CLOTHING THE SAINTS AND FURNISHING HEAVEN : A PURITAN LEGACY IN THE NEW WORLD Charlotte Dawber A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 1996 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/15414 This item is protected by original copyright Clothing the Saints & Furnishing Heaven: A Puritan Legacy in the New Wcitd Charlotte Dawber ProQuest Number: 10167302 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest. ProQuest 10167302 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 -------------------------- ------------- 'M an looketh on the outward appearance but the Lord looketh on the heart.' I Samuel 16 : 7 DECLARATIONS 3 I, Charlotte Elizabeth Jane Dawber, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 100,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. Dated: L M 4 f 1..^. Signed:.. ......................... I was admitted as a research student under Ordinance No. 12 in October 1989 and as a candidate for the degree of Ph.D. in Art History in October 1989; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St. Andrews between 1989 and 1993. Dated:......................................... Signed:......... ................... In submitting this thesis to the University of St. Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the title and abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker. v Dated:............................................. Signed:........ ABSTRACT The thesis deals with the concepts of Millenarianism and the witnessing of Faith through costume, textiles and related arts. The responses of five religious sects, Amish, Shaker, Puritan, Quakers and Mennonites, are examined. This text falls into two discrete sections. Chapter One details the historic background of the sects. Subsequent chapters outline the Millennial impulse of the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries and resulting emigration to the New World. These chapters detail Utopian social models and a discussion of textiles and clothing as indicators of history and human experience. Chapter Three is an overview of religious iconography in this area of American art, touching on themes and the role in society of both the art and the artist. It discusses allegory and symbolism in the visual arts. The second half of the thesis focuses on the costume and textiles of each group. Particular consideration is given to the use of iconography, symbolism and allegory in their visual creations. Internal doctrinal differences are examined such as interpretations of the Biblical injuction to be 'plain', and the central role that the concept of being 'not conformed to the World' plays in the social/aesthetic/religious development of the sects. Apparent theological contradictions are highlighted and addressed. Pressures on each sect to adapt to the cultural norm that have resulted in change and disintegration are detailed. CONTENTS Map of the United States Introduction 2 Chapter 1: European Antecedents of the Religious Sects 17 Chapter 2: The Millennial Dream 61 Chapter 3: Imagining the Face of God: 70 Chapter 4: Cloth and Human Experience 81 Chapter 5: Puritanism, Faith and Form 93 Chapter 6: The Society of Friends 150 Chapter 7: The Shakers 226 Chapter 8: TheAmish 271 Chapter 9: The Mennonites 335 Conclusion 380 Appendix 396 Glossary 397 Bibliography 401 Map of the United States of America Key: Pennsylvania ■ Massachusetts ■ New Jersey ■ Indiana D Kentucky ■ Ohio ■ New York State Michegan INTRODUCTION 2 INTRODUCTION But they shall maintain the fabric of the world; and in the handiwork of their craft is their prayer. Ecclesiaticus 38:39 This thesis is the result of questions raised during research for my Masters' thesis The Impact of Social and Economic Developments in the Seventeenth Century on British Amateur Embroideries .1 This explored the concept that the religious beliefs of seventeenth century England pressurised or restricted thematic choice in domestic embroidery. The main thrust of the argument was that thematic regulation was carried out in seventeenth century Britain as a consequence of, and a tool for, the promulgation of Christian morality and womanly virtue. The extension of this concept, explored here, is that religious doctrine, where it is an integral part of a society, can not only influence, but ultimately govern, the visual life of that group. The idea is essentially simple: if the religious beliefs of a group are markedly different from that of the main culture, and if that group are marked by particular dress and artefacts, it is reasonable to search for a link between these factors. It is thus possible to view the 'aesthetics' of a sect as the material manifestation of spiritual imperatives. The logical extension of the argument is that sects with similar or related doctrines will exhibit similar stylistic choices. But life is rarely so neatly compartmentalised, and if such distinctions are but true in part, then the relative weighting of the disparate variables that play a role in determining both doctrine and visual design need to be assessed in relation to each sect. When I commenced this research it seemed important to apply the INTRODUCTION 3 formal ideas of 'aesthetics' to the work under consideration and that it was important that this work could be recognised as 'art' in a classical sense. During the course of writing it has become evident that this is an irrelevancy. The traditional western conceptions of art are not what the creators, or the work itself is concerned with, despite the European antecedents of the sects. Yet lacking any better language one is often forced to resort to the terms of that discipline. To determine the variables of faith and history that resulted in the work of the sects, it was necessary to carry out a comparative study. With so large a body of material this clearly meant inherent organisational problems. Because of this, together with finite capacity, attention is focused on just five of the many Utopian sects that have existed since the sixteenth century. The major parameter that governed the choices of the sects was that the groups had to have flourished for a period long enough to enable them to fully realise their sectarian ambitions and evolve a true sub-culture in accordance with their doctrine. The sects share, as much as possible, the same backgrounds, since it is not possible to compare wholly disparate groups. The sects chosen were all rooted in the Anabaptist movement of the central medieval period. Regardless of their foundation date, the roots of each sect lie there and certain essential tenets of their faith may be attributed to this movement. Ultimately, the choice of sects fell on those which presented the clearest separate strands of belief and development from the mainstream culture of the relevant periods. Each sect is different enough in its organisation, history and doctrinal emphasis to demonstrate some of the variables that may shape a visual oeuvre. Each group is notable for a strong visual 'aesthetic' - a term that will be discussed later. For these reasons included in this study are the Puritans, the Religious Society of Friends [Quakers], the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing [Shakers], the Amish and the Mennonites. INTRODUCTION 4 The sects themselves fall into two related sub-groups with the Puritans, Quakers and Shakers on one hand, and the Amish/Mennonites on the other. This division has determined the order in which they are considered throughout the study. In an effort to achieve coherency each sect is considered separately. This does tend to make the drawing of comparisons more difficult, but by maintaining a common order of subject within each chapter, it is hoped that cross-referencing and the observation of common cultural parallels will be facilitated. This thesis seeks also to demonstrate the human need to express collective spiritual experience. Between them the sects detail some of the * alternative paths towards an expression of A fundamental faith. Iconoclasm and iconaltry, both of which figure heavily in their collective histories, are but extremes of a basic human need. The ethnographic material in this study is based on evidence drawn from communities both in Great Britain and America. Although each group was active on the site of its inception, it was only in the adoptive country that each was able to model their society according to their beliefs. The evidence is therefore drawn primarily from the New World. There each sect may be studied at one remove from the traditional influences of the mainstream culture: to evaluate the stylistic evolution of Old and New World members of a sect would itself be fascinating, but is sadly outside the scope of this study.