Urbanisation Leading to High Risk of Gene Pollution

Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234

ISSN: 2319-7706 Volume 3 Number 4 (2014) pp. 229-234 http://www.ijcmas.com

Original Research Article Urbanisation leading to high risk of gene pollution

Nidhi Chauhan*

School of Sciences in Biochemistry, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, India *Corresponding author

A B S T R A C T

The increasing number of human settlements mostly in developing nation result in homogenizing of plant diversity and diminish insects and animal diversity. Increasing urbanisation create anthropological disturbances leading to alteration of habitat, ecological K e y w o r d s processes and biotic interaction. Native species reduce and exotic species, some human adapted native species and species from early successional stages often increase with urbanisation leading to gene pollution. With invasive urbanisation because of Pollution, industrialisation the food resources of a nation decreases and demand of food product gene increases sharply. This encourages use of genetically engineer organisms for high pollution, agriculture yields. But this practice leads to irreparable loss or changes in species diversity biotic homo- or genetic diversity within species. Increasing amount of waste, both solid and liquid, are genization, being generated as a result of the rapid rate of urbanisation. Polluted water contain hospital, industrial, domestic, agricultural and sewage waste containing residues of antibiotics biodiversity, administered to human and animal reach through urine or faeces creating a selection urbanisation. pressure condition for aquatic organism. As observed in microbes, they undergoes horizontal gene transfer to adapt and survive in the polluted environment, and large number of antibiotic resistant species is observed than the native species. Study shows that air pollutant like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide (aeroallegens) cause genetic alteration leading to high risk of allergy and asthma particularly in children. Children with high risk genotype and exposed to air pollutants like heavy metals are at high risk to CNS detrimental effects. The objective here is to review the available literature about rising urbanisation leading to high risk of gene pollution at all the levels of biota in order to derive lessons and apply the insights to analysis the field situation and create awareness about it.

Introduction

The world of environment is in the influence on any of its constituents. Ideally likeness of a house where all the biotic and the natural environment supplies all the abiotic ecological components are necessity of the organisms living and has intimately interdependent for sustenance favourable influence on their development, (Joshi, 2009). According to Clarke, (1954) reproduction, genetics, behaviour etc a satisfactory environment is the one (Joshi , 2009). So, preservation of the which fulfils all the requirements for life natural environment is quintessential for and does not exert any incompatible maintaining a sustainable community.

229 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234

However, the increase of civilization has and Klotz et al., 2006). Urbanisation is negatively affected the natural considered as a threat to the biological environment in the form of pollution. diversity (Kühn and Klotz et al., 2006). Increasing amount of pollutants with rapid Human settlements tend to reduce urbanisation disposed into the natural diversity for several reasons, for example resources(air, water, land) has caused the native species survival and degradation of the natural habitats and reproduction declines as they are unable to made it unfit for the biota (Balanarayanan adapt in the new urban settings and the and Vetrivel, 2012)Excessive urbanisation rare native species get extinct (EMBO, encourages deforestation, use of pesticides 2007). Exotic species, invasive species and genetically modified organisms to introduced by human and human adapted obtain high agriculture yields, rapid native species often increase with urban constructions of building, combustion of developments. But these invasive species more fuels by the increasing number of hybridize with the native species causing vehicles and industries ,disposal of gene pollution. Extensive agricultural and hospital, sewage, domestic and industrial horticultural activities degrade and waste into the water bodies. All these simplify the ground cover while causes air, water, noise and land pollution homogenizing plant diversity (Reichard and disturbance of the natural environment and White, 2001). In turn this is likely to of the organisms which underwent stress diminish diversity among the insects and and natural selection causing genotypic animals that rely on plants for food or and phenotypic alteration. cover (EMBO, 2007). The polluted natural resources also result in the The present article aim at reviewing the homogenization of diversity for example impact of rapid urbanisation on the water polluted by untreated sewage and biological diversity leading to biota hospital waste has an increasing number of homogenization so that we can mitigate antibiotic resistant micro organisms than any negative effect of it and aid in the native form (Mishra et al., 2013). sustainable urban planning. Urbanisation increases demand of Urbanisation leading to resources antrhropological disturbances Urbanisation is generally accompanied by With the exploding increase of human many activities and settlements that population, especially in developing dramatically affect the abundance and nations, large number of people are being diversity of species (Devictor et al., forced to move into cities in search of 2006).According to UN World Prospects employment and better living conditions report (2005) about 60%(4.9 billion) of the subsequently overcrowding the habitat and world population will be living in leading to rapid use and misuse of natural urbanised areas by 2030.It is also resources. The process of unplanned estimated that about 93% of the urban urbanisation has resulted in the growth will occur in developing nations, fragmentation and disturbance of the with 80% of urban growth occurring in natural habitat, alteration of quality of air, Asia and Africa. So, looking to the future water and soil as a result of pollution and there are major challenges ahead due to changes in the climate of the area (Kühn rapid urbanisation. Demand of land for

230 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234 construction of building, road and the change of temperature and climate industrial uses will increase with globally. The sudden changing climate urbanisation which will result in the pattern leads to decline in biodiversity. It deforestation and destruction of natural is estimated that more than 1 billion environment of many biological species. people are exposed to outdoor air pollution In some regions, the proximity between annually. (UNEP,2012).Study shows that protected areas and cities will increase air pollutant like sulphur dioxide and greatly. For example, in Eastern Asia the nitrogen dioxide (aero-allegens) cause average distance from a city to a protected genetic alteration leading to high risk of area will be 14 miles by 2030, as allergy and asthma particularly in children. compared to 27 miles in 1995. Such Children with high risk genotype and proximity will increase the pressures on exposed to air pollutants like heavy metals natural resources and increase the are at high risk to CNS detrimental effects. likelihood of resource extraction and other threats to these protected places. The UN has reported the daily influx of 2 million tons of sewage and wastewater The July, 2013 report issued by the United into the world s water (UN-WWAP, 2003; Nations Department of Economic and Ross, 2010). It has been estimated that Social Affairs, however warns that with globally 1.2 billion people defecate in the the additional 2.4 billion people by 2050, open, thus significantly compromising the amount of food produced will have to quality of water in the nearby water bodies increase by 70 percent straining food and posing extreme human health risk resources. So there will be large demand (UNICEF and WHO, 2008). 70% of of land for horticulture and agriculture industrial wastes have been estimated to which lead to biotic homogenization. Also be disposed untreated into the water because of the high pressure to produce supplies in developing countries (UN- high yield experimentation and use of GM Water, 2009). The increasing use of organisms and crops will increase. But this antibiotics in medical, veterinary and causes irreparable loss or changes in agricultural sectors has almost been species diversity and genetic diversity synonymous with the increased resistance within species. These GM crops invade of bacteria to these rampant antibiotics as over the native species and hybridize with they undergoes horizontal gene transfer to the native causing loss of gene pool. The survive in the polluted water. (Dhanorkar use of GM organism lead to development and Tambekar, 2004 and Ahmed et al., of more vigour s pests species after 2010 Mishra, 2013). More and more use of hybridization of native and transgenic chemicals, pesticides mutates or replaces organism (Snow et al., 2005). the native species population leading to depletion of a gene pool. These when With the rapid urbanisation emission from washed away cause eutrophication and increasing number of vehicles and loss of native species. Also introduction of industries cause a high rate of air pollution non native species cause disturbance and observed especially in developing nations. even extinction of rare species. The World The species which survive in the polluted Conservation Union (IUCN; Gland, air survive and the native species unable to Switzerland , 2006) now includes more adapt die. The effect of global warming than 16,000 entries in its Red List of due to green house gases is clearly seen in Threatened Species: 5,624

231 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234 vertebrates,2,101 invertebrates and 8,390 species and declines of native species, plants. The extinction rates are now 50 to particularly rare species (Mc Kinney et al., 500 times higher than previous rates 2006;Kühn et al., 2006).However, on local calculated form fossil record (EMBO and regional scales, species richness may 2007). be increased following range expansion of alien species lead to differentiation.( Mc Urbanisation leading to biotic Kinney et al., 2006). Work done by Kuhu homogenization and Klotz et al., 2006 also showed similar results. There study revealed that The urbanisation is a major cause of biotic urbanisation result in increase in common homogenization has being highlighted native plant species and declines and local recently (Devictor et al., 2006). extinctions of different and rare native Homogenization is one of the most species has led to homogenization for prominent forms of biotic impoverishment native plant species and for pre-1500 alien worldwide and is likely to cause negative plant species. Post 1500-alien species genetic, functional, and evolutionary assemblages show differentiation impacts on communities (Devictor et al., explained by invasion of different alien 2006). Biotic homogenization conjures the species within different observed urban image of Quammen s(1988) dystopian areas. Planet of Weeds scenario and the prospect of kunstler s(1993) The Biotic homogenization among birds Geography of Nowhere in which biotic distinctiveness gradually dissolves over Habitats undergo human-induced time. If the same human dominated local fragmentation caused by urbanization settings were replicated everywhere, which leads to changes in the species species that do not like the conditions diversity and community similarity, not would disappear together with their only in space, but also over time. ecological niches (EMBO 2007).Biotic Functional homogenization was positively Homogenization refer to an increase in the linked with community urbanization taxonomic similarity of two or more (Devictor et al., 2006). For birds the best species pools through time as the result of urban adapter include certain guild feeding species invasions and extinctions caused birds including omnivores, insectivores, due to rapid urbanisation. (Olden and sea eaters adapted to various aspect of Rooney, 2006). human (Mc Kinney et al., 2006).For instance changes in landscape structure, Plant biotic homogenization among such as an increase in urban patches, alter plants the ability of some organism to disperse. This leads to the prediction that More dense urban environment tend to communities composed of species with reduce overall diversity among smaller specific habitat requirements (specialist animals and plants (EMBO, 2007). Rapid species) should have higher local construction for human settlement and extinction and turnover rates whereas agriculture and horticulture activities lead widespread and broadly tolerant species to natural habitat degradation and (generalist species) should, on the destruction. The process of urbanisation contrary, benefit from the landscape has resulted in an expansion of alien plant disturbance and demonstrate higher

232 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234 stability (Julliard et al 2006).Worked done hybridized with them leading to by Devictor and his co-workers in 2006 widespread genetic pollution in the captive also indicate similar results. The higher Asiatic Lion population. Many herds of urbanization level communities were surviving American Bison, even though mainly composed of ubiquitous generalist they look exactly the same, were species and that, at this stage, specialist hybridized with genes of beef cattle by generalist composition remained constant. landowners in a short-sighted effort to Songbirds phenotypic adapted to urban improve their meat quality leading to noise pollution by raising the frequency of widespread genetic pollution in the their lower notes (EMBO, surviving bisons in America 2007).Urbanization leads to natural (Familypedia). selection of species resulting in the pollution of the gene pool of species. Remedial measures Genotypic adaptation, for example dark eyed junco, a common North America Recent studies supports the hypotheses species of sparrow, show significant that urbanization induced community decrease in the amount of white in its tail homogenization have destabilizing impact feather to adapt to San Siego, California on communities over time (Devictor et al (EMBO, 2007). Further it was observed 2006). So urban planning is required that a higher level of corticosterone found encompassing proper waste management in urban birds than the forest living birds and use of non renewable natural suggesting genetically determined resources. Urban and landscape planning (EMBO, 2007). should be done after studying the natural habitat and its biological diversity and Animal biotic homogenization among should include the protection of animals mainstream high local diversity, not only the endangered species. Human Urban environment lead to the infrastructures are threatening biodiversity homogenization of animal biota by worldwide and will increase in the future. increasing the number of synanthropic Hence conservation of non-urban habitat species (example rock dove, house mouse, within the urban areas should be feral house cats) and extinction of considered and connection among the non- urbanophobic species (Mc Kinney, et al., urban patches should be monitored to 2006).The species in dense urban areas are prevent local extinction of specialist mostly exploiters which can exploit the species (Devictor et al., 2006). resources, such as food, shelter, from human settlement. Also the migration and Conclusion extinction of carnivorous, predator, result in their large number (Mc Kinney et al., Urbanisation can be a mark of 2006).Intentional or unintentional modernization but it is a threat created by introduction of alien species cause gene human for the biodiversity, ultimately pool depletion because of gene pollution. adversely affecting the human itself For example, native captive Asiatic Lions (EMBO, 2007). If the developments goes in till recently were genetically polluted on keeping in consideration requirement of with genes of Circus confiscated African only one species there will be nothing else Lions which had been randomly left. The preservation of indigenous

233 Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2014) 3(4): 229-234 species in urban habitats is important for 2007 ,8 no.4 not only retaining the biological Joshi .C. P., Joshi Namita, 2009; Text distinctiveness of urban areas but also for Book Of Environmental Sciences the future development. For conservation Kühn I., Koltz .S. , 2006; Urbanization goals, it is also important as a way of and Homogenization-Comparing the educating the large numbers of people floras of urban and rural areas in who inhabit cities about the importance of Germany; Biological Conservation the local indigenous biodiversity (Mc 127 p. 292-300 Kinney et al., 2006). Also making them McKinney L. M. 2006; Urbanization as aware about the threat of increasing major cause of biotic Homogenization; amount of pollutants degrading the natural Biological Conservation , 127 p. 247- habitat. It s a challenge for the concern 260 authorities and environmentalist to Mishra, M., Patel, A. K. & Behera, N. encourage urban planning with the 2013. Prevalence of multidrug resistant conservation of the native biodiversity and E. coli in the River Mahanadi of habitat. Sambalpur. Current Research in Microbiology and Biotechnology. 15 References p.239-244. Rooney .T. ,Olden .D. U. , Leach .K. M. Ahmed, M. O., Clegg, P. D. & Williams, ,Rogers .A. D. 2007; Biotic N. J. 2010. Antimicrobial resistance in homogenization and conservation equine faecal Escherichia coli isolates prioritization; Biological from North West England. Annals of Conservation, 134 p.447-450. Clinical Microbiology and Snow A. A., Andow D.A. ,Gepts .P, Antimicrobials, 9. p. 12. Hallerman M.E., Power .A., Tiedje .M. Balanarayanan, S. & Vetrivel, K. 2012. J., & Wolfenberger Environmental degradation and human .L.L.2005;Ecological Application, 152 welfare: A critical study. Zenith p.377-404 International Journal of Business UN WWAP. 2003. United Nations World Economics & Management Research. Water Assessment Programme. The Vol. 25:39-51. World Water Development Report 1: Dhanorkar, D. V & Tambekar, D. H. 2004. Water for People, Water for Life. Studies on multidrug resistance pattern UNESCO: Paris, France. of clinical isolates. In 45th Annual UNICEF WHO. 2008. UNICEF and Conference of Association of World Health Organization Joint Microbiologist of India, NDRL. Monitoring Karnal. Programme for Water Supply and Dvictor Vincent, Julliard Romain, Couvet Sanitation. Progress on Drinking Denis, Lee Alexandre & Jiguet Water and Sanitation: Special Focus Frederic 2006; Functional on Sanitation. UNICEF, New York Homogenization Effect of and WHO, Geneva Urbanization on Bird Communities; Genetic pollution - Familypedia.htm Conservation Biology ,21,3 p.741-751. . European Molecular Biology Organization EMBO reports 2007, analysis the human impact on biological diversity

234