with France in January 1810, nental Blockade, if need be by force. having lost Finland and dethroned Napoleon pointed at Finland, then The treaty between France and Den- Gustav IV in the meantime. part of Sweden, an attack on which mark-Norway signed in October 1807 would serve double purpose of diver- contained a secret article obliging King Gustav IV hated Napoleon, see- ting Russia’s attention from other Denmark-Norway to join Russia in an ing in him the beast from the Book of parts of Europe as well as beating the attack on Sweden, lest the Swedish Revelation and insisting that Napo- Swedes into submission. Any action government sever her ties with Bri- leon only be referred to in Sweden as toward Sweden and Finland would tain and join the Continental Blo- General Buonaparte. Sweden’s dis- obviously have to be carried out by ckade. Unsurprisingly, King Gustav astrous war with Russia and France in the Russians. was not much inclined to do so. A 1808 and 1809, which also left Swe- commitment to military action against dish finances in tatters, is often attri- Denmark, however, was within Na- Sweden was something Danish-Nor- buted to Gustav’s personal hatred poleon’s own reach. As things turned wegian diplomats had desperately toward Napoleon. Yet, it did not out, he needed not do much. After sought to avoid, but from a military guide Swedish foreign policy. Seve- Tilsit, French troops under Marshal perspective it was Denmark-Nor- ring Sweden’s ties with Britain, howe- Jean Baptiste Bernadotte stood at the way’s only source of attraction to Na- ver strained they had become by late Danish border in Holstein, poised to poleon. Thus, when Sweden refused 1807, would have absolutely dis- bend Danish ears if they refused to to give in a Scandinavian war became astrous economic consequences, join the Continental Blockade, and a inevitable. It began with Russia’s in- whereas Napoleon could neither French envoy was dispatched to the vasion of Finland in February 1808, threaten nor protect Sweden. Russia Danish-Norwegian Crown Prince Re- soon followed by clashes along the posed very a serious threat, however, gent Frederick’s headquarters in Kiel Norwegian border. but Gustav hoped that war could be to deliver the ultimatum. Frederick postponed until the summer of 1808, had already been oscillating between Napoleon and Scandinavia when the Royal Navy could come to Britain and France for quite a while, To Napoleon, the Scandinavian war his aid, or the political situation might knowing that Denmark-Norway’s was primarily meant to help expand be entirely different. It was not to be, days as a neutral power were numbe- the Continental Blockade and keep but the fact remained that as long as red and that war with either would be the Russians busy. Thus, he was not war with Russia and Britain could be a disaster for his state. But before the enthused by Emperor Alexander’s re- avoided, Sweden would be relatively French envoy arrived at his head- quest that French troops aid the plan- safe. The Swedes were probably too quarters, the British government hel- ned Danish-Norwegian invasion of accustomed to fighting Russia to ped Frederick make up his mind as to Southern Sweden, but nevertheless think of this as a viable alternative, which side to join in war by bombar- agreed to send some 35,000 Dutch, but as he glanced across the Sound ding his capital of Copenhagen in Spanish and French troops under from the beaches of Zealand, cat- September 1807, before sailing off Marshal Bernadotte’s command to ching glimpses of Scania behind the with the entire Danish-Norwegian Denmark in early March 1808. This, vessels of the Royal Navy, a certain fleet, its chief asset in international too, was in fact something that the French marshal made a mental note politics. Danish-Norwegian government had of this fact. been desperate avoid; not only be- After this debacle the Danish-Norwe- cause of the prohibitive costs of kee- Marshal Bernadotte’s presence in gian king had nowhere else to look ping the foreign troops fed and Denmark in 1808 soured Franco-Da- but to Napoleon, but an alliance with quartered, but also from fear that nish relations. The cost of maintai- France was not a given. Fearful of these troops, once on Danish terri- ning Bernadotte’s army was an French reprisals for having failed to tory, would never leave. Such fears immense burden on the Danish-Nor- prevent his fleet from falling into Bri- appeared to come true when the wegian treasury, while French promi- tish hands intact, and knowing well Royal Navy returned to Danish wa- ses of commercial treaties and loans that without it Denmark-Norway was ters before the Danish army and Ber- never materialized. Moreover, war not an attractive ally, Crown Prince nadotte’s troops could set across the and the breakdown of commercial Frederick dispatched a personal letter Sound, following a severe delay in the ties with Britain sent Denmark-Nor- to Napoleon in October, in which he preparations of the invasion of Swe- way spiraling into recession and begged for an alliance. The alliance den. The delay was mainly caused by eventually into bankruptcy in 1813. was graciously granted by Napoleon orders from Napoleon to Bernadotte This left the Danish-Norwegian king at Fontainebleau on 31 October. This to reverse the marching order of Ber- with all sorts of trouble, internal un- marked the beginning of a relations- nadotte’s army so that the French rest high among them, as many of his hip between Napoleonic France and contingent would form the rearguard subjects in the German-speaking Denmark-Norway that would last of the train marching toward the duchy of Holstein and Norway began until 1814, after all Napoleon’s other Sound. Napoleon’s line of reasoning to contemplate alternatives to being allies had abandoned him. For this is not entirely clear, but it is likely ruled from Copenhagen. The Norwe- reason, Frederick of Denmark-Nor- that he would rather have a 35,000 gians had their way in 1814, whereas way is frequently portrayed as Napo- strong army stranded in Denmark the conflict over Holstein lingered on leon’s most loyal and sincere ally. than in Sweden once the Royal Navy until it was resolved by war exactly This was even acknowledged by Na- returned. In any event, the Russians half a century later.
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 14 The main turn of events in Scandina- rite, who, at 24, was known as an face of growing tensions with St. Pe- via in the age of Napoleon occurred able, intelligent and liberal-minded tersburg he was keen to make sure when one of Napoleon’s marshals individual. These were indeed rare that Sweden was not coaxed into acquired the Swedish throne and tur- qualities among Danish-Norwegian electing a Russian puppet, as it were. ned against his former master. This royalty, which for centuries had deli- Yet, he was reluctant to interfere too shrewd marshal was of course Berna- vered monarchs who were either blatantly as to avoid provoking Ale- dotte, who changed the course of drunk or mad, or both. True, King xander prematurely. For this reason, Scandinavian history, but could not Frederick VI, who had ruled in his King Frederick appeared to be a good have done so without Napoleon. Still, schizophrenic father’s place since the match as far as Napoleon was concer- the irony is less that one of Napo- age of 16, was mentally balanced and ned: After all, Denmark-Norway was leon’s marshals turned against him even easy on the bottle, but in return Russia’s old ally, and surely Alexan- than the fact that Bernadotte’s he was a stubborn reactionary and der would not mind seeing a united election owed mainly to what the never one to compromise, least of all Scandinavia under his faithful ally’s Scandinavians thought Napoleon was with the Swedish constitution. When, rule? Consequently, on 17 June the thinking, in the absence of any clear shortly after the fall of King Gustav in Journal de l’Empire spoke warmly of directives from the Emperor himself. 1809, he approached by a Swedish di- Frederick; and on the same day Na- plomat, sent to Copenhagen to sound poleon told a Danish-Norwegian di- out Frederick’s feelings on possibly plomat that if Frederick saw it as his The Swedish Succession Crisis ascending the Swedish throne, King own best interest to seek a union of of 1810 Frederick had the diplomat removed the Nordic crowns, Napoleon would The two Swedish succession crises of from his sight with the remark that he not oppose his efforts. This was a de- 1809 and 1810 were complicated af- found it “difficult to negotiate with a claration of moral support, but it was fairs. In 1809 centuries of rivalry bet- nation that must wholly be regarded not quite an endorsement. Yet, as ween Sweden and Denmark-Norway as insurgents”. Needless to say, wha- things stood it might well have been appeared to be over when the Swe- tever popularity he might have en- enough to secure Frederick’s election dish Diet of the Estates elected the joyed in Sweden dwindled after this. had it not been for the fact that Na- Danish-Norwegian Prince Christian Unfortunately for the Swedes, Frede- poleon was receiving mixed signals August of Augustenburg as successor rick had changed his mind one year from Copenhagen and Stockholm. to the new king of Sweden: the later and now wanted the Swedish ageing, childless, physically fragile throne anyway, which was basically On 22 June, Napoleon received a re- and increasingly senile Charles XIII. his for the taking if Napoleon so wis- port from Desaugiers as well as a let- Crown Prince Charles August, which hed. ter from Charles XIII of Sweden, was the Prince of Augustenburg’s which both advocated the Duke of adopted name as heir to the throne, So with this in mind King Frederick Augustenburg as the best candidate. was desperate to unite the Scandina- set about to secure his Napoleon’s As far as Napoleon was concerned, vian kingdoms. He immediately support. So did the Swedish govern- this was even better: It would still began to plot how he could make this ment, but for the exact opposite rea- bring Sweden and Denmark-Norway happen, but in May 1810, four months son: It was desperate to avoid closer together but not immediately after his arrival in Stockholm and two Frederick and favoured the Duke of into a union, and was thus even less months short of his 42nd birthday, Augustenburg and, if not him, then likely to stir up any controversy in St. the modest-living Crown Prince suf- Prince Christian Frederick. Everyone Petersburg. As far as Napoleon could fered a stroke and died. knew that Napoleon would have the see, the Duke of Augustenburg, a for- last word: “It is my firm impression mer minister in the Danish cabinet, This unleashed the second Swedish that the people of Sweden are abso- would be acceptable to King Frede- succession crisis in only a year, be- lutely ready to submit to Napoleon’s rick and, in any event, Napoleon had ginning in early June 1810. It quickly wishes”, the Danish envoy to Stock- not promised the Danish King any transpired that the most serious con- holm reported and was supported in active support. A thumbs-up for the tenders for Charles August’s place as this assertion the French envoy, De- Duke of Augustenburg, if that was heir to the throne were his older saugiers, though the hapless French what the Swedes wanted, thus appea- brother, the Duke of Augustenburg; diplomat had yet to hear anything red to Napoleon as more sensible Prince Christian Frederick, heir to from his master in Paris, even as the than to take the trouble to persuade the Danish-Norwegian throne; and, election was approaching. Still, De- the Swedes to elect the Danish-Nor- finally, King Frederick of Denmark- saugiers assured all parties concerned wegian king. On 24 June he explained Norway. A number of other names that the question of the Swedish as much to the Swedes, before in- were brought up as well, but by July throne was of utmost importance to structing his envoys in Copenhagen 1810, no one seriously doubted that Napoleon, having reported to Paris and Stockholm, Didelot and Alquier, one of these three candidates would that both governments appeared to who was just about to leave Paris for be elected by the Swedish Diet, favour the Duke of Augustenburg, Stockholm, to voice support for King which was to convene on 23 July. though this was of course not entirely Charles XIII’s preferred candidate, The most likely choice appeared to true, given King Frederick’s interest. i.e. the Duke of Augustenburg. Fo- be the Duke of Augustenburg, who reign minister Champagny was given appeared to possess many of the Napoleon was not overly interested similar instructions to, “warmly, but same qualities as his brother, apart in the matter, but he realized that it without compromising myself, sup- from his complete lack of military ex- had implications for his relations with port the Prince of Denmark”, also in perience. Contemporary bookmakers Emperor Alexander. At Erfurt Napo- reference to the Duke of Augusten- would probably have held Prince leon had basically left Scandinavia as burg. And so the matter seemed to be Christian Frederick as second favou- Russia’s sphere of interest but in the settled when the Swedish Diet of the
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 15 Estates convened in the city of Öre- began making rounds among French To Swedes thirsting for revenge bro on 23 July 1810. marshals. A number of rejections later against Russia and on the verge of he eventually landed at Marshal Ber- bankruptcy, this sounded good. The This is where things started to get nadotte’s doorstep. crucial margin was probably the use weird, first in Denmark. Relations of Bernadotte’s personal wealth bey- between King Frederick and the Mörner told Bernadotte the Swedes ond mere reference. So while King Duke of Augustenburg had long been were very much inclined to elect a Frederick busied himself with making strained, and now they turned on French marshal and that Bernadotte sure that his navy confined the Duke each other in their quest for the Swe- was just perfect for the job. This was of Augustenburg to his residence, the dish throne. It soon dawned on King a lie, but it did the trick with the Ber- Swedish Diet of the Estates procee- Frederick that the Duke of Augusten- nadotte, who was looking for a fresh ded to elect Bernadotte as Crown burg held the upper hand in Sweden start after Wagram. He approached Prince Charles John of Sweden. as well as in the court of Napoleon Napoleon with the news, which gave and, indeed, was very close to being the Emperor a bit of a headache: A If Frederick was disappointed with elected. So to prevent the Duke from Frenchman on the Swedish throne the lack of support from Napoleon, travelling to Sweden to appear before was perhaps a good idea, as Napoleon this was not where the blame was put the Diet of the Estates, which would saw it, but hardly Bernadotte, whom by others in the king’s cabinet. The almost certainly secure his election, he did not trust, and, in any event, Foreign Minister, Rosenkrantz bit- King Frederick imposed a wholesale would not much please Emperor Ale- terly lamented that King Frederick naval blockade on the island of Als, xander. Yet, conflict with Russia was had not done more at a much earlier where the Duke was residing, osten- already looming on the horizon and stage to secure Napoleon’s firm sup- sibly to protect him from being kid- surely there was no way even for port for basically any of the Danish napped by zealous Swedes. This Bernadotte not to be swept along candidates. His irritation was shared measure backfired severely, both in with Swedish revanchist sentiments by the heir to the throne, Christian the short and long terms. In the long in the event of war. Thus, Alquier, Frederick, who even dared tell the term, it would contribute to Den- who was about to leave for Stock- king exactly how he felt: “If one sits mark’s war with Prussia in 1864 and holm just in time to inform the Swe- quietly in inactivity, one must give up the loss of the duchies of Schleswig des that the Duke of Augustenburg any thought of unification of the and Holstein. In the short term, it was Napoleon’s preferred candidate, kingdoms,” he wrote, and concluded, paved the way for other candidates. was stopped in his tracks. Still, no “Unfortunately, the moment to win word was given to Desaugiers in Sweden’s crown peacefully by a vote Bernadotte’s Way to the Stockholm. Bernadotte, meanwhile, of the Diet of the Estates appears to Swedish Throne went back to Mörner and replied to have been lost”. This was not all King A few weeks earlier, on 4 June, the the lieutenant’s lie with a half-truth of Frederick would lose during the Na- Danish envoy to Stockholm had re- his own: He had Napoleon’s uncondi- poleonic Wars. ported to Copenhagen of the many tional support, he said, and would be rumours surrounding the forthcoming delighted to consider a Swedish The Loyal and Devoted election of a new heir to the Swedish election. King Frederick? throne. In a passing phrase, the envoy As is fairly well-known, Bernadotte, noted that it appeared as if Swedish Mörner’s return to Stockholm on as Crown Prince of Sweden, turned military circles favoured a French caused much confusion, and even his back on Napoleon in 1812 and joi- candidate to ensure the closest possi- landed him in jail when the king ned the Sixth Coalition in Germany ble ties to France. Names such as Jean found out that he had far exceeded the year after, although he appears to Baptiste Bernadotte and Lucien Bo- his mandate, to put it mildly. Shortly have been more interested in pur- naparte were mentioned, while the thereafter, the Diet of the Estates suing his personal ambitions and envoy joked that, “if there are more convened and seemed certain to elect Sweden’s quest for Norway than Grand Seigneurs in France who have the Duke of Augustenburg, although bringing Napoleon down. Conversely, fallen out of favour, I suppose they some, including the King, had briefly King Frederick of Denmark-Norway will be considered as well”. lobbied for Prince Christian Frede- remained by Napoleon’s side until all rick. Meanwhile, King Frederick had the other allies had abandoned the Yet, the envoy was onto something. desperately tried to rally Napoleon Emperor. Not only that: Hardly Unimpressed by the military capabili- behind his own candidacy rather than anywhere else was the Continental ties of either of the three leading Da- the Duke, but it was too late. Since Blockade enforced more rigidly than nish candidates, and keen to cement Mörner’s departure from Paris, Ber- in Denmark and Norway, whereas relations with France so that Finland nadotte had used his time well. He King Frederick repeatedly renewed could be reconquered in what many enlisted the former French consul in his alliance with Napoleon, pledging saw as an inevitable Franco-Russian Gothenburg, Jean Fournier, to pro- ever more troops, even as Napoleon’s showdown, a number of Swedish of- mote his candidacy in Sweden. Four- South German allies were jumping ficers were looking to France. When nier hurried off to Örebro and arrived ship. In this light one may be forgiven word got out in early July that Napo- as the Diet of the Estates was about to for thinking that Frederick was a sin- leon appeared to favour the Duke of cast its vote. Whatever Fournier did, cere, loyal and devoted ally right until Augustenburg, one officer, who had it worked. His activities at Örebro re- the end. been sent to Paris to try and acquire main in the fog, but there can be no some sort of statement from Napo- doubt that he made much of Berna- The truth is, he was not. Rather, he leon on the matter, the 28-year old dotte’s military record and especially clung on to Napoleon from fear and lieutenant Otto Mörner, carved out a his wealth, promising huge loans to awe, and he was certainly not the diplomatic course of his own and the Swedish treasury at low interest. only European monarch to do so.
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 16 The real difference was that Frede- defeat Russia. Yet, King Frederick, Frederick. After Leipzig, Charles John rick never really got the chance to es- who was increasingly lending ear to took his army north through Ger- cape and, even when he did, his awe his military advisors, shared their many and forced Frederick to cede of Napoleon prevented him from sei- view that Napoleon was invincible. Norway in January 1814, thereby fun- zing it. By the time they learned otherwise, damentally changing the political Bernadotte had made sure that Nor- geography of Scandinavia. Unlike Na- Basically, the French military contin- way would be Frederick’s price of poleon, Frederick was not dethroned, gent in Northern Germany posed a entry into the Sixth Coalition. Thus, but the loss of Norway was devasta- very real threat to Schleswig, Hol- Danish diplomacy in the winter of ting and Frederick was even threate- stein and Jutland, and thus a substan- 1813 was almost exclusively concer- ned – above all by Charles John – to tial part of Danish territory. Napoleon ned with trying to persuade Russia have his entire state dissolved. For made sure to remind the Danish-Nor- and Britain to go back on their pled- many years after Vienna, Denmark wegian government of this whenever ges to Sweden. At one point, in May, remained something of a pariah state English goods appeared in Hamburg, it seemed as if they had succeeded, in international politics. Charles John, leading to ever stricter Danish measu- and Danish troops promptly joined on the other hand, was victorious but res to enforce the Continental Blo- the Russian against the French in missed out on his chief aim, The ckade. This was where Frederick’s Hamburg, before Frederick realized French throne and was also denied position differed substantially from he was mistaken and was forced to the Polish-Saxon throne. This may that of Charles John, as there was no make amends with Napoleon. A new suggest that the former Marshal Ber- way for Napoleon to threaten Swe- treaty of alliance was duly signed in nadotte was not overly enthused by den proper after 1810. This gave June, obliging Frederick to commit the prospect of remaining in Sweden, Charles John the leeway he needed to even more troops to Marshal Da- though he did until his death in 1844. side with Russia. Granted, Frederick vout’s army. could have left Denmark for Norway On a final note: For all his impact on – like the Braganzas in Portugal sai- King Frederick then placed his hopes the course of Scandinavian history, led off to Brazil – but it is often for- in a general European peace that Napoleon had minimal institutional gotten that Jutland was Norway’s could at least make Norway a matter influence on the Scandinavian coun- bread basket, and that surrendering of negotiation, but this opportunity tries. This stands in marked contrast the peninsula to the French would was denied him when the Peace Con- to many other parts of Europe, where probably have made the situation in ference in Prague fell through in Au- Napoleon left a rich institutional le- Norway just as dire as did the British gust 1813. Meanwhile, his fear and gacy. The Code Napoléon has hardly blockade, and made the Norwegians awe of Napoleon persisted. The inci- had any influence on Scandinavian turn against Frederick in any case. dent in Hamburg coincided with Na- legal codes. Not even the celebrated Thus, it was hardly an option for him. poleon’s victories at Lutzen and Council of State was ever copied in What was more, Frederick could not Bautzen, which showed that Napo- Scandinavia; nor were departments easily side with Britain either, as that leon was far from destined to be de- and prefects, or even the gendarme- would have enraged Danish public feated. As Dominic Lieven has rie. The Scandinavian constitutions, opinion after the events of 1807. recently argued, allied victory in Ger- introduced in 1809, 1814 and 1849, many in 1813 was no foregone con- took their cue more from the ‘revolu- When Napoleon invaded Russia in clusion. King Frederick can therefore tionary’ than the ‘Napoleonic’ model. June 1812 and Bernadotte sided with certainly be forgiven for thinking that Of course, all of this can be explained Emperor Alexander, leaving no doubt the coalition powers could be forced by the lack of direct exposure to Na- as to his intentions, Foreign Minister to the negotiating table or even that poleonic rule, but as far as state-buil- Rosenkrantz suggested to King Fre- Napoleon could triumph, after which ding goes, it may also reflect that derick that this was probably a good any defector would probably be se- much of what Napoleon and his col- time to abandon Napoleon, being as verely punished. laborators were trying to achieve in the French presence in Northern Continental Europe had already been Germany was weakened and he could In the end, though, Napoleon fought accomplished in Scandin avia. But not really see how Napoleon could on and was defeated, as was King that is a whole other matter. v
Znojmo / Znaim. 10. – 11. 7. 1809
Pod křídly tří orlů Unter den Flügeln der drei Adler Under the wings of the three Eagles
Hier ruhen in Frieden die Überreste von 52 jungen Soldaten und einer Marketenderin aus sechs Massengräbern, von den Helden, die in der Schlacht von Znojmo/Znaim weit weg von ihrer Heimat ihr Leben geopfert haben. Here rest in peace the remains of 52 young soldiers and one female sutler found in six mass graves, the heroes who had fallen in the battle of Znojmo/Znaim, a city far from their homeland.
Zu Ehren des 210. Jahrestages der Schlacht gewidmet von der Stadt Znaim/Znojmo. In honour of the 210th anniversary of the battle, the city of Znojmo dedicates the memorial.
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 17 consecration, events in theatres and concerts with patriotic songs. When the Landwehr left Vienna the city go- vernment initiated a fundraising for Napoleon in Vienna financial support for the families left behind. In the Army command they Klaralinda Ma-Kircher were speaking of defence of the Fat- herland, of a stolen throne and of sal- vation. With the Declaration of War on 11th of April the works at the city Numerous documents in the Vienna fortification began, installing the can- City Archives give an impression nons and weapons, removing bridges about the situation in Vienna during and some buildings. The same day the the occupation by Napoleonic troops city government adopted a regulation in 1809. After the declaration of war to ban all foreigners from Vienna. the Austrian Emperor and the nobility Most inhabitants of the suburbs pre- left the town with their most precious pared to flee. The food supply be- properties. The population was left to came a serious problem. Since their own devices. The defence took beginning of the year the prices in- little more than one night. After the creased twice to fourfold due to ho- capitulation the French Governor arding. Antoine-François Andréossy and the The travel preparations of the aristo- mayor of the city Stephan von Wohl- cracy and the imperial court seemed Napoleon after the Battle of Aspern leben organized food for the troops not confidentely. The most important and the care of wounded soldiers parts of the imperial collections, ar- after the battles of Aspern and Wa- chives and funds were moved to her 1000 students. Marshal Jean Lan- gram. Not least because of the high Hungary. The Emperor and his family nes applied for surrender, but this has prevalence of the French language were the last to leave the residence. been refused several times. After a among the educated citizenship the Archduke Maximilian d’Este, the renewed refusal of the capitulation interaction between the enemy and brother of the Empress, was appoin- the city was shelled during the night the population remained largely ted city commander. He gave the sur- of 11th to 12th of May. There were 10 friction-free. They met each other in prising command to defend the town, dead, around 100 injured persons and the salons. There was even something to the great concern of the city go- a lot of material damage. Archduke of admiration for the French Empe- vernment. All objections were not Maximilian left the town in the early ror, who spoke even with a simple heard by the Emperor. The proximity morning and handed over the Gene- soldier, who lifted the censorship and of the French troops accelerated the ral’s command to Count O’Reilly. An- who invited citizens to theatre per- preparations. After some battalions of dreossy addressed a quite friendly formances in his accommodation in the Landwehr came back to town, the proclamation and a few hours later Schönbrunn. Quite a few citizens did citizens also pushed for the arsenal to Napoleon received a delegation of lucrative business with the occupiers. arm themselves. The city gates were honorary citizens to Schönbrunn. But there were also serious incidents either closed or prepared for defence. The capitulation was signed the follo- and at the end of the occupation the Hospitals were set up, animals were wing night. After this the first soldiers fortifications were destroyed, - as deposited for slaughter in the courty- came into town and were accommo- where they in every other conquered ard of a monastery, even a good dated with the population. Austrian city. amount of schnapps was stocked up soldiers were disarmed and sent in the cellar of the arsenal. All bakers home. The Viennese militia was en- In the Vienna City Archives there are in the city were obliged to bake bread trusted with the maintenance of the a lot of documents about the second for the bakeries of the military as order. Napoleon’s Order of 13th of French occupation, such as procla- they expected a siege. Many people May contained, in addition to assu- mations, enactments, regulation pa- followed the call of the city govern- rances of goodwill and understanding, pers and correspondences. These and ment to bring weapons and war ma- even a lot of diaries and private let- terial into the city. Französiche Artillerie beschießt ters give a comprehensive impression After the battle of Ebelsberg the die Stadt Wien about the situation of the urban po- French army oc- pulation before and during the occu- cupied the pation. Vienna outskirts. As at the end of December 1808 Aus- The 8th of May tria declared another war against French troops France to put an end to Napoleon’s came closer to politics of expansion, the following the city walls months were marked by impressive without resis- propaganda. In Austria the call to tance. The city form a Landwehr – a Corps of volun- was defended by teers – was followed by far more 16.000 men from people than expected. The patriotic militia, Land- mood captured almost the entire po- wehr and regular pulation. There were solemn flag- troops and furt-
THE 1809 INTERNATIONAL RESEARCH SOCIETY NEWSLETTER PAGE 18 1. Ausgabe der Wiener Zeitung unter französischer Intendanz, vom 20. Mai, Nr. 37: „Die Siege Napoleons des Großen sind nicht nur das Wunder und der Stolz des Jahrhunderts, sie sind auch das Glück und die Wohlfahrt der Nationen. Von dem Augenblicke des Sieges stehen die überwundenen Nationen unter dem Schutz des Siegers, des Helden und des Weisen, der von der Vorsehung dazu bestimmt scheint, die durch Vorurteile und Faktionen geängstigten Völker zu beruhigen und sie zu ihrer eigentlichen Bestimmung, zur höheren Stufe der Selbständigkeit, des eigenen Denkens und Wirkens zu erheben.“
initial care, were given into than under normal circumstances. care to the citizens for final The morning of 15th of June there recovery. Many soldiers lived was a funeral service for the compo- in bivouacs. This had the ad- ser Joseph Haydn, who died on 31st vantage that the army could of May. The composer was also be made ready for battle im- highly esteemed in France and many mediately and did not have to French military officials attended the be collected from individual mourning celebration in the Schot- certain words against the House of quarters. The French army supplied tenkirche and listened to Mozart’s Habsburg and hidden threats against by requisition on the spot and bought Requiem. Three or four times a week any sort of resistance. In the mean- what they needed – sometimes with there were theatre performances in time, the French occupying forces confiscated funds. A few Viennese Schönbrunn by a French troupe of confiscated the magistrate funds of made the business of their lives, often actors where the beautiful ladies of 5,5 million gulden. Little by little life at the expense of their fellow citizens. Vienna also have been invited, as normalized. Restaurants, coffee hou- Napoleon continued preparation for Captain Jean-Roch Coignet noted in ses and theatres reopened. The battle. Bridges were built, hospitals his diary. newspaper “Wiener Zeitung” reap- were prepared and arms requisitio- On 24th of June the carpenter Peter peared with a different content as be- ned. The population was involved in Tell, leader of the militia of the sub- fore the occupation. Booksellers this work. One citizen who refused to urb of Spittelberg, was executed. He immediately published guides cooperate was shot in front of his refused to use weapons in a confron- through Vienna or offered German- son. Other incidents also kept any re- tation and in a dispute he broke the French dictionaries to facilitate also sistance within limits. epee of a French officer. The next the occupants’ communication with On 21st of May the French army day the 60-year-old saddler Jakob the population. The upper bourgeoi- crossed the Danube and moved into Eschenbacher was executed. He had sie was familiar with French anyways the Lobau area. buried three canon pipes in his gar- and some diaries report well-kept Even though the result of the battle of den, less as a sign of resistance, but conversations with the enemy. Aspern is celebrated as an Austrian more because of the metal value. A Every baker in the city was ordered victory to this day, we know that it few decades later during a patriotic to bake 400 portions of bread every was a draw at its best. While the Aus- review of history two streets in day for the French army. They were trians were leaving the victory untou- Vienna were named after these two not only busy but also paid well – ched the French did everything in victims of the occupation. with the money of the magistrate their power to succeed in another The population was particularly ou- funds. Not only was there no capacity battle. Napoleon ordered all scattered traged about the behaviour of the Ba- to supply the whole population, but troops in forced marches to Vienna. varian troops, and the Portuguese there were also constant complaints All horses were confiscated, hospitals soldiers had a reputation of attacks about the quality and weight of the prepared and entrenchments built. on the female population. bread. Although the city government Napoleon urged the citizen militia to Nobody could escape the presence of has made a great effort to meet the unity, calm and modesty and conse- Napoleon and the attractiveness of wishes of the occupiers, there have quently followed up irregularities of the troop parades. Some sources often been complaints regarding the his own soldiers. In addition to at- show how remarkably it was felt that provision of services. There were tacks on the population and espio- the French emperor himself spoke to proclamations that regulated exactly nage, gambling and the sale of hauls common soldiers. the food and the equipment of the were severely punished. With command of 29th of May, Na- accommodated soldiers. It was very Viennese bakers faced the usual pro- poleon ordered the release of politi- bitter for the providers of accomoda- blems and by a regulation of the 11th cal prisoners. Above all, this meant tion, when they hardly had to live of June, actresses, female singers and the liberation of those who had been themselves. dancers were forbidden to look out of imprisoned since the Jacobin trials in Not all soldiers were housed in pri- the window, as this had led to a 1795. In the Viennese theatres, pieces vate accommodation. Above all, after massive fight. In the hospitals a fever were played that were banned by the battles injured soldiers who, after broke out and claimed more lives Austrian censorship. v
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