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The Albemarle Iron Works (1770-72)

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W&M ScholarWorks Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 2001 "Carried on at a Very Great Expense and Never Produced Any Profit": The Albemarle Iron Works (1770-72) James Harvey Brothers College of William & Mary - Arts & Sciences Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/etd Part of the Economic History Commons, and the Social and Cultural Anthropology Commons Recommended Citation Brothers, James Harvey, ""Carried on at a Very Great Expense and Never Produced Any Profit": The Albemarle Iron Works (1770-72)" (2001). Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects. Paper 1539626291. https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.21220/s2-psqr-4m85 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations, Theses, and Masters Projects by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. "CARRIED ON AT A VERY GREAT EXPENSE AND NEVER PRODUCED ANY PROFIT" THE ALBEMARLE IRON WORKS (1770-72) A Thesis Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Anthropology In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree of M aster of Arts by James Harvey Brothers IV 2001 APPROVAL SHEET This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M aster of Arts James H. Brothers IV A pproved, December 2001 N orm an F. Barka Lyle E. Browning Theodore R. Reinhart Dedication This paper is dedicated to Tate Thompson Brady (1922-1993), an avocational archaeologist. Tom devoted his life to rediscovering and documenting the Iron Industry of Virginia. His papers, now at The Virginia Historical Society, will provide a rich source of information for those researching Virginia Iron for years to come. TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments vii LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x ABSTRACT xii INTRODUCTION 2 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 10 CHAPTER 1: Iron 12 Bar, Pig, and Steel: The Types of Iron 13 Bar Iron 13 Pig Iron 16 Steel 21 Phosphoric Iron 23 CHAPTER 2: A Short History of Iron Making 28 An English Context 30 The Invention and Spread of the Blast Furnace 31 North American Colonial Context 34 Virginia and the Birth of American Iron Manufacturing 38 Virginia's Colonial Blast Furnaces 41 Industrial Slavery and the Iron Plantation 48 CHAPTER 3: Producing Iron in the Colonial Period 54 The Iron Plantation 58 Preparations 66 The Bloomery 70 The Blast Furnace 81 The Finery Forge 86 The Foundry 91 CHAPTER 4: History of The Albemarle Iron Works 96 Reconnaissance and Land Acquisition: 1764-1770 99 Partnership and Failure: 1770-1772 100 John W ilkinson 102 John Swan 103 William Twaddell 105 The Twilight Years: 1772-1816 112 CHAPTER 5: Blast Furnace Site Selection 117 Iron Ore 121 Flux 123 Charcoal 123 iv W ater Pow er 125 M arket Access 126 Site Selection and the Albemarle Iron Works 126 CHAPTER 6: The Constituents of Iron Production 129 Iron Ore 130 Limonite and Goethite 133 Bog Ore (Limonite) 133 Gossan Limoni te 134 H em atite 134 M agnetite 135 Ilmenite 136 Pyrite and Pyrrhotite 137 Carbonates (Siderite) 137 Albemarle Ore Analysis 139 W ater Pow er 148 Fuel (Charcoal) 152 Forests, Coppices, and Forest Management 156 Making Charcoal: Charking, and Coaling 161 CHAPTER 7: Blast Furnace Problems and Remedies 165 Mechanical Problems 169 Blast Problems 170 Other Tuyere Related Problems 173 Breakouts 173 Scaffolding, Hanging, and Bridging 174 Slips 179 Gobbing Up 180 Channeling 181 Freezing the Stack 181 Trace Elements: Effects and Remedies 182 Alum inum 185 C arbon 187 Manganese 187 Phosphorus 188 Silicon 191 Slag 193 Bloomery Slag 195 Furnace Slag 198 Sulfur 199 Titanium 202 "Titanic Iron" 204 Titaniferous Slag 206 In the Furnace 206 Experiments with Titaniferous Slag 209 Titanium and Blast Furnace Operation 213 Titanium and Bloomeries 217 Remedies 217 v CHAPTER 8: Albemarle Slag Analysis 225 CONCLUSION 233 Site Selection 234 Leadership Problems 235 Monetary Policy 237 Furnace Experience 239 Phosphorus and Cold Short Iron 240 Titanium, the Ruination of the Albemarle Iron Works 242 Appendix A: A Note On English 248 Appendix B: GLOSSARY 254 Appendix C: Albemarle Iron Works Land Acquisitions 265 Bibliography 267 Vita 293 vi Acknowledgments I would like to thank the following people for their generous support and assistance. Especially Tate Thompson (Tom) Brady (1922-1993), to whom the paper is dedicated. Tom, assisted by his brother Pat and William E. Trout III, located most of Virginia's charcoal iron sites. The Brady's come from an iron family, Buffalo Forge, and have continued to play an important role in the story of Virginia Iron. Lyle E. Browning who first suggested I work with the Virginia Iron Industry. Lyle served on the committee, provided research, graphics, and computer assistance; acted as a sounding board for ideas; and served as editor. My children- Nancy, Meredith, Elizabeth, and James (Sandy), who supported their Dad through the years. Although they often had no idea what I was on about, they listened anyway. Work on the metal and slag samples from Albemarle Iron works was conducted by a number of people. Dr. Brent Owens, Professor of Geology at the College of William and Mary sectioned the samples and arranged for polished thin sections. Dr. Charles P. Swann, Professor Emeritus, Bartol Research Institute, University of Delaware performed the PIXE (particle-induced X-ray emission) testing. Dr. Gerry McDonnell, Senior Lecturer in Archaeological Sciences, Ancient Metallurgy Research Group, Department of Archaeological Sciences, Bradford University (United Kingdom) performed SEM (scanning electron microscope) energy dispersive X-ray analysis. Dr. Geoff Grime and Dr. Christopher Salter performed analysis on two thin sections at the Oxford University (United Kingdom) Materials Science-Based Archaeology Group. Peter Wickham King, a Ph.D. candidate at Wolverhampton University in Great Britain provided a wealth of information on the early technology and history of the British iron industry. He has done a considerable amount of research into British company and government records. Between us we have made a start on tying British ironmongers and forges to American colonial blast furnaces. But, that is another paper. Edward (Ned) Heite provided invaluable assistance on the Chesapeake iron industry. He also served as a sounding board for ideas as the paper developed. William W. Reynolds, who wrote an excellent article on the Albemarle Iron Works in 1992. Bill answered numerous e-mailed queries and provided copies of all of his research notes; letters from Tom Brady; the Froehling & Robertson, Inc. analysis of the Old's Forge iron; and field notes of a visit to the Albemarle sites w ith Tom Brady in 1990. Assistance in the areas of bloomery and blast furnace operations, metallurgy, and archaeometallurgy was provided by a number of people, especially: Dr. Robert B. Gordon, Professor of Geophysics and Applied Mechanics at Yale University; Dr. Martha Goodway, Archaeometallurgist, The Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and Education, Smithsonian Institution; Dr. Christopher Salter, Dept, of Materials, Oxford University; Dr. Ian Freestone, British Museum; Dr. Ingo Keesmann, Arbeitsgruppe Archaeometallurgie, Institut fuer Geowissenschaften, Johannes Gutenberg- Universitaet Mainz; Dr. David J. Killick, Associate Professor of Anthropology, University of Arizona; Dr. Henry Cleere, World Heritage Coordinator, International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS), Paris; Jeremy Hodgkinson, Chairman, Wealden Iron Research Group; David Crossley, Reader, Sheffield University; and Dr. J. E. (Ned) Rehder, Senior Research Associate in the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science, University of Toronto The arch-metals group provided answers and explained the sometimes extremely technical aspects of metallurgy to an archaeologist. Research assistance was provided by the staffs of the Virginia Historical Society; State Library of Virginia; Archives of the Virginia Department of Historic Resources (especially Jean McRae); University of Virginia Alderman Library and Special Collections; Knight-Capron Library, Lynchburg College; and the University Manuscripts and Rare Books Department, Swem Library, College of William and Mary. The Interlibrary Loan Section of the Library of Virginia (especially David Grabarek), and through them libraries all over the world, was instrumental in providing research material. A special thanks to Dr. Alan P. Druschitz, Director of Materials Development at INTERMET, Lynchburg, Virginia, who spent half a day answering questions and showing me how cast iron is made and cast today at the Archer River plant. He brought blast furnace operations alive. Lee Sauder and Skip Williams of Rockbridge Forge. We have helped each other with research materials. But, they gave me the opportunity to make iron at their experimental bloomery in Lexington, Virginia. There is something elemental about a red hot bloom of iron. Making iron by hand and consolidating the bloom with sledge hammers gives one a better appreciation of 18th century ironmaking. And finally, my Committee, Dr. Norman Barka, Dr. Theodore Reinhart, and Lyle Browning, who allowed me to go where my research took me. And gave me the time to get it right. LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1. Colonial Blast Furnaces- 42 Table 2. Blast Furnace H ydrographic Data 125 Table 3. Primary Iron Minerals 131 Table 4. Primary Minerals at the Martin Mine 143 Table 5. Efficiency of W ater W heels (by Type) 151 Table 6. PIXE Analysis of Albemarle Slag 226 Table 7. SEM Analysis of Albemarle Slag 228 Table 8. Analysis of Iron Prills 231 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1. Map of Virginia showing the location of the Albemarle Iron W orks. 9 Figure 2. Location of the Albemarle Iron Works and Martin Mine. 9 Figure 3. Wrought iron products. 15 Figure 4.18th Century Virginia Pig Iron. 15 Figure 5.1773 cast iron stove plate by Isaac Zane. 17 Figure 6.
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